Curs LIMBA ENGLEZA CONTEMPORANA (GRUPUL VERBAL)

Semestrul I

Tematică:

Programa cursului de morfologie, partea verbală se adresează studenţilor de la învăţământul deschis, la distanţă care studiază limba şi literatura engleză la Facultatea de Litere a Universităţii din Craiova. Programa cuprinde următoarele teme: 1. Categoriile gramaticale ale verbului 2. Categoriile gramaticale ale timpului şi aspectului: i. Timpul prezent simplu şi prezent continuu ii. Timpul trecut (Past Tense) simplu şi trecut (Past Tense) continuu iii. Timpul perfectul prezent (Present Perfect) simplu şi perfectul prezent continuu iv.Timpul mai mult ca perfectul (Past Perfect) simplu şi mai mult ca perfectul continuu v. Mijloace de exprimare a viitorului: viitorul simplu, viitorul continuu, viitorul perfect simplu, viitorul perfect continuu, prezentul simplu şi continuu (+ adverbe de timp), viitorul cu going to, be about to, be to; acţiuni viitoare dintr-o perspectivă trecută3. Categoria gramaticală a modului şi a modalităţii i. Modul indicativ ii. Modul subjonctiv: formele de subjonctiv în engleza contemporană: - subjonctivul sintetic - subjonctivul analitic: should + infinitiv, may/might + infinitiv, would + infinitiv, could + infinitiv iii. Verbele modale: - caracteristicile morfologice, sintatice şi semantice ale verbelor modale

- valorile şi utilizările verbelor modale: can/could, may/might, must/ have to, need, shall/should, will/would, dare

4. Categoria gramaticală a diatezei: i. diateza activă ii. diateza pasivă - be / get / become + participul trecut - complementul de agent - întrebuinţarea diatezei pasive

Obiective: - cunoaşterea, înţelegerea şi utilizarea adecvată a noţiunilor specifice disciplinei Limba engleză contemporană (grupul verbal); cunoaşterea şi explicarea aparatului conceptual fundamental- explicarea şi interpretarea corectă a conţinuturilor teoretice ale disciplinei Limba engleză contemporană (grupul verbal) în contexte bine definite;- explicarea şi interpretarea conţinuturilor practice ale disciplinei Limba engleză contemporană (grupul verbal) în contexte bine definite; capacitatea de aplicare a noţiunilor teoretice şi a abilităţilor practice specifice disciplinei Limba engleză contemporană (grupul verbal) în situaţii tipice- analiza principalelor categorii gramaticale ale verbului în engleza contemporană, şi anume, categoria gramaticală a timpului, a aspectului, a modalităţii (opoziţia dintre modul indicativ şi subjonctiv precum şi valorile verbelor modale), categoria gramaticală a diatezei. - înţelegerea concepţiei strânsei interdependenţe dintre morfologie şi sintaxă, insistându-se asupra încadrărilor sintactico-contextuale ale verbului

Evaluare:

Forma de evaluare (examen şi teme de control)

Stabilirea notei finale (procente):

- răspunsurile la examen: 70 %- teme de control: 30%

Timp alocat: 28 ore

BIBLIOGRAFIE MINIMALĂ:

Carter, Ronald, McCarthy, Michael. 2006. Cambridge Grammar of English. A Comprehensive Guide: Spoken and Written English Grammar and Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Celce-Murcia, Marianne, Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 1999. The Grammar Book. An ESL/EFL Teacher’s Course. 2nd edn. Heinle & Heinle Gălăţeanu, G., Comişel, E. 1982. Gramatica limbii engleze. Pentru uz şcolar, Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică.

Leech, Geoffrey N. 1987. Meaning and the English Verb, London: Longman.

Leech, Geoffrey, Svartvick, Jan. 1993. A Communicative Grammar of English, London: Longman. Leech, Geoffrey, Deuchar, Margaret, and Hoogenrad, Robert. 2006. English Grammar for Today. A New Introduction. 2nd edn. London: Palgrave. Leviţchi, Leon, 1970. Limba engleză contemporană. Morfologie, Bucureşti: EDP. Murar, Ioana. 2005. The English Verb, Craiova: Ed. Universitaria

Palmer, Frank R. 1987. The English Verb, London: Longman.

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of

the English Language, London: Longman.

