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researCH • CerCetare • KutatÁs

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n Rezumat: De la producþie la utilizare, cimentul roman îşi creeazã o reþea proprie europeanã. Descoperit în Anglia, în mai puþin de 50 de ani devine material de construcþie continental, determinã creşte-rea unei industrii prospere, în continuã şi durã competiþie. Participã activ la stilistica arhitecturalã a epocii: ornamente, tencuieli, zidãrii. Reconfigureazã peisaje: furnale, cuptoare, depozite, manufacturi şi fabrici, exploatãri de suprafaþã sau în subteran, dar şi paturi de cale feratã, faruri, silozuri. Este parte a procesului de salubrizare a ora-şelor: reþele de infrastructurã subterane, canalizãri ale râurilor „ur-bane”. Este soluþie de restaurare a pietrei, mai eficientã şi mai puþin invazivã decât însãşi restaurarea cu piatrã. Este soluþia epocii pentru construcþiile maritime: porturi, faruri, ecluze. Este parte componentã a experimentelor preliminare instaurãrii betonului armat în activitatea de construcþii.

n Cuvinte cheie: ciment roman, istoria cimentului, construcþii

n Abstract: From its production to its use, Roman cement has established its own Eu-ropean network. Discovered in Britain, in less than 50 years it becomes the continental con-struction material, determining the growth of a prosperous industry, in continuous and harsh competition. It takes an active part in the ar-chitectural stylistics of the epoch: ornaments, plastering, and masonry. It reconfigures land-scapes: furnaces, ovens, warehouses, manu-factories and mills, opencast or underground mines, but also railway bedplates, lighthouses, silos. It is involved in the process of rendering the cities more salubrious, like underground infrastructure networks, or equipping the city area with canal systems. It is a solution for stone restoration, more efficient and less inva-sive than the very restoration with stone. It is the solution of the epoch for marine construc-tion and engineering: harbours, lighthouses, locks. It is a component of the experiments pri-or to the establishment of reinforced concrete in the construction and engineering activity.

n Foto 1. Clădire pe str. STEINDL Imre, Budapesta, Ungaria

n Photo 1. Building on STEINDL Imre St., Budapest, Hungary

n Foto 2. Clădire pe str. STEINDL Imre, Budapesta. Detaliu bovindou

n Photo 2. Building on STEINDL Imre St., Budapest. Detail of bay window

n Mirela Ileana WEBER

Cimentul roman – descoperire de senzaţie a secolului al XIX-lea

UN MATERIAL PREDESTINAT BOOM-ULUI CONSTRUCTIV şI PAN-EUROPENIZĂRII

Roman Cement – a Sensational Discovery of the 19th Century

A MATERIAL DESTINED FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING BOOM AND PAN-EUROPEANIZATION

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Premise

1. �Ciment roman� este numele comercial al unui ciment utilizat în se-colul XIX şi la începutul secolului XX. „Material pentru eternitate”1, el migreazã dincolo de graniþele politice, de autoritatea profesionalã sau de tipul de funcþiune al clãdirii.

2. Cimentul „roman” şi cimentul folosit de romani de-a lungul antichitãþii sunt douã materiale diferite, fãrã legãturã istoricã şi fãrã asemãnãri chimice.

Scurt istoric al cimenturilor

n Istoria lianþilor în construcþii este complicatã datoritã varietãþii mari a fiecãreia dintre componentele din amestec,2 a diferenþelor de tehnologie a arderii, de amestec sau de punere în operã (umezire, compactare), a reacþiilor chimice din produsul final sau a comportãrii în timp: consistenþã, rezistenþã, duratã de întãrire, reacþie în medii acvatice.

Alt impediment este numele lianþilor; înþelesul contemporan şi norma-tivele nu asigurã citirea corectã a unei referinþe istorice. Ciment, mortar, beton, mastic sunt termeni ce au avut diferite semnificaþii. În acest labi-rint, cercetãrii de arhivã i se alãturã cea de teren şi de laborator. Interesul este legat direct de restaurarea monumentelor, unde definirea materialelor trebuie sã fie corectã şi lucrativã.

Istoria �cimentului� începe în antichitate, când amestecul de var, argilã, nisip şi apã este utilizat pe scarã largã. Egiptenii folosesc mortar de var înainte de 2600 î.Hr.3 Romanii preiau de la greci tehnica turnãrii zidurilor şi o numesc opus caementicium4. Ciment denumeşte în epocã nisipul, corpurile diverse ce intrã în compoziþie, liantul, uneori mortarul însuşi. VITRUVIU descrie, în cartea a doua Despre Arhitecturã (cap. 6), cenuşa vulcanicã provenitã din zona Pozzuoli (Vezuviu). Folositã ca liant 1 C. VEIGL, Conferinþa EU �ROCARE� de la Viena, septembrie 2009.2 Pietre arse, agregate, adaosuri organice sau anorganice (ou, fãinã de oase, paie), nisi-

puri, cantitãþi de lichide (apã, ulei), etc.3 Piramida lui Cheops.4 Caementum � caedere, a tãia sau a sparge, referinþã la modul de prelucrare a agregatelor.

n Keywords: Roman cement, �cement� his-tory, constructions

Premise

1. �Roman cement� is the commercial name of a type of cement used in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. �A material for eternity�1, it migrates beyond politi-cal borders, professional authority or function of the building.

2. �Roman cement� (or �Natural cement�) is, in fact, nothing like any material used by the Romans in ancient times: they are two different materials, with no historical connection or chemical resemblance.

Short History of Cements

n The history of binders in constructions is complicated because of the great variety of each component of the mixture,2 of the differences in burning, mixing technology or casting (moistening, compacting), of the chemical reactions in the final product, or of the behaviour in time: consistency, strength development, setting times, reaction in aquatic environment.

