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Turism si consumare mancare 2

Tourist food consumption

Food consumption studies are predominantly concerned with understanding the determinants

of various food-related behaviours, most commonly including liking, preference, choice and

intake. Although many studies used these terms interchangeably, there are subtle differences

between them. Food liking refers to the palatability or pleasure obtained from tasting a given

food (iesen et al., !"#", p. $%%&, whereas food preference assumes the availability of at

least two different items, and refers to the choice of one rather than the other ( 'oin and

)ollmecke, #$*%, p. ++&. Although in most cases people prefer foods that they like better,

food liking is only one of the motivations that may account for a preference. Factors such as

availability, perceived health value, convenience, and economic considerations that can

influence food preference may not affect food liking (ogue, #$$#&.

Food choice refers to a set of conscious and unconscious decisions made by a person at the

point of purchase, at the point of consumption or any point in between (erne, #$$/, p. #&.

0n an aggregate form, food choice creates the consumer demand for suppliers in the food

system who produce, process, and distribute food (1obal et al., #$$*&. Food choice also plays

an essential role in the symbolic, economic, and social aspects of life as it is a way to e2presspreferences, identities, and cultural meanings (1obal et al., !""%&. Food intake refers to the

amount of food actually consumed by an individual (3issileff and )an 0tallie, #$*!&. 0t is

usually stated in terms of weight, calories, or volume of mi2ed 4uantity of macro- and micro-

nutrients in food research.

0n summary, food liking, preference, choice and intake refer to overlapping, but not precisely

e4uivalent concepts associated with food consumption behaviour (ogue, #$$#&. 'oin

(!""%, p. !+&provides a rather succinct description of their relationship5 liking is a ma6or

determinant of preference, and preference is a ma6or determinant of intake, but many other

variables intervene. 7o risk oversimplification, their relationship can be summarised as Fig.

#, with intervening variables suggested by 'oin (!""%& being depicted as one single

variable that e2ert indirect influences. 7hese intervening variables, which can be groupedinto three broad categories5 the individual, the food, and the environment, are discussed in the

subse4uent section. 7aking into consideration the practical usefulness of food preference over

food liking, the social and economical significance of food choice in its aggregate from, and

the potential difficulties to measure tourists food intake during their travel, the primary focus

of this study is on tourist food preference and choice. Additionally, this focus also reflects the

current state of the field, for e2isting studies on tourist food consumption largely adopted the

preference and choice approach (e.g., 8hang et al., !"#",3im et al., !""$and7orres, !""!&.

Fig. #.

A schematic representation of the relationship between, food liking, preference,

choice and intake.

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Food consumption is recognised as a comple2 behaviour, with cultural, social, psychological,

and sensory acceptance factors all playing a role in the decision-making process ( 3;ster,

!""$ and1obal et al., !""%&. )arious attempts have been made to address the plethora of

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factors affecting food consumption (e.g., eiselman et al., #$$$, 'andall and

1an6ur, #$*#and 1hepherd and 'aats, #$$%&. 7he food itself contributes sensory attributes

such as flavour, aroma, te2ture, and appearance? whereas the environment presents cultural,

social, economic and physical influences. As for the individual, socio-cultural, psychological,

and physiological factors are recognised to e2ert direct or indirect effects on food

consumption behaviour. Amongst these three broad categories, factors relating to the

individual are widely accepted to be e2tremely crucial in e2plaining the variations in food

consumption ('oin, !""%&.

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along with respective authors and related concepts. 7he ensuring sections elaborate on these

factors by drawing evidence from the tourism literature, as well as incorporating theoretical

insights from food consumption and sociological research.

7able #.

Factors, key authors and related concepts of tourist food consumption.