Ştefănescu, Ioana. 1988. English Morphology: The Nominal and Verbal Categories, TUB,

Bucureşti

Thomson, A.J., and Martinet, A.V. 1982. A Practical English Grammar, third edition,

London: Oxford University Press

Capitolul 1: Categoriile gramaticale ale verbului Obiective : Studentii se vor familiariza cu notiunea de categorie gramaticala a verbului

Timp de studiu alocat: 4 ore

The English verb has grammatical forms determined by its categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood. The categories of person and number The English verb has only one formal indicator to mark these categories, namely the -s for the 3rd person singular Present Tense, Indicative Mood. Because of the scarcity of specific endings in the verb, these two categories are usually identified by means of the subject. E.g. I/you work: The category of tense Tense and time are two distinct concepts. Time is a universal, extralinguistic concept having three divisions: Past, Present or Future. Time can be expressed linguistically by means of the grammatical category of tense. By tense we understand the form of the verb whose function is to mark the time at which an event takes place. Events may be viewed as being simultaneous with the reference points or perfected before these reference points. I. If the reference point of time is Present, events simultaneous with the present moment are expressed by the Present Tense; events perfected before the present are expressed by the Present Perfect. II. If the reference point of time is Past, events simultaneous with the past moment are expressed by the Past Tense; events perfected before the past are expressed by the Past Perfect. III. If the reference point of time is future, events simultaneous with the future moment are expressed by the Future tense; events perfected before the future are expressed by the Future Perfect. English tenses are verbal constructions expressing points of time combined with aspect.

The category of aspect refers to the manner in which the verbal action is regarded: it shows whether the action is complete or still in progress. There are two aspectual oppositions in English:

1. Perfective vs. Non-perfective: perfective indicates that an event was accomplished at/before a given point in time.

Perfective is formed of the auxiliary have + Past Participle of the verb.

2. The progressive (Continuous) vs. Simple aspect: The progressive describes an action in progress at a given time. It is formed of the auxiliary be + the Present Participle of the main verb. The simple aspect refers to an action which is complete. On account of their meaning, some verbs do not normally occur in the Continuous Aspect.There are two classes of verbs from the point of view of their lexical aspect: I. Dynamic (Activity) verbs and II. State (Stative) verbs.

I. Dynamic verbs describe actions that happen in a limited time. They are normally used in the continuous aspect. They can be subdivided into: 1. Durative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting actions that last in time: read, write, etc. This is a class of verbs typically used in the continuous aspect: - the Continuous forms show that the action is in progress at a certain time; the Simple forms are used when the duration is irrelevant: He is reading a book / He seldom reads books.- the Continuous forms denote an action of limited, temporary duration; the simple aspect denotes unlimited, permanent duration:

I’m living with my aunt at present./My parents live in the country.- the Continuous aspect suggests an incomplete action, while the Simple forms suggest a complete action. I have mended the car this morning./ I have been mending the car this morning.

2. Non-durative (Momentary) verbs: verbs denoting momentary events,: catch, find, hit, jump, kick, etc. Since these verbs refer to momentary actions, they cannot normally be used in the continuous aspect: She slammed the door. When these verbs are used in the continuous aspect, they denote a repeated action: He nodded / He was nodding. II. State verbs describe states which continue over a period of time. Since they denote a permanent duration of an action they are not normally used in the continuous forms. They can be subdivided into: 1. Relational verbs (verbs of being and possessing): be, belong, com- prise, consist, contain, have, lack, need, etc: He has a new car. 2. Verbs denoting physical perception: feel, hear, look, notice, see, smell, taste: I see a car coming towards us. 3. Verbs of cognition: believe, consider, doubt, forget, expect, guess, know, etc. They understand my problem now.

4. Verbs referring to feelings, emotions (likes and dislikes): like, love, hate, prefer, want, wish: I want to go to London. Some of these verbs may be used in the Continuous aspect: a) when the speaker wishes to emphasize a temporary action, situation, not a permanent one: Be - to express a temporary state, quality or behaviour:

Ann is a good girl / Ann is being a good girl today ( verbs denoting feelings - if they express temporary actions: (at a party): Hello, Ann! Are you enjoying the party?

b)Verbs smell, taste, sound - to express a voluntary action on the part of the subject: The cake tastes good. /The cook is tasting the soup

c) When the verbs are recategorized: when they an activity not a state:- Verbs of possession (have, hold, possess) Compare: He has a new car / He is having lunch. - Some verb of thinking (think, expect, consider, imagine) - perception verbs (see, hear): Do you see that house over there? /The director is seeing the new applicants