Another impediment is the name given to these binders: their contemporary mean-ing and the current legal provisions do not ensure the correct reading of a historical reference. Cement, mortar, concrete, mas-tic � are all terms with different meanings throughout time. In this maze, archival re-

1 C. VEIGL, �ROCARE� EU Conference at Vienna, September 2009.

2 Burnt stones, aggregates, organic or inorganic admixtures (egg, bone dust, straw), sands, liq-uids (water, oil), etc.

n Foto 3. Clădire pe str. Hybešova, Brno, Republica Cehă. Detaliu cornişă

n Photo 3. Building on Hybešova St., Brno, Czech Republic. Cornice detail

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hidraulic, cu o compoziþie bogatã în argilã (între 60% şi 90%) şi cu un procent de calcar între 40% şi 10%, face o prizã foarte bunã în amestec cu apa5 şi este folositã aşa cum este extrasã (fãrã a mai fi arsã). Romanii folosesc şi alþi lianþi (var, fãinã de cãrãmidã).6

Observaþie: de reþinut este faptul cã argila şi calcarul nu sunt arse împreunã, ci sunt amestecate şi fac prizã datoritã adaosului de apã din compoziþie, ceea ce diferenþiazã de la început acest material de cimentul roman din secolul al XIX-lea.

Renaşterea redescoperã, prin VITRUVIU, materialul vulcanic, însã ex-ploatarea pânã la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea se face sporadic şi empi-ric: preþ ridicat, dificultãþi mari de transport.7

În 1751, în Enciclopedie, DIDEROT şi D’ALEMBERT menþioneazã ci-menturi calde şi reci şi diferite adaosuri (rãşinã, cearã, cãrãmidã pisatã, 5 J.STARK, B. WICHT, Zement und Kalk. Der Baustoff als Werkstoff, Basel, Birkhäuser,

2000, p. 2.6 Johannes WEBER, Note de curs, Universitaet fuer Angewandte Kunst, Viena, 2010.7 Cédric AVENIER, Ciments d�églises, semences de chrétiens. Constructions religieuses et

industrie cimentière en Ière au XIXème siècle, thèse de doctorat, Université de Grenoble II Pierre-Mendès-France, Histoire et histoire de l�art, 2004, p. 263-299: �Secolele al 17-lea şi al 18-lea: „ciment” denumeşte adaosul hidraulic de þiglã (cãrãmidã) concasatã din mortare. Cãlãtorii descriu materialele de construcþii întâlnite: în 1765 se foloseşte, în Tunis şi pe coasta Barbary, un „ciment” similar celui cartaginez (o mãsurã de nisip, douã de cenuşã de lemn, trei de var).”

search must be supplemented with onsite and laboratory research. The endeavour is closely related to historic building conserva-tion, where definition of materials must be accurate and lucrative.

�Cement� history starts in ancient times, when the mixture of lime, clay, sand and water is used on a large scale. Egyptians used lime mortar before 2600 B.C.3 Romans use the Greeks� technique of casting walls and they call it opus caementicium4. At the time, �cement� designates the sand, the various composing aggregates, the binding agent, and sometimes the mortar itself. In his second Book on Architecture (chapter 6), VITRUVIUS describes the volcanic ash from the Pozzuoli area (Mount Vesuvius). Used as hydraulic binder, with a composi-tion rich in clay (between 60% and 90%) and a percentage of limestone between 40% and 10%, it sets very well mixed with wa-ter5 and it is used directly as it is extracted (without being burnt again). Romans use other binders as well (lime, brick powder).6

Remark: it is important to note that clay and lime are not burned together, but are mixed and they set due to the water content of the composition, which distinguishes clearly this material from the �Roman ce-ment� of the 19th century.

During the Renaissance period, the vol-canic material is rediscovered due to VITRU-VIUS, but its exploitation up to the end of the 18th century is occasional and empirical: high price level, great transportation difficulties.7

3 The Pyramid of Cheops.4 Caementum � caedere, to cut or to break, re-

ferring to the way the aggregates are being pro-cessed.

5 J. STARK and B. WICHT, Zement und Kalk. Der Baustoff als Werkstoff (Basel: Birkhäuser, 2000), 2.

6 Johannes WEBER, Course notes, Universitaet fuer Angewandte Kunst, Viena, 2010.

7 Cédric AVENIER, Ciments d�églises, semences de chrétiens. Constructions religieuses et in-dustrie cimentière en Ière au XIXème siècle. (PhD thesis, Université de Grenoble II Pierre-Mendès-France, Histoire et histoire de l�art, 2004), 263-299: �17th and 18th centuries: �ce-ment� designates the hydraulic admixture of crushed tile (brick) in the composition of mortars. Travellers describe the construction materials encountered: in 1765 at Tunis and on the Barbary Coast, �cement� similar to the one from Carthage is used (1 part sand to 2 parts timber ash and 3 parts lime).�

n Foto 4. Clădire din Lviv (Lemberg), Ucraina. Vedere de ansamblu © Johannes WEBER

n Photo 4. Building in Lviv (Lemberg), Ucraine. General view © Johannes WEBER

n Foto 5. Clădire din Lviv. Detaliu bolţar © Johannes WEBER

n Photo 5. Building in Lviv. Detail of keystone © Johannes WEBER

n Foto 6. Faţada secundară a clădirii Universităţii din Lviv. Detaliu © Johannes WEBER

n Photo 6. Secondary elevation of the Lviv University building. Detail © Johannes WEBER

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brânzã, lapte, albuş de ou).8 În Franþa, Germania (de-a lungul Rhinului) sau în Olanda se utilizeazã în epocã un înlocuitor pozzuolanic, tuf vul-canic numit Trass sau Tiras (germanã, olandezã)9 sau un var natural din zonele Metz, Nevers, Nîmes10.

Se construieşte mult, se experimenteazã reþete, analizele chimice şi suportul ştiinþific sunt parte a acestei evoluþii. Întrebãrilor legate de pro-cesele chimice şi de felul în care acestea pot fi influenþate (fie prin com-

8 Ibidem, p. 270.9 Descoperit în diferite regiuni precum Clermont-Ferrand, le Vivarais, l’Hérault, Metz şi

Senonches (vezi J. STARCK, B. WICHT, op.cit.)10 Cédric AVENIER, op.cit., p. 267.