FactorsKey hospitality/tourism

authors Related concepts

8ultural and religious

influences

1heldon and Fo2 (#$**& 8ulture

:iam and 1ussmann (#$$/& Cational culture

>arch (#$$B&7ourist@s own food

culture

Cield et al. (!"""& 8ultural distance

7orres (!""!& Flavour principles

assan and all (!""&8ore and peripheral

foods

7se and 8rotts (!""/& 'eligious beliefs

8hang et al. (!"##&

1ocio-demographic factors

1heldon and Fo2 (#$**& 1ocio-economic status

:iam and 1ussmann (#$$/& 9emographic status

7orres (!""!& 1ocial class

assan and all (!""& Food as social marker

7se and 8rotts (!""/& 8ultural capital

8hang et al. (!"##&

Food-related personality traits

8ohen and Avieli (!""+& Food neophobia3im et al. (!""$& Food neophilia

Euan and ang (!""+& )ariety-seeking

8hang et al. (!"##&

=2posure effect and past

e2perience

all and >itchell (!""!b& >ere e2posure effect

'ichards (!""!& :ast e2perience

8ohen and Avieli (!""+& :ast visitation

7se and 8rotts (!""/& lobalisation

'yu and Dang (!""%&

8hang et al. (!"#"&

>otivational factors

all and >itchell (!""#& 7ourist motivation

6alager and 'ichards (!""!& 1ymbolic

Fields (!""!& Gbligatory

ong (!""+& 8ontrast

0gnatov and 1mith (!""%& =2tension

3ivela and 8rotts (!""%& :leasure

3im et al. (!""$&

3ivela and 8rotts (!""$&

8hang et al. (!"#"&

Full-sie table

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3.3. Food-related personality traits

Food-related personality traits have begun to be recognised as important psychological

variables affecting tourist food consumption. Food-related personality traits refer to

individual characteristics that e2ert a pervasive influence on a broad range of food-related

behaviours. 0n particular, two main types of traits can be identified from the tourism

literature5 food neophobia and variety-seeking. Food neophobia, or the reluctance to ingest

novel foods (:liner and 1alvy, !""%&, is at the heart of the mechanism dictating human food

choice. umans, as omnivorous animals, will try various food sources, however, they will, at

the same time, be cautious not to ingest to2ic or harmful food sources. Food neophobia,

therefore, is described as a natural biological correlate of omnivorous e2ploratory behaviour

(3;ster and >o6et, !""B, p. $$&. According to :liner and 1alvy (!""%&, food neophobia can

be conceptualised as a personality trait involving a relative preference for familiar over novel

foods. 7his condition is stable over time and consistent across situations. owever, there are

large individual differences in the e2tent of food neophobia. :liner and obden (#$$!&developed the Food Ceophobia 1cale, a ten-item instrument, to measure individual

differences in food neophobia. 'esearch shows that when measured with the scale, people

who are more neophobic tend to e2pect various novel foods to taste worse than the less

neophobic, and thus are generally less willing to taste or choose novel foods (:liner and

obden, #$$!,7uorila et al., #$$*and 7uorila et al., #$$+&.

7aking a sociological perspective, Fischler (#$**&draws a distinction between neophobic

and neophilic tendencies in taste, suggesting that a human has a natural tendency to dislike

or suspect new and unfamiliar foods (neophobic&, and yet, also has a propensity to search for

novel foods (neophilic&. e further describes the tension between the neophobic and

neophilic tendencies as the omnivore@s parado2, one that constantly occurs in the

oscillation between the two poles of neophobia (prudence, fear of the unknown, resistance tochange& and neophilia (the tendency to e2plore, the need for change, novelty, variety& (#$**,

p. !B*&. 0n the tourism literature, the food neophobia concept has been adopted to e2plain the

difference in tourists food consumption behaviour. For e2ample, 8ohen and Avieli (!""+&

contend that local or indigenous cuisines in a destination can be an impediment instead of

an attraction to many tourists. 7hat is, although tourists may typically be eager or willing to

engage in novel or unusual e2periences (neophilic&, eating involves the actual ingestion of

unfamiliar food in the destination and thus, neophobic tendency might become more

prominent. ikewise, 7orres (!""!&cites that many studies suggest that tourists in general

prefer foods to which they are accustomed and resist trying local varieties. 3im et al. (!""$&

identified food neophobia and neophilia as two of the factors affecting tourists inclination to

consume local food on holiday. 7hey found that tourists, who have a predisposition to beneophobic, seem to be reluctant to eat e2otic food. 8hang et al. (!"##& suggest that the

neophilia concept provides 6ustification for tourists inclination to seek various dining

e2periences when on holiday.

Another food-related personality trait that can affect tourist food consumption is variety-

seeking. )ariety-seeking can be defined as the tendency of individuals to seek diversity in

their choices of services and goods (3ahn, #$$/, p. #$&. 7he trait can be measured by the *-

item )A'1==3 scale developed by van 7ri6p and 1teenkamp (#$$!&. )ariety-seeking

tendency has been widely adopted in food consumption studies. For e2ample, 0nman (!""#&

found that consumers tended to switch more intensively between flavour than brand of tortilla

chips and cake mi2es. 7he study suggests that consumers are more likely to seek variety on

sensory attributes (e.g., flavour& than non-sensory attributes (e.g., brand&. 7he idea of

optimum stimulation level provides a basis for understanding variety-seeking behaviour.