QUESTIONS: 1. The category of tense – definition 2. The category of aspect– definition 3. Classes of verbs from the point of view of their lexical aspect 4. Verbs not normally used in the Continuous Aspect

Capitolul 2. Categoriile gramaticale ale timpului şi aspectului: 2.1. The present simple and continuous The present simple

Obiective:

Studentii isi vor revizui cunostintele legate de timp si aspect ale verbului

Timp de studiu alocat: 2 ore

Form: it has the same form as the Short Infinitive except for the 3rd pers.sg. which adds an -(e)s: I work/you work/he works

Uses and values: The present simple denotes:

1. Facts which are always true:

- general truths or laws of nature: Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. - permanent situations or states: She works in a bank. 2. Habitual/repeated actions: A frequency adverb (often, usually, always, etc.) is often used: I usually take the bus to work.

3. Momentary actions completed at the same time they are performed (in contexts such as: announcements, stage directions, radio or TV commentaries): We accept your offer. 4. Past time reference: - Summaries of historical events, plots of stories, use present present tenses: May 1945: The war in Europe comes to an end.- Headlines: Ship sinks in midnight collision.- with ‘communication verbs’: They tell me that you have been abroad.

5. Future time reference:

a) Planned future actions, when the future action is considered part of an already fixed programme, timetable. The adverbials indicating future time are obligatory: The train leaves at 8:00.

b) In temporal and conditional clauses, when there is a future/ present/ imperative in the main clause: We shall be late if you don’t hurry.

The present continuous (progressive)

Form: It is formed of the Present tense of the auxiliary be + the present Participle of the main verb: I am working, etc.

Uses and values:

1. Actions which are in progress at the moment

- The action can be actually in progress at the moment of speaking:

The wind is blowing (now).

- Or the action can be generally in progress but not actually happening at the moment): I am reading a novel by John Fowles.

- The action can be temporary: I’m staying in a hotel until I find a flat.

- changing or developing situations:

More and more people are giving up smoking.

2. Future time reference: Fixed arrangements in the near future. The time of the action must be mentioned: We’re going to the cinema tonight.

3. A frequently repeated action which annoys the speaker. A frequency adverb is necessary: He’s always getting into trouble.

QUESTIONS:

1. General and habitual actions expressed by Present Simple

2. Present Simple with other temporal values: past, future

3. Actions in progress expressed by Present Continuous

4. Future time reference expressed by Present Simple and Continuous

5. Adverbials of time used with the Present Simple and Continuous

2.2. The Past tense simple and continuous

Timp de studiu alocat: 2 ore

The past simple

Form: a) Regular verbs form their Past Tense by adding –ed to the short infinitive, e.g. to work → I/you/he worked

b) Irregular verbs: sing - sang (internal vowel change); lend - lent (change in the last consonant); cut – cut (invariable forms); go – went Uses and values:

1. Actions/events completed in the past at a definite time:

a) when the time/place is given: Ann phoned me at 6 o’clock. /…as soon

as she got home/… from school.

b) when the action clearly took place at a definite time even if this time is not mentioned: The train was five minutes late.

c) When there is a sequence of past events (narrative use):

I got up, switched off the radio, and sat down again.

2. Habits in the past:

- The past simple is used to describe past habits or states. A time expression is necessary: I always got up at six in those days.

. Used to: is used to describe past habits, usually in contrast with the present. A time expression is not necessary:

I used to get up at six, but now I get up at eight.

Used to can also describe past states: I used to own a horse.

Would is used to describe a person’s typical activities in the past: .Every evening Jack would turn on the radio, light his pipe and fall asleep.

The past continuous

Form: The Past Continuous is formed of the Past Tense of the auxiliary be and the Present Participle of the main verb: I was working, etc

1. It is used to describe actions still in progress:

- with a point in time it expresses an action in progress (going on) precisely at that moment:

At 12.30 yesterday we were having a walk in the park.

- with a period of time it expresses an action that continued for some time (background description in narrative):

Yesterday morning I was writing letters.

- with another action in the simple past it expresses an action that began and probably continued after the other (shorter) action which interrupted it:

While I was jogging, a man stopped me and asked me the time.

2. The Past Continuous can be used to describe a repeated action in the past, often an annoying habit. A frequency adverb is necessary:

Tom was always ringing me up late at night.