In 1751, in their Encyclopaedia, DI-DEROT and D�ALEMBERT mention hot and cold cements and various admixtures (resin, wax, crushed brick, cheese, milk, albumen).8 During this period, a substitute of pozzolana is used in France, Germany (along the Rhine valley), or the Netherlands � a volcanic tuff called Trass or Tiras (in German, Dutch)9, or a natural lime in the regions of Metz, Nevers, Nîmes10.

A lot is being built, various recipes are being experimented, the chemical analyses and the scientific support are part of this evolution. The issues regarding the chemi-cal processes and the way they can be in-fluenced (either by the components or by technologies) are resolved, in fact, by the creation of the cement industry.

The research works of B. F. de BÉLIDOR on the hydraulic properties of lime mortar

8 Ibidem, 270.9 Discovered in various regions, such as Cler-

mont-Ferrand, le Vivarais, l�Hérault, Metz and Senonches (see J. Starck and B. Wicht, op.cit.).

10 Avenier, C. Op.cit. pg. 267

n Foto 7. Faţada secundară a clădirii Universităţii din Lviv © Johannes WEBER

n Photo 7. Secondary elevation of the Lviv University building © Johannes WEBER

n Foto 9. Biserica Sf. Ioan Botezătorul din Roybon, Franţa

n Photo 9. St. John the Baptist Church in Roybon, France

n Foto 10. Biserica Sf. Ioan Botezătorul din Roybon. Detaliu zidărie

n Photo 10. St. John the Baptist Church in Roybon. Masonry detail

n Foto 8. Clădirea Universităţii din Lviv. Detaliu

bosaj © Johannes WEBER

n Photo 8. The Lviv University building. Quoin

detail © Johannes WEBER

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ponente, fie prin tehnologii) li se rãspunde prin întemeierea, de fapt, a industriei cimenturilor.

Cercetãrile lui B. F. de BÉLIDOR legate de proprietãþile hidraulice ale mortarului de calcar prin îmbogãþirea cu argilã (publicate în 1729) sunt ci-tite de John SMEATON care le dezvoltã şi care, îmbunãtãþind amestecul, construieşte primul far, la Eddystone, Plymouth (1755-1759).11 Pãrinte al inginerilor constructori, vizionar şi pionier, el aprofundeazã observaþiile cu privire la efectele argilei în mortarul de var (explicând parþial întãrirea în apã şi impermeabilitatea) şi experimenteazã rezultatele. Materialele pe care le pune în practicã sunt socotite astãzi primele betoane �moderne�, iar farurile (declarate monumente istorice) dovedesc calitatea activitãþii sale ştiinþifice şi practice. SMEATON nu dezvãluie modul de adecvare a mortarurilor pen-tru medii acvatice decât târziu (1791), un an înainte de a muri.12

Descoperirea cimentului roman se va datora altui englez, cleric şi producãtor: James PARKER.

11 Idem, Ciment naturel, Grenoble, Glénat, 2007, p. 13-17: SMEATON citeşte scrierile confratelui sãu francez, cautã şi gãseşte în Anglia saci cu material pozzuolanic a cãror compoziþie o analizeazã şi o îmbunãtãþeşte.

12 Biografia lui John SMEATON pe Wikipedia (lb. germanã), http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Smeaton.

enriched with clay (published in 1729) are read by John SMEATON, who further devel-ops them and, improving the mixture, builds the first lighthouse, at Eddystone, Plymouth (1755-1759).11 Father of civil engineering, vi-sionary and pioneer, he goes deeper into the study of the effects of clay in lime mortar (par-tially explaining the setting under water and impermeability), and experiments the results. The materials he used are considered today the first �modern� types of concrete, and the lighthouses he built (listed historic buildings) prove the quality level of his scientific and practical activity. SMEATON only revealed his method of adapting mortars to aquatic en-vironments later in his life (in 1791), a year before his death.12

Discovery of Roman cement is owed to another British clergyman and manufactur-er: James PARKER.

Roman Cement – a New Material, a Signiicant and Deciding Factor in the Civil Engineering Activity of the 19th Century

In 1796, J. PARKER patents the second invention: �A certain Cement or Terras to be used in Aquatic and other Buildings and Stucco Work�13, i.e. the birth certificate of

11 Idem, Ciment naturel (Grenoble: Glénat. 2007), 13-17: SMEATON reads the notes of his French colleague, then searches and finds in Britain bags of pozzolana, whose composition he analyses and improves.

12 The biography of John SMEATON on Wiki-pedia (German), http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Smeaton.

13 Information excerpted from the publications of the European project ROCEM - ROman CEMent to Restore Built Heritage Effectively. 2006. This source quotes from the literature of the time: science journals, reviews, legislation on construction materials: Patent No. 2120 / 28-07-1896 (ROCEM Publications).

n Foto 11. Biserica Sf. Bruno din Grenoble, Franţa

n Photo 11. St. Bruno Church in Grenoble, France

n Foto 13. Biserica Sf. Bruno din Voiron. Faţada de vest

n Photo 13. St. Bruno Church in Voiron. Western elevation

n Foto 12. Biserica Sf. Bruno din Voiron, Franţa. Vedere

de ansamblu

n Photo 12. St. Bruno Church in Voiron, France.

General view

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Cimentul roman – un material nou, semniicativ şi determinant în activitatea de construcţii a secolului al XIX-lea

n În 1796, J. PARKER patenteazã a doua invenþie: �A certain Cement or Terras to be used in Aquatic and other Buildings and Stucco Work�13, act de naştere al materialului pe care îl numeşte, în scopuri comerciale, „ci-ment roman�14 (cunoscut şi ca ciment Parker, Sheppey, etc.)15.