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According to van 7ri6p (#$$/&, individuals tend to seek additional stimulation by adding

variety or novel stimuli when the level of stimulation falls below the optimum. 0n contrast,

they tend to avoid novel stimuli or variety if the level of stimulation is above the optimal

point. 7herefore, customers tend to veer away from an item consumed during the last

occasion. itchell, !""!band 'ichards, !""!&. 7here is an

increasing availability of both ethnic restaurants in tourists home settings and information

sources about foreign cuisines (8ohen and Avieli, !""+&, which provide tourists with the

opportunity to become ac4uainted with a variety of foreign cuisines before they travel to the

destination where these foreign cuisines originated. 7his might lead to changes in their travel

food consumption behaviour. Although one might argue that foreign cuisines in home settings

can be very different from those in the originating country, increased e2posure and familiarity

to foreign cuisine could at least be provided. 0ncreased e2posure and familiarity would not

only affect the consumption of foreign cuisine in their home settings, but would also affect

the consumption of the foreign cuisine when they travel. 8hang et al. (!"#"& observed

disparities in food consumption behaviour amongst ong 3ong, 7aiwanese and >ainland

8hinese tourists with varying degrees of e2posure to estern cuisines in their home settings.

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Furthermore, tourists varying levels of e2posure were found to be associated with different

motivational factors and attitudes towards food consumption in tourism.

3.. !oti"ational factors

A growing body of studies have demonstrated that motivational factors can significantly

affect tourist food consumption. First of all, a number of studies e2plore how food per secan

be the ma6or, or one of the ma6or, motivations to travel to a destination ( all and >itchell,

!""#, 6alager and 'ichards, !""!and ong, !""+&. 3ivela and 8rotts (!""%&contend that

motivation to travel for foodgastronomy is a valid construct, and that food plays an

important role in affecting the overall tourist e2perience and intention to revisit a destination.

0gnatov and 1mith (!""%& found that travel motivations and activities differed significantly

amongst different 8anadian culinary tourist segments. Furthermore, Fields (!""!& adopts the

typology of tourist motivators suggested by >c0ntosh et al. (#$$/& to elaborate on the

interplay between food consumption and tourism. 7he four motivators are5 physical, cultural,

interpersonal, and status and prestige motivators. First, food can be a physical motivator as

the act of eating is predominately physical in nature involving sensory perceptions to

appreciate the food or tourists need for sustenance. 1econd, food can also be a cultural

motivator because when tourists are e2periencing new local cuisines, they are simultaneouslye2periencing a new culture. 7hird, it might serve as an interpersonal motivator as meals taken

on a holiday have a social function including building new social relations and strengthening

social bonds. Finally, local delicacies can also be a status and prestige motivator, as tourists

can build their knowledge of the local cuisine by eating as the locals do, and e2ploring new

cuisines and food that they or their friends are not likely to encounter at home.

hile the proposition of Fields (!""!& lacks empirical evidence, it suggests a theoretical

linkage between tourist motivation and motivational factors underlying food consumption in

tourism. 7ourist motivation is recognised as an important construct in understanding tourist

choice and behaviour (8rompton and >c3ay, #$$B&. 0t can be defined as the global

integrating network of biological and cultural forces which gives value and direction to travel

choices, behaviour, and e2perience (:earce et al., #$$*, p. !#/&. 7ourist motivation embracespsychological as well as physiological facets because travel is e2pected to satisfy different

levels of needs such as psychological (e.g., intrinsic, personal, and interpersonal rewards& and

physiological needs (e.g., food, shelter, safety, health, and fitness& (>ak et al., !""$ anditt

and right, #$$!&. 1ince tourist motivation e2erts significant influence over tourist choice

and behaviour, it can be a significant force affecting tourist food consumption. For e2ample, a

tourist motivated to visit a destination by its cultural factors may be more inclined to try local

traditional food in order to e2plore the local food culture.

Following on Fields (!""!&proposition, motivations underlying food consumption can be

regarded as multi-dimensional. 1ome recent studies provide additional empirical evidence to

substantiate this contention. For e2ample, based on a series of 4ualitative interviews, 3im et

al. (!""$& identified nine motivational factors underlying the consumption of local food5e2citing e2perience, escape from routine, health concern, learning knowledge, authentic

e2perience, togetherness, prestige, sensory appeal, and physical environment. 9rawing on

data from a series of on-site focus group interviews and participant observation with 8hinese

tourists holidaying in Australia, 8hang et al. (!"#"& classified 8hinese tourists food

preferences into three distinct categories5 8hinese food, local food, and non-fastidious about

food selection. 7he underlying motivational factors for favouring each preference were

identified as5 (#& 8hinese food5 core eating behaviour, familiar flavour, and appetiing

assurance? (!& local Australian food5 e2plore local culture, authentic travel e2perience,

learningeducation opportunity, prestige and status, reference group influence, and sub6ective

perception? (& non-fastidious about food selection5 group harmony, compromising in

supporting e2perience, and pre6udiced advocacy.