3. With an adverb of future time it expresses a definite future arrangement seen from the past:

Dan was busy packing, for he was leaving the next day.

QUESTIONS:

1. Main values of Past Simple

2. Ways of expressing habits in the past

3. Time expressions used with Past Simple and Continuous

2.3. The present perfect simple and continuous

Timp de studiu alocat: 2 ore

Present perfect simple

Form: It is formed of the Present Tense of the auxiliary have and the Past Participle of the main verb: I have worked, etc.

Uses and values:

1. Recent events, without a definite time given. A time expression may emphasize recentness (just): He has just left.

2. Indefinite events, which happened at an unknown time in the past. No definite time is given: Jim has had three car accidents. (up to the present).

3. Indefinite events which may have an obvious result in the present:

I’ve twisted my ankle. (That’s why I’m limping)

4. With state verbs, a state which lasts up to the present:

I’ve lived here for the past ten years.

Time expressions with Present Perfect: just, ever, never, already, yet, always, how long, so far, recently, today, this week/month, since (expresses a starting point in the past), for (expresses the duration of an action): I’ve been here since March/ I’ve been here for three months.

Contrasts with Past Simple: Past simple is used with time expressions which refer to definite time (yesterday, last week). The time may be stated or understood: I’ve bought a new car. (indefinite)/ I bought a new car last week. (definite time)

Present perfect continuous (progressive)

Form: It consists of the Present Perfect of the auxiliary be + the Present Participle of the main verb: I have been working, etc.

Uses and values:

1. It expresses actions started in the past and continuing up to the present: I’ve been living in this house for five years.

It expresses an incomplete activity:

I’ve been cleaning the house but I still haven’t finished.

2. Resultative use: The Present Perfect continuous indicates a recently finished action which explains a present result:

He has been running. That’s why he’s out of breath.

3. Repeated actions: They have been meeting like this for years.

Present Perfect Continuous is normally used with for, since, how long to emphasise the duration of the action: He has been feeling unwell for days.

Contrasts with Present Perfect Simple:

1. There may be little contrast when some state verbs are used:

How long have you lived / have you been living here?

2. There may be a contrast between completion (Present Perfect Simple) and incompletion (Present Perfect Continuous), especially if the number of items (actions) completed is mentioned: I’ve ironed five shirts this morning / I’ve been ironing my shirts this morning.

QUESTIONS:

1. Main values of Present Perfect Simple

2. Resultative use of Present Perfect Simple and Continuous

3. Time expressions with the Present Perfect Simple and Continuous

4. Aspects of contrast between Present Perfect Simple and Continuous

2.4. Past perfect simple and continuous

Timp de studiu alocat: 2 ore

Past perfect simple

Form: It consists of the past tense of the auxiliary have and the past participle of the main verb, e.g. I had worked, etc.

Uses and values:

1. Past Perfect Simple is used to describe a past event that took place before another past event or before a given past moment:

By the time I got to the station the train had left.

The Past Perfect is not always necessary if a time expression makes the order of events clear (in temporal clauses introduced by after, until, before): After he (had) graduated he got a job

2. Continuative use: The action began before a given past moment and continued up to that past moment. The Past Perfect Simple has this value for those verbs not used in the continuous aspect:

He had been ill for two weeks when I learnt about it.

3. With the verbs hope, intend, mean, expect, etc. the Past Perfect Simple indicates that the action did not materialize:

He had intended to call but was prevented by some unforeseen business.

Past perfect continuous

Form: It is formed of the Past Perfect of the auxiliary be and the Present Participle of the main verb: I had been working, etc.

Uses and values:

1. The Past Perfect Continuous indicates an action which began before a point in the past, continued right up to it and may have continued after.

The past point of time before which the action expressed by the verb may be indicated by:

- an adverbial phrase introduced by the preposition by:

By that time he had been studying English for ten years.

- a clause of time (the verb in the Past Tense):

I had been waiting for my friend for an hour when he finally turned up.

2. Resultative use: The verb in the Past Perfect Continuous occurs in Adverbial Clauses of Cause or Reason (introduced by because) to express a previous action whose result was obvious at a certain past time:

I was very tired when I arrived home. I’d been working hard all day

QUESTIONS:

1. Main values of Past Perfect Simple

2. Main values of Past Perfect Continuous

3. Time expressions used with Past Simple and Continuous

2.5. Means of expressing future time reference

Timp de studiu alocat : 2 ore

There are several ways of expressing future time in English:

1. Future Simple

Form: the auxiliaries shall/will + the short infinitive of the main verb. Shall is used in the 1st

pers. sg/pl. (formal British English; in informal contexts, in American English it is replaced by will). Will is used in the 2nd and 3rd pers. sg/pl.