Cimentul roman este un produs rezultat din arderea marnei �septaria�, o piatrã alcãtuitã dintr-un amestec natural de argilã şi calcar, la temperaturã joasã (în jur de 900°C). Materia obþinutã se macinã grosolan şi dã naştere unui liant ce, în amestec cu apã, nisip şi var face prizã rapidã, are rezistenþã foarte mare, se întãreşte mai repede, este foarte maleabil şi se toarnã bine, din acest punct de vedere fiind similar ipsosului, dar impermeabil şi rezis-tent la umiditate. Are, dupã uscare, culoarea pietrei naturale.

PARKER îşi vinde patentul, producþia continuã: Parker & Wyatt. Arhi-tect, James WYATT îl utilizeazã la construcþia mãnãstirii Wycombe Abbey (High Wycombe) şi a farului Bell Rock Lighthouse.16

O datã protecþia patentului expiratã, dupã 1810 fabricile de ciment na-tural se înmulþesc, produc şi exportã, pe continent sau în Statele Unite. În jurul Londrei, în 1822, sunt cunoscuþi încã 11 producãtori diferiþi,17 prin-tre care J. GRELLIER sau W. ATKINSON. La Nine Elms, Vauxhall (1810), Ch. FRANCIS produce un ciment de culoare brun închis, de foarte bunã

13 Informaþiile sunt extrase din caietele publicate în cadrul proiectului european ROCEM - ROman CEMent to Restore Built Heritage Effectively, 2006, sursã ce citeazã literatura de epocã: reviste, publicaþii, normative dedicate materialelor de construcþie: Patent Nr. 2120 / 28.07.1896 (caietele ROCEM).

14 Activitatea lui John SMEATON pe Wikipedia (lb. englezã), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Parker_(cement_maker); similar caietele ROCEM; AVENIER, Cédric, Ciment na-turel, Grenoble, Glénat, 2007.

15 Marnele iniþiale au provenit de la Harwich Essex, ulterior de pe insula Sheppey, între Minster şi Sheeness.

16 Imagini se pot gãsi pe Internet: www.rocare.eu, pagina oficialã a ROCARE sau la cãutare nominalã.

17 Amandine ROYER, Le ciment romain. Etude d�un materiau et de son utilisation dans les restaurations de monuments historiques au XIXe siècle: les cathédrales d�Amiens et de Bo-urges, lucrare de masterat, Ecole du Louvre, specializarea Conservare � restaurare, 2004.

the material that, for commercial purposes, he calls �Roman cement�14 (also known as Parker�s cement, Sheppey cement, Natural cement) 15.

Roman cement is a product made by burning the �septaria� marl, a stone formed by a natural mixture of clay and calcium carbonate, at low temperature (approx. 900°C). The resulting substance is ground to a powder, thus obtaining a binder which, mixed with water, sand and lime is quick-setting, highly resistant, fast-hardening, very malleable and it casts well. From this point of view it is similar to gypsum, but being impermeable and resistant to mois-ture. After drying-out, it gets the colour of natural stone.

Parker sells his patent, the cement man-ufacturing continues under Parker & Wyatt. An architect, James WYATT uses it for the construction of Wycombe Abbey (High Wy-combe) and Bell Rock Lighthouse.16

Once the protection of the patent ex-pires, after 1810, Natural cement factories multiply, producing and exporting on the continent or in the United States. In the Greater London area, in 1822, another 11 different manufacturers are known,17 among which J. GRELLIER or W. ATKINSON. At Nine Elms, Vauxhall (1810), Ch. FRANCIS produces a dark brown cement of very good

14 The activity of John SMEATON on Wikipe-dia (English), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/_James_Parker_(cement_maker); see also: RO-CEM Publications; Cédric AVENIER, Ciment naturel (Grenoble: Glénat. 2007).

15 Initial marls came from Harwich Essex, then from the Isle of Sheppey, between Minster and Sheeness.

16 Images can be found on the Internet, at: www.rocare.eu, the official ROCARE webpage, or upon research by name.

17 Amandine ROYER, Le ciment romain. Etude d�un materiau et de son utilisation dans les res-taurations de monuments historiques au XIXe siècle: les cathédrales d�Amiens et de Bourges. (Master�s Degree thesis, Ecole du Louvre, Spe-cialization Preservation � Restoration, 2004).

n Foto 14. Bartensteinblock, Viena, Austria. Detaliu lintel © Johannes WEBER

n Photo 14. Bartensteinblock, Vienna, Austria. Cornice detail © Johannes WEBER

n Foto 15. Bartensteinblock, Viena. Detaliu

panou decorativ © Johannes WEBER

n Photo 15. Bartensteinblock, Vienna. Detail of

decorative panel © Johannes WEBER

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calitate. Asociindu-se cu John WHITE (Francis & White) se mutã cãtre 1840 la Médina, unde produc cimentul Médina, de calitate superioarã.

Interdicþia (1845) de a mai extrage marnã din malurile de la Harwich a condus la dragarea fundului mãrii, în zona plajelor. Cea mai mare parte a industriaşilor de pe coasta de sud-est îşi obþin materia primã în acest fel, pânã cãtre 1870.18

Prima mare industrie (1825) se datoreazã lui J. FROST, la Swanscombe (Kent), cu marnã de la cariera Galley Hill: cea mai mare cantitate de pe piaþa englezeascã între 1830-1840, cu numele de �ciment britanic�. Cãtre 1900 fabrica este preluatã de John Bazley & Co şi integratã lui Blue Circe Industries, din 2001 parte a corporaþiei Lafarge.

Producþia se extinde, cãtre 1850, în regiunile Yorkshire (Whitby: ci-ment Mulgrave), Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Somerset, Glasgow (Calder Glenn: ciment Calderwood).

Descoperirea unei marne similare (1802) la Boulogne-sur-Mer se datoreazã unui englez, care lucrase în producþia de ciment roman şi care îşi cumpãrã astfel bunãvoinþa autoritãþilor franceze. Producþia începe,19 denumirea comercialã este plâtre-ciment (improprie, nu existã ipsos în compoziþie, dar se ascunde similaritatea materialului cu cimentul roman şi prioritatea englezeascã).