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ak et al., !"##&. 7he

obligatory dimension reflects the essentiality of food consumption in tourism, and includes

factors such as health concern, and the physical need for sustenance. 7he contrast dimension

denotes the motivation to seek contrast from the tourists daily routine e2perience ( Euan and

ang, !""+&, and includes factors such as e2citing e2perience and e2ploring new food. 0n

contrast, the e2tension dimension refers to the motivations to seek food e2periences that

e2tend the tourists daily routine, and includes factors such as core eating behaviour, and

familiar flavour. Finally, the pleasure dimension covers the motivations to seek pleasure from

the food e2perience, and includes factors such as sensory appeal and togetherness.

7he classification is based on the following theoretical underpinnings. From the tourist

product perspective, food in tourism can be seen as an attraction (6alager and 'ichards,

!""!&, and yet, can also be viewed as an impediment which discourages tourists from

visiting a destination (8ohen and Avieli, !""+&. 7his schism is principally based on differentemphases on the symbolic and obligatory dimensions of food consumption in tourism.

enerally, food consumption in tourism is recognised as a symbolic form of consumption

(>ak et al., !"##&. 8ertain cultural theories pertaining to food consumption and dining out

in the general conte2t are adopted to e2plicate the symbolic nature of food consumption in

tourism, for e2ample, the cultural capital theory discussed above. Gn the other hand, food

consumption in tourism also possesses an obligatory nature ('ichards, !""!&. AsEuan and

ang (!""+, p. "!&put it, a large portion of food consumption in tourism can be seen as the

supporting e2perience for tourists to complete or realie their main purpose of travel. From

the tourist e2perience perspective, food consumption in tourism can be conceptually

distinguished into supporting consumer e2perience and peak touristic e2perience (Euan

and ang, !""+&. 7his distinction is based on food consumption@s relationship to touristsdaily routine, whether it is contrasting, intensifying, or merely e2tending the daily routine

e2perience. 0n other words, this approach accentuates the importance of the contrast and

e2tension dimensions in interpreting food consumption in tourism. astly, tourism and

gastronomy are often regarded as hedonic products (3emperman et al., !"""and3ivela and

8rotts, !""%&, for which fun, pleasure, or en6oyment is a primary benefit (8arroll and Ahuvia,

!""%&. ence, the pleasure dimension can be an inherent dimension in food consumption in

tourism.

4. #onclusion

7his study has consolidated the relevant perspectives on tourism, food consumption, and

sociological research to identify the salient factors affecting tourist food consumption. 7he

findings open up many new possibilities for research into food consumption in tourism.

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of influence on socio-demographic factors. 1imilarly, food-related personality traits may

affect e2posure and past e2perience, and the influence can be reciprocal. 7ourists with

different culturalreligious backgrounds and socio-demographic characteristics, and with

varying food-related personality traits and e2posure and past e2perience may have different

motivations towards food consumption in tourism. Furthermore, the findings support e2isting

evidence that motivational factors are important variables influencing tourist food preference.

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consuming a variety of food in more comple2 situations (e.g., various food itemscuisines in a

destination&. 0n addition, err et al. (#$*&suggest that there are many parallels between

attitudes and personality. ence, to a certain e2tent, food-related personality traits (in

particular food neophobia& can reflect tourists attitude towards novel and familiar food items.

Finally, given the theoretical nature of the model, further research is re4uired to determine its

utility and validity.

Hnderstanding tourists needs and wants in terms of food consumption is of paramount

importance to hospitality businesses (1antich, !""B&. An in-depth knowledge pertaining to

factors influencing tourist food consumption is, therefore, e2tremely valuable to the

hospitality sector in providing the appropriate tourism dining e2periences that can lead to

tourist satisfaction. 7his value e2tends as well to the tourism sector in developing and

promoting gastronomic products and associated events or activities. iven the current lack of

studies focusing on e2amining tourist food consumption systematically and holistically, the

framework developed through a multidisciplinary approach in this study is believed to

contribute to the body of knowledge in the field and provides theoretical groundwork for

further research.

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