Uses and values: The Future Simple is used to denote actions to be performed in the future (i.e. after the present moment. Thus, the Future Simple is used for announcements of future plans, predictions about the future): I shall/will be 20 next week (formal/colloquial English).

Syntactically, the Future Simple is particularly common in:

- the main clause of Temporal and Conditional sentences (the future is not used in the subordinate clause of Time and Condition):

When it gets warmer, the snow will start to melt.

- Object clauses introduced by verbs which express the speaker’s opinion or assumption about the future: Do you think it will rain?

Time expressions: tomorrow, next week/month, in the future, in 2 years

Shall and will can acquire modal value in some special constructions (interrogative, negative). Thus,

Shall acquires special values:

a) in the 1st pers. sg/pl. interrogative sentences:

- request for advice or suggestion: Where shall I put the books?

- making an offer: Shall I open the door?

b) in the 2nd and 3rd pers. sg/pl. shall expresses

- the speaker’s intention to perform a certain action:

They shall have my support.

- command, formal instruction: Each competitor shall wear a number.

Will expresses modal values:

a) in the 1st pers. sg/pl. will expresses unpremeditated intention, immediate decision: ‘Can somebody help me?’ ‘I will.’

b) in the 2nd, 3rd pers. sg/pl/, interrogative sentences will expresses willingness, request, invitation: Will you do me a favour?

c) in negative sentences will expresses absence of willingness, i.e. refusal: I won’t see him again.

2. Future Continuous

Form: It is formed of the Future simple of the auxiliary be + the Present participle of the main verb: I shall/will be working

Uses and values:

a) It denotes an action in progress at a given time in the future:

This time next year she’ll be running her own business.

b) A future-as-a-matter-of-course: When will you be visiting us again?

c) Supposition, strong probability referring to the present:

She’ll be sleeping now.

3. Future Perfect

Form: It consists of the future tense of the auxiliary have + the Past Participle of the main verb: I shall/will have worked

Uses and values:

a) It expresses an action completed before a future moment. The future moment may be indicated by means of:

- an adverbial phrase introduced by the prepositions by, before, in;

They will have emigrated to Canada by Christmas.

- a subordinate clause of time introduced by the conjunctions before, when, by the time: By the time we get there, the film will have started.

The Future Perfect becomes the Present Perfect in temporal clauses:

He won’t forgive you till you have apologised.

b) It expresses supposition about an action performed at a previous moment: No doubt you will have heard of this writer

4. Future Perfect Continuous

Form: It consists of the Future Perfect of the auxiliary be + the present participle of the main verb: I shall/will have been working. It expresses an action begun before a given future moment and still going on at that future moment. The given future moment can be expressed by:

- an adverbial phrase introduced by next, by:

By his sixtieth birthday he will have been teaching for 35 years.

- a subordinate clause of time (with the verb in the Present Tense):

When Mr. Brown retires he will have been working in the same office for 45 years.

5. Other means of expressing futurity (Future Time)

a) Be going to

Form: the be going to - construction is formed of the continuous form of the verb go + the long infinitive (infinitive with to) of the main verb, e.g. I am going to write, etc.

The going to – construction has two values:

- The subject’s intention (plan, decision) to perform a certain future action: ‘What are you going to do tonight?’ ‘I’m going to stay at home.

- Prediction (the speaker’s feeling of certainty, strong probability, likeli- hood): Those dark clouds mean it’s going to rain.

b) Be to + infinitive expresses the following meanings:

- an arrangement which has been planned for the future:

The meeting is to begin at 8 o’clock.

- an order, instruction, command, usually an indirect one:

You are to be back by 10 o’clock.

c) Be about to + infinitive expresses an immediate future action whose fulfilment is imminent: Hurry up! The train is (just) about to leave.

d) Present Simple (with future meaning): an official plan or arrangement regarded as unalterable:

The play begins at 7 o’clock this evening.

e) Present Continuous (with future meaning): a future event anticipated by virtue of a present plan, programme or arrangement (fixed arrange- ments in the near future): She’s meeting her aunt this weekend.