Producþia în regiunea Boulogne-sur-Mer este de scurtã duratã, dar cu un succes naþional (considerabilã economie în folosul finanþelor de stat) ce stimuleazã cãutarea unor noi cariere.20 Chimişti (SAUSSURE, LAVOI-SIER, etc.) şi arhitecþi-ingineri (RONDELET, LEPÈRE) se strãduiesc sã de-termine relaþiile dintre componente şi proprietãþi.

Cele mai mari contribuþii în domeniu le are Louis VICAT21, cel care „reveleazã cauzele, stabileşte regulile”, creeazã „arta producerii cimentu-

18 Ibidem, p. 278.19 Caietele ROCEM. Vezi şi Cédric AVENIER, Tezã doctorat, p. 263-299: �Secolul XIX,

Franþa – „ciment” denumeşte calcar, ipsos sau alþi lianþi. „Beton” este numit un compus de trei componente: agregate, nisip şi liant. Franþa: „ciment” - numele folosit pentru fundaþiile grosiere, de aceea arhitecþii locali, pânã în 1980, nu au utilizat cu plãcere acest nume. O lungã perioadã, un �zid de ciment� putea semnifica atât un zid de beton cât şi un zid de mortar de ciment. Denumiri ca „ciment moule” sau „pierre factice” definesc pietre artificiale turnate din ciment natural (ciment roman).�

20 Amandine ROYER, op.cit., p. 13-14.21 Cédric AVENIER, op.cit. p. 270. Le petit Larousse, Grand Format en couleurs, Paris, La-

rousse � Bordas, 1998, p. 1743: �Vicat, Louis (Nevers, 1786 � Grenoble, 1861) � inginer francez, specializat în studiul varurilor şi al mortarelor, a determinat compoziþia cimen-turilor naturale şi a indicat tehnica de fabricare a cimenturilor artificiale.”

quality. Around 1840, in joint venture with John White (Francis & White), the manufac-ture moves to Medina, where they produce Medina cement, of superior quality.

The banning (in 1845) of marl extrac-tion on the banks of Harwich led to the sea bottom dredging, in the beach areas. This is how most industrialists on the South-East coast would obtain their raw material, until the 1870s.18

The first great industry (1825) is owed to J. FROST, at Swanscombe (Kent), with marl from Galley Hill quarry: the greatest quan-tity on the British market between 1830 and 1840, under the name of �British cement�. Towards the 1900s, the factory is taken over by John Bazley & Co and integrated to Blue Circe Industries, starting with 2001 part of the Lafarge Corporation.

Production expands, towards the 1850s, in the Yorkshire (Whitby: Mulgrave cement), Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Som-erset, Glasgow (Calder Glenn: Calderwood cement) regions.

Discovery of a similar marl (in 1802) at Boulogne-sur-Mer is owed to an English-man who has worked in the Roman cement manufacturing industry, in this way he buys himself the benevolence of the French authorities. Manufacturing starts19 under the commercial name of �plâtre-ciment� (which is an inappropriate term, as there is no gypsum in the composition, but in this way the similarity of the material to the Ro-man cement is avoided, and thus the Brit-ish monopoly).

Production in the Boulogne-sur-Mer region is short-lasting, but successful at national level (i.e. a significant thrift to the benefit of State finance) and it stimulates the search for new quarries.20 Chemists (SAUSSURE, LAVOISIER, etc.) and archi-tectural engineers (RONDELET, LEPÈRE) try their best to determine the relationships between components and properties.

The greatest contributions in the field belong to Louis VICAT21, who �reveals the causes, establishes the rules�, creates �the art of producing natural and artificial ce-ments� (THÉNARD, 1845)22 and publishes

18 Ibidem, 278.19 ROCEM Publications. See also Cédric AVE-

NIER, PhD Thesis, 263-299: �19th century, France � �cement� designates lime, gypsum, or other binders. �Concrete� is the name of a compound of three elements: aggregates, sand and binder. France: �cement� � is the name used for coarse foundations, this is why local architects, until 1980, did not use this name willingly. For a long period of time, a �cement wall� could mean at the same time a wall of concrete and a wall of cement mortar. Names such as �ciment moule� or �pierre factice� de-fine artificial stones cast from Natural cement (Roman cement).�

20 Amandine ROYER, op.cit., 13-14.21 Cédric AVENIER, op.cit., 270. Le petit Larous-

se, Grand Format en couleurs. (Paris: Larousse � Bordas, 1998), 1743: �VICAT, Louis (Nevers, 1786 � Grenoble, 1861) � French engineer, specialized in the study of limes and mortars, he determined the composition of natural ce-ments and indicated the technique for manu-facturing artificial cements.�

22 Cédric AVENIER, op.cit., 274.

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n Photo 16. Bartensteinblock, Vienna. Cornice detail © Johannes WEBER

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rilor naturale şi artificiale” (THÉNARD, 1845)22 şi publicã încã din 181823. Fãrã a pretinde brevete sau onoruri, el face posibilã producþia de materiale cu proprietãþi similare. Strãbate Franþa cu piciorul, viziteazã manufacturi şi cariere. Preferã „gloria de a fi util gloriei faptului de a fi bogat”24 pentru cã nu deschide o fabricã proprie, ci îşi învaþã contemporanii sã producã eficient şi de calitate.

În Bourgogne, LACORDAIRE descoperã marna pentru cimentul �Pou-illy”, produs din 1827, comparat de contemporani cu cimentul PARKER şi socotit superior pentru lucrãri maritime.

Noi producþii apar la Vassy (1830-1831, Honoré GARIEL), Auxerre, Moron, Nevers, Molesmes, etc. Cimentul Vassy acumuleazã repede o reputaþie bunã: în 1835 fabrica furnizeazã baronului Haussmann 120 t /zi, în 1850 � 15.000 t pe an.

Din 1835 începe producþia în sud, regiunea Marsilia.În 1827, VICAT descoperã marna în regiunea Isère. Susþinerii sale teh-

nice şi interesului trezit de material i se datoreazã explozia industriei lo-cale şi o mare bogãþie financiarã (cimentul este numit „aurul gri de la Gre-noble�). Fiul sãu va deschide aci prima uzinã, dezvoltatã continuu, astãzi corporaþie multinaþionalã. Între 1835-1911 sunt înregistrate la camera de comerþ din Grenoble 52 de societãþi, întreprinderi, manufacturi, fabrici.

La Teil (Rhone-Alpes) se înfiinþeazã uzina �Lafarge�, reputatã furnizoare de mortare de var (construcþia canalului Suez) ce îşi va diversifica producþia, cãtre anul 1886 fãcând deja concurenþã cu ciment roman propriu.

În Elveþia25 producþia începe spre 183026 în munþii Jura: Val de Travers (canton Neuenburg); Birstal (canton Solothurn); sudul Aargauer Ketten- şi Tafeljura, cu cariere la Geissberg (Villingen), Holderbank, Auenstein-Wil-degg, Schinznach-Bad, Kütten, Reuchenette, St. Sulpice, Vallorbe, Baul-mes, Käpfnach (Horgen). În Alpi exploatarea se face la Mürtschendecke am Walensee, în zona malului stâncos de la Lochenzen, la sud de Hängen, la Mühlehorn, în zonele calcaroase de la Beckenried şi Rotzloch, la Vou-vry şi Roche, în valea Breggia şi la Balerna – Alpii de sud.

Expoziþia internaþionalã de la Berna (1857) premiazã firme din Aarau, Geneva, Grenchen. Proprietarii aduc vaze, ornamente şi patru statui din ciment roman, douã personaje reprezentând perechea imperialã Napoleon al III-lea – Eugenie, statuia reginei Sardiniei şi a lui Vittorio Emmanuele.22 Cédric AVENIER, op.cit., p. 274.23 Louis-Joseph VICAT, Recherches expérimentales sur les chaux de construction, les bé-

tons et les mortiers ordinaire, Paris, Goujon, 1818, http://catalogue.bnf.fr.24 Cédric AVENIER, op.cit., p. 272 (citând pe baronul THÉNARD, contemporan cu VICAT).25 Petra DARIZ, Romanzement in der Schweiz. Geschichte des natürlich hydraulischen

Bindemittels in der Eidgenossenschaft, în �RESTAURO�, 2/2009, p. 522-529.26 Prima fabricã se deschide în 1832 la Solothurn, apoi la Aarau.

them starting with 181823. Without seeking patents or public recognition, he makes pro-duction of materials with similar properties possible. He travels through France, visiting manufactories and quarries. He prefers �the glory of making himself useful to glory, to becoming rich�24, knowing that he chooses not to open his own factory, but to teach efficient and quality manufacturing to his contemporaries.

In Bourgogne, LACORDAIRE discovers the marl for the �Pouilly cement�, produced starting with 1827, compared by contempo-raries to the PARKER cement and retained superior for naval works.

New manufactories appear at Vassy (1830-1831, Honoré Gariel), Auxerre, Mo-ron, Nevers, Molesmes, etc. Vassy cement quickly enjoys a good reputation: in 1835 the factory supplies Baron Haussmann with 120 t/day, in 1850 � 15,000 t/year.

Production in the south starts with 1835, in the Marseilles region.

In 1827, VICAT discovers marl in the Isère region. The local industry boom, as well as the great financial richness that fol-lows, are owed to his technical support and to the interest aroused by the material (ce-ment is called �the grey gold of Grenoble�). His son will open here the first factory, which was continuously developed, be-coming today a multinational corporation. Between 1835 and 1911, at the Chamber of Commerce of Grenoble no less than 52 businesses, companies, manufactories, and plants are registered.

At Teil (Rhone-Alpes), the �Lafarge� plant is established, a renowned lime mor-tars supplier (e.g. construction of the Suez Canal) which will diversify its production, towards 1886 being already a direct com-petitor of the original Roman cement.

In Switzerland25, cement manufactur-ing starts in the 1830s26 in the Jura Moun-tains: Val de Travers (canton of Neuchâtel), Birstal (canton of Solothurn); in the south, Aargauer Ketten and Tafeljura, with quarries at Geissberg (Villingen), Holderbank, Auen-stein-Wildegg, Schinznach-Bad, Kütten, Re-uchenette, St. Sulpice, Vallorbe, Baulmes, Käpfnach (Horgen). In the Alps, the exploi-tation is carried out at Mürtschendecke am Walensee, in the area of the rocky riverbank of Lochenzen, south from Hängen, at Müh-lehorn, in the calcareous regions of Becken-ried and Rotzloch, at Vouvry and Roche, in the Breggia valley and at Balerna � South-ern Alps.

The international exhibition of Berne (1857) awards prizes to companies from Aa-rau, Geneva, Grenchen. The owners bring vases, ornaments and four statues made of

23 Louis-Joseph VICAT, Recherches expérimen-tales sur les chaux de construction, les bétons et les mortiers ordinaire, (Paris : Goujon, 1818), http://catalogue.bnf.fr.

24 Cédric AVENIER, op.cit., 272 (quoting the Bar-on of THÉNARD, a contemporary of VICAT�s).

25 Petra DARIZ, �Romanzement in der Schweiz. Geschichte des natürlich hydraulischen Bind-emittels in der Eidgenossenschaft,� Restauro 2 (2009): 522-529.