6. Future actions seen from past perspective (Future in the Past):

a). Future in the past means a future action viewed from a past moment. There are several ways for describing future actions viewed from a past moment:

- auxiliary verb construction with would (literary narrative style):

The time was not far off when he would regret his decision.

- was/were going to + infinitive (unfulfilled intention)

He was going to invite me to the cinema (but he didn’t).

- Past progressive: I was meeting him in the same place the next day.

- was/were to+inf.: The meeting was to be held the following week

b) The future in the past is used in reporting the past words or thoughts of someone. All the future forms dealt with so far can be turned into a future in the past by substituting should/would for shall /will:

I shall see you tomorrow →I told him I should see him the next day.

QUESTIONS:

1.Main values of Future Continuous

2. Main values of Future Perfect Simple

3. Intention expressed by Shall/Will Future and Be Going to forms

4. Constructions used to express Future in the Past

5. Time markers used with future forms

Capitolul 3. Categoria gramaticală a modului şi a modalităţii 3.1. The Subjunctive mood

Obiective:

Studentii vor revedea notiunile de modalitate si cazurile de folosire corecta a verbelor modale

Timp de studiu alocat: 4ore

Mood is the grammatical category by means of which modality is expressed, i.e. the attitude of the speaker towards the action denoted by the verb. By means of this category, the speaker can present the action as being: 1. real, existing in fact; 2. not real, non-factual, hypothetical. Traditional grammars distinguish four finite moods: the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Conditional, the Imperative. Modern grammars limit the number of moods to only two: the Indicative and the Subjunctive. The Indicative mood is the mood of assertion, it presents the action as real or as factual. The tenses of the Indicative Mood cover all the divisions of time on the temporal axis: past, present or future.

The Subjunctive mood is non-assertive, it presents non-factual, hypothetical statements.

The forms of the subjunctive

The subjunctive mood is represented by two forms: A. the Synthetic forms (Synthetic subjunctive); B. the Analytic forms.

A. The Synthetic Subjunctive: The Synthetic subjunctive has forms for the Present, past, perfect.

I. The Present Subjunctive (the old form)

Form: it is identical in form with the base form of the verb (short infinitive): ask, be.

Distribution: The Present subjunctive occurs in

a) Independent Sentences: It occurs in some phrases (formulaic expressions):

i. wishes: Long live peace! God bless you!

ii. oaths, curses: The devil take him! Damn him!

iii. Expressions denoting urge, advise: So be it!, Suffice it to say that…

b) Subordinate clauses

1. Subject clauses, after constructions of the type: It is + Adjective (advisable, essential, necessary, important):

It is essential that the mission not fail.

2. Object clauses, after verbs like demand, desire, insist, order, propose, recommend, require, suggest, urge:

They demand that the committee reconsider its decision.

3. Attributive-appositive clauses, after abstract nouns belonging to the same semantic field: demand, request, etc.

There was a proposal that he be elected chairman.

4. Adverbial Clauses of Condition:

If any person be found guilty he shall have the right of appeal.

5. Concesion: Though everyone desert you I will not.

The use of the Present Subjunctive is found in older English and in formal (official and legal) style, as well as in American English.

II. The Past Subjunctive

Form: It is identical in form with the Past Tense Indicative Mood: asked, wrote.

Distribution. The Past Subjunctive occurs in Subordinate clauses.

1. Subject clauses: The Past Subjunctive occurs after the construction It is (about/high) time:

It’s time we went/were off.

2. Object Clauses. The Past Subjunctive occurs after the verbs wish, would rather, would sooner. After wish the Past Subjunctive expresses regret about a present action which does not occur: I wish he were here = I’m sorry /I regret he isn’t here.I’d rather you stayed at home.

3. Conditional Clauses. (Type2 Cond.Cl.):

If I saw him I would give him your message.

The Past subjunctive after if only expresses regret about an action contrary to present reality (if only is used in a similar way to wish):

If only I were still your age!

4. Adverbial Clauses of unreal comparison (introduced by as if, as though):

She treats him as if he were a child.

1. Adverbial clauses of concession (introduced by even if, even though):

Even though he were ill he wouldn’t miss school.

III. The Perfect Subjunctive.

It is identical in form with the Past perfect Indicative Mood: had asked.

Distribution: The Perfect Subjunctive occurs in subordinate clauses:

1. Object Clauses. After the verbs wish, would rather, the Perfect Subjunctive expresses regret about a past situation or about an action contrary to past reality: I wish I hadn’t spent so much money.

2. Conditional Clauses. (Type3).

If he had been here he would have helped us.

3. Clauses of Comparison introduced by as if, as though:

I remember the movie as if I had seen it yesterday.

4. Clauses of Concession introduced by even if, even though:

Even if he were ill, he wouldn’t miss school.

B. The Analytic Subjunctive. It represents combinations of modal verbs used as auxiliaries + the Short Infinitive of the main verb. The modal auxiliary verbs are: should, may/might, can/could, will/would.

SHOULD occurs in:

1. Independent sentences or main clauses:

a) to form the Present/Perfect Conditional in the 1st pers.sg/pl: I should like to see him.

b) in Direct or Indirect Questions introduced by who, what, why (‘rhetorical’ questions): Why should we quarrel over such a trifle?

2. Subordinate clauses:

a) Subject clauses:

After the construction It is + Adjective (advisable, essential, etc)

It is important that he should not make a mistake.

b) Object Clauses. After verbs expressing command, order, like agree, command, demand, etc.: He proposed that we should postpone our departure.

c) Attributive-Appositive Clauses. After abstract nouns such as demand, desire, etc. There is no reason why he should be late.

d) Conditional Clauses. The Analytic Subjunctive with should Cond.Cl.) expresses a higher degree of improbability: more uncertainty:

If he should come we shall let you know.

e) Clauses of purpose.

He spoke slowly so that there should be no mistakes.

MAY / MIGHT occurs in:

1. Exclamatory sentences to convey a wish: May you live long!

2. Object Clauses after be afraid/apprehensive, fear:

I’m afraid the news may upset her.

3. Clauses of Concession introduced by compound conjunctions in -ever (whoever, whatever, etc), the phrase no matter (who, what etc.), as:

Whatever he may say we must not change our plan.

WILL/WOULD occurs in:

1. Independent sentences or main clauses to form the Present or Perfect conditional in the 2 nd

and 3rd pers.sg/pl: She would like to see him.

2. Object Clauses after wish: it expresses a not very hopeful wish about the future: I wish it would stop raining (= but I don’t think it would);

3. Conditional Clauses introduced by if only: Oh, if only it would rain!

c) Clauses of Purpose: I hurried so that I wouldn’t be late.

d) Clauses of concession introduced by as: Try as you will you won’t manage it.

QUESTIONS :

1. The Distribution of the Synthetic Subjunctive Present.2. The Distribution of the Synthetic Subjunctive Past

3. The Distribution of the Synthetic Subjunctive Perfect4. The distribution of the Analytical Subjunctive with

SHOULD 5. The distribution of the Analytical Subjunctive with MAY6. Subjunctive forms used in Subject Clauses7. Subjunctive forms used in Object Clauses 8. Subjunctive forms used in Adverbial Clauses of Condition

3.2. The modal verbs Timp de studiu alocat: 4 ore

The modal verbs are a special group of auxiliary verbs which have some features in common:

1. They have the same formal characteristics:

a) they are uninflected: they don’t add -s for the 3rd pers. sg. b) They form the interrogative and negative patterns without do/did c) Some of their forms are missing: i. They have no non-finite forms (Infinitive, - ing forms); ii. They cannot be conjugated in all tenses or moods, e.g. they do not occur in the perfect and future tenses.

d) They are followed by a main verb in the (short) infinitive (Present or Perfect infinitive).

2. Semantic characteristics: The modal verbs make up a system of items specialized for expressing the speaker’s attitude towards the action of the sentence: the action is seen as possible, necessary, probable, befitting. They are polysemantic words. They can be divided into two main types: a) those having deontic values (ability, permission, obligation); b) those having epistemic values (likelihood, probability).

I. ABILITY: The modal verbs can/could express physical or mental ability to perform a certain action. Can + Present Infinitive has present or future time reference: He can speak several languages.

Can you come to the meeting tomorrow?

Could + Present Infinitive expresses:

i. Present or Future time reference with a hypothetical value:

I could help him now/tomorrow.

ii. Past reference: could implies permanent ability in the past, i.e. potential performance of an action, not the actual performance:

He could play like a professional when he was young/10 years ago

Particular past ability is expressed by could in negative sentences only:

I ran but I couldn’t catch the bus.

Particular past ability, i.e. a particular event which was successfully performed in the past (in affirmative sentences) is expressed by was able, managed to, succeeded in: I ran and I was able to catch the bus.