26 The first factory opens in 1832 at Solothurn, then at Aarau.

n Foto 17. Bartensteinblock, Viena. Detaliu decoraţie © Johannes WEBER

n Photo 17. Bartensteinblock, Vienna. Detail of apron © Johannes WEBER

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În ciuda producþiei proprii, piaþa elveþianã se va confrunta mereu cu cimenturile franþuzeşti, a cãror concurenþã va bloca dezvoltarea localã. Facilitãþile de transport sunt determinante în acest sens: Franþa va şti sã profite de calea feratã şi de facilitãþile de transport maritim, de preþurile mai mici de producþie şi de calitatea materialului. Geneva şi arhitectura sa din a doua jumãtate a secolului al XIX-lea sunt legate de fabricile din departamentul Doubs, de la Haute Saône şi din regiunea Isère.

În Imperiul austro-ungar27 producþia începe cu Franz KINK (1790, Bo-zen � 1862, Kufstein) inginer de drumuri ce descoperã o marnã potrivitã în apropiere de localitatea Schwoich, lângã Kufstein (Tirol), dupã ani de cãutãri. În 1841 porneşte producþia cu douã cuptoare şi o moarã de apã pentru ciment, pe an ajungând la cca. 7000 t. Kink comercializeazã pro-dusul ca „mortar hidraulic Kufstein” şi îl exportã pe întregul teritoriu al monarhiei (pânã la Praga şi Budapesta).28

Alois KRAFT va fi însã cel mai mare industriaş (produce şi livreazã ciment roman şi Portland): 1860 Kraft & Saulich fondeazã fabrica Perl-moos, în apropiere de Kufstein, iar în 1872 Perlmooser Zementwerke AG, incluzând şi cuptoarele lui Kink.

În jurul Vienei se aflã numeroşi alþi furnizori (Kaltenleutgeben, 1860; Lilien-feld, 1873; Ober-Piesting, 1884), capitala este dependentã de cimentul roman.

Dupã 1850 se deschid manufacturi noi: în Ungaria (lângã Budapesta la Óbuda, lângã Lábatlan şi la Nyergesújfalu), Cehia (Tlumačov –Tlumatschau, Mariaschein lângã Teplitz, Litomence, în apropiere de Praga, la Radotín, Zlíchov, Podoli, Hlubočepy), Polonia (DCbniki lângã Cracovia, la Szczakowa sau în localitatea Straaa, lângã Wolów). Se cerceteazã în prezent situaþia din Galiþia, la Lviv (Lvov, Lemberg), este atestatã deja prezenþa materialului.

Pe teritoriul românesc este cunoscutã fabrica de ciment de la Oraviþa, fãrã detalii (producþie, cariere, export, perioade).29

Germania are fabrici lângã München, la Bamberg, Ulm (1838), etc.30

În Rusia, în apropiere de Sankt Petersburg se deschide o primã fabricã (în legãturã cu industria grenoblezã).31 Moscova va avea furnizori în ime-diata sa vecinãtate.

Se cunosc fabrici în Italia şi Olanda, Suedia.Nu se cunosc toate fabricile, carierele sau locurile unde a fost produs ciment.O serie de patente duc la descoperirea cimentului Portland (1811, 1822,

1824 – Joseph ASPDIN), ciment artificial ce abia spre sfârşitul secolului va face o concurenþã realã cimentului roman, eliminându-l de pe piaþã în urmãtoarele decenii.

Existã o serie de întrebãri cu privire la folosirea între rãzboaie a cimen-turilor naturale. O ipotezã este cã, în preajma primului rãzboi mondial, producþia s-a oprit, declinul materialului fiind legat şi de declinul arhitec-turii pe care a însoþit-o.

A doua, sprijinitã de surse bibliografice şi de teren, aratã cã abia dupã al doilea rãzboi mondial producþia a fost opritã.32

27 Caietele ROCEM.28 Vezi 100 Jahre Vereinigung der Österreichischen Zementindustrie, fãrã autor şi an, p. 6.29 Caietele ROCEM.30 Caietele ROCEM: „Gasteiner, Rechel, Schmidt & Höß, Stießberger, Zenner si Zelger (lângã

München). Alpii de jos (1850-1851): P. Deuringer, fabrica de la Oberkammerloh (Waakir-chen), bine poziþionatã (cantitate mare de marnã de calitate). 1879: Oberkammerloher Cement Factory � cel mai mare producãtor din Bavaria, din 1884 OHG Mariensteiner Portlancement-Factory Lechner & Cie (comercializeazã produsul Mariensteiner Roman lime). Marienburg (1851), Buxtehude (1842), Metersen (1844), Dirschau (1851), Marien-burg (1851), Döhlen (Dresda, 1852)�.

31 Cédric AVENIER, Tezã doctorat.32 La Lemberg, 1921 – clãdire de locuinþe cu decoraþii şi tencuieli exterioare din ciment

roman. (Prof. Johannes WEBER, UAK – Wien. Autoarea) şi Amandine ROYER, op.cit., p. 20-21: „1941 – cimentul Vassy şi Porte-de-France sunt încã produse şi comercializate (F. ANSTETT, Dictionnaire du ciment et de ses divers emplois, Paris, 1941.); 1950 � la Harwi-ch înceteazã producþia cimentului roman (T. HANDLEY, Natural Cement, în �Concrete�, nov.-dec. 1999); 1940 � existã încã o producþie importantã în SUA (T. HANDLEY)�.

Roman cement, two characters representing the imperial couple Napoleon III � Eugenie, the statue of the Queen of Sardinia and of Vittorio Emmanuele.

Despite its own production, the Swiss market is always confronted with the French cements, whose competition will eventually obstruct local development. Transportation facilities are a deciding factor to that effect: France will know how to take advantage of its railway and the naval transport opportunities, of its lower production costs and the quality of its ma-terial. Geneva and its architecture of the second half of the 19th century are closely related to the factories of the Doubs de-partment, of the Haute Saône and the Isère region.

In the Austro-Hungarian Empire27, pro-duction starts with Franz KINK (1790, Bol-zano-Bozen � 1862, Kufstein), a road engi-neer who, after years of research, discovers an appropriate marl in the surrounding area of Schwoich, near Kufstein (Tyrol). In 1841 he starts production with two ovens and a watermill for cement, reaching approx. 7,000 t per year. KINK sells the product as �Kufstein hydraulic mortar� and exports it on the entire territory of the monarchy (as far as Prague and Budapest).28

Still, the biggest industrialist is going to be Alois KRAFT (producing and deliver-ing Roman and Portland cements): in 1860 Kraft & Saulich create the Perlmoos factory, near Kufstein, in 1872 becoming Perlmooser Zementwerke AG, including KINK�s ovens.

Around Vienna there are many other suppliers (Kaltenleutgeben, 1860; Lilienfeld,

27 ROCEM Publications28 See 100 Jahre Vereinigung der Österreichis-

chen Zementindustrie, no author and year, 6.

n Foto 18. Bartensteinblock, Viena. Detaliu

decoraţie © Johannes WEBER

n Photo 18. Bartensteinblock, Vienna. Detail of

decoration © Johannes WEBER

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Bibliograie/Bibliography

n 100 Jahre Vereinigung der Österreichischen Zementindustrie, fãrã au-tor şi an.

n AVENIER, Cédric, Ciments d�églises, semences de chrétiens. Con-structions religieuses et industrie cimentière en Ière au XIXème siècle, thèse de doctorat, Université de Grenoble II Pierre-Mendès-France, Histoire et histoire de l�art, 2004.

n Idem, Ciment naturel, Grenoble, Glénat, 2007.n Caietele ROCEM, ed. în cadrul Proiectului european ROCEM � RO-

man CEMent to Restore Built Heritage Effectively.n DARIZ, Petra, Romanzement in der Schweiz. Geschichte des natür-

lich hydraulischen Bindemittels in der Eidgenossenschaft, în �Resta-uro� 2/2009.

n Le petit Larousse, Grand Format en couleurs, Paris, Larousse � Bor-das, 1998.

n ROYER, Amandine, Le ciment romain. Etude d�un materiau et de son utilisation dans les restaurations de monuments historiques au XIXe siecle: les cathédrales d�Amiens et de Bourges, lucrare de masterat, Ecole du Louvre, specializarea Conservare � restaurare, 2004.

n STARK, J., WICHT, B., Zement und Kalk. Der Baustoff als Werkstoff, Basel, Birkhäuser, 2000.

n VEIGL, C., Conferinþa EU �ROCARE� de la Viena, septembrie 2009.n VICAT, Louis-Joseph, Recherches expérimentales sur les chaux de

construction, les bétons et les mortiers ordinaire, Paris, Goujon, 1818, http://catalogue.bnf.fr.

n WEBER, Johannes, Note de curs, Universitaet fuer Angewandte Kunst, Viena, 2010.

n http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Smeatonn http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ James_Parker (cement_maker)

1873, Ober-Piesting, 1884), the capital be-ing dependent on Roman cement.

After 1850 new manufactories are es-tablished: in Hungary (near Budapest at Óbuda, near Lábatlan, and at Nyergesúj-falu), the Czech Republic (Tlumačov –Tlu-matschau, Mariaschein near Teplitz, Li-tomence, near Prague, at Radotín, Zlíchov, Podoli, Hlubočepy), Poland (DCbniki near Krakow, at Szczakowa, or in the town of Straaa, near Wolów). The situation from Galicja, at Lviv (Lvov, Lemberg) is currently being researched, since evidence of the presence of the material has already been discovered.

On the Romanian territory, the existence of the cement factory at Oraviþa is known, without any further details (production, quarries, export, periods of time).29

Germany has factories near Munich, at Bamberg, Ulm (1838), etc.30

In Russia, near Saint Petersburg the first factory is opened (in connection to the industry of Grenoble).31 Moscow will have suppliers in its surrounding area.

Other factories are known in Italy, the Netherlands, and Sweden.

Still, we do not know all the places where this cement was manufactured, all the factories or quarries.

A series of patents led to the discovery of Portland cement (1811, 1822, 1824 � Jo-seph ASPDIN), an artificial cement which towards the end of the century would stand as real competition to Roman cement, ulti-mately eliminating it from the market over the next decades.

There is a series of questions about whether natural cements were used or not in the interwar period. A hypothesis is that around WW1 production stopped, the de-cline of the material being related to the de-cline of the architecture it complemented.

The second hypothesis, sustained by bibliographic and onsite sources, indicates that production was stopped only after WW2.32

29 ROCEM Publications.30 ROCEM Publications: �Gasteiner, Rechel,

Schmidt & Höß, Stießberger, Zenner and Zel-ger (near Munich). Lower Alps region (1850-1851): P. Deuringer, factory from Oberkam-merloh (Waakirchen), well-positioned (large quantity of good-quality marl). 1879: Oberkammerloher Cement Factory � the big-gest manufacturer in Bavaria, since 1884 OHG Mariensteiner Portlancement-Factory Lechner & Cie (sells the product Mariensteiner Roman lime). Marienburg (1851), Buxtehude (1842), Metersen (1844), Dirschau (1851), Marienburg (1851), Döhlen (Dresda, 1852)�.

31 Cédric AVENIER, PhD thesis.32 At Lemberg, 1921 � residence building with

decorations and coatings of Roman cement (Prof. Johannes WEBER, UAK � Vienna. Au-thor) and Amandine ROYER, op.cit., 20-21: �1941 � Vassy and Porte-de-France cements are still being manufactured and sold (F. AN-STETT, Dictionnaire du ciment et de ses div-ers emplois, Paris, 1941); 1950 � at Harwich, production of Roman cement is stopped (T. HANDLEY, �Natural Cement,� Concrete, Nov.-Dec. 1999); 1940 � there is still significant manufacturing in the USA (T. HANDLEY)�.

n Foto 19. Bartensteinblock, Viena. Detaliu decoraţie © Johannes WEBER

n Photo 19. Bartensteinblock, Vienna. Detail of decoration © Johannes WEBER