Could + perfect infinitive expresses past ability with a conditional reading. It implies that the subject had the ability or opportunity to do something, but he didn’t do it:

He could have helped us (=he was able to help us but he didn’t).

The missing forms of can/could are supplied by the appropriate forms of be able to:

This is all the information I’ve been able to get so far.

II. PERMISSION is expressed by may/might, can/could. Can/could is used in less formal situations (in familiar colloquial speech) than may/ might to express permission.

1. Requests for permission: Can/could I make a suggestion?

More formal requests are expressed with may/might:

May/might I use your pen? (more formal)

2. Giving permission (someone is allowed to do something):

a) Present or future reference : You can /may borrow that pen if you want to. Can has a wider use than may, for it can be used to express permission given by the speaker, but also to express the idea of having permission. In You can park here – can expresses both meanings: i. permission given by the speaker (I give you permission); ii. the idea of having permission (You have a right to park / you are allowed to park).

Refusal of permission is expressed by may not, cannot, must not (prohibition): May I go out? No, you may not.

b) past reference, i.e. permission in the past is expressed by might, could only in reported/indirect speech after a past reporting verb:

I asked if I might/could invite my friends over next Saturday.

The missing forms are supplied by to be allowed to, to be permitted to:

Nobody was allowed to enter the room.

III. OBLIGATION is expressed by must, need, shall, should, ought to.

Must expresses:

1. Present/future time reference. Several distinctions can be made within the concept of obligation:

a) internal / external obligation: internal obligation, i.e. obligation imposed by the speaker is expressed by must; external obligation, i.e. obligation that arises from outside is expressed by have to: I must go (it’s my decision).

I have to go (obligation imposed by external circumstances).

b) habitual / limited obligation: habitual obligation (obligation to perform a habitual action) is expressed by have to; limited obligation (one particular occasion) is expressed by have got to: I have to be at the office at 8 o’clock a.m. (habitual).

Sorry, I’ve got to go now (single obligation).

c) in negative sentences a distinction is made between obligation not to do something (prohibition), expressed by must not and absence of obligation expressed by don’t have to, needn’t: You mustn’t move any of my papers on my desk. / I don’t usually have to work on Sundays.

2. Past time reference after a past reporting verb:

I told her she must be more careful.

The missing forms of must are supplied by have to:

The team had to leave the sinking ship.

Modal need has no -s in the 3rd pers. sg; it forms questions and negations without do; it has no perfect or future forms; it is followed by the short infinitive of a main verb; it does not occur in affirmative sentences.

Need + present infinitive expresses:

i. Present / future time reference: Need I get up early tomorrow? (I hope not).

In negative sentences needn’t is synonymous with don’t have to ( absence of obligation): You needn’t come if you don’t want to.

ii. Past time reference after a past reporting verb:

I assured him that he needn’t worry.

Need + perfect Infinitive expresses absence of obligation of an action which was nevertheless performed: He needn’t have hurried.

Didn’t need to + Present Infinitive expresses absence of obligation of an action which was probably not performed. It is synonymous with didn’t have to: He didn’t need to hurry.

Should and ought to express recommendation, advisability. They are preferred in those contexts in which must would sound too peremptory.

Should / ought to + Present Infinitive expresses:

a) present or future time reference:

You’ve watched enough television: you should go to bed.

b) Past time reference after a past reporting verb:

He told me I ought to be ashamed of myself.

Should/ought to + Perfect Infinitive expresses a past obligation which was not carried out; regret or strong reproach of non-fulfilment is implied: They should have telephoned to say they were not coming.

IV. POSSIBILITY is expressed by may/might, can/could

1. present or future time reference:

a) affirmative sentences: may is used to denote factual, actual possibility, while can is used to denote a more general, theoretical possibility:

The road may be blocked (= it is possible that the road is blocked).

The road can be blocked (= it is possible to block the road).

Might and could express a hypothetical possibility, i.e. a more remote possibility than may, can: ‘I wonder where Tom is.’ ‘He may/might/could be in the library.’

b) Interrogative sentences: can is common in interrogative and negative sentences where may is rather infrequent; may does not normally occur in questions: in the interrogative may is replaced by can/could, is it likely: It may be true – Can it be true?

c) Negative sentences. May/might occurs in negative sentences only when the meaning of the modal is excluded: He may not be at school =It is possible that he isn’t at school. In negative sentences with can/could the meaning of the modal is included: He can’t be at school =It is not possible that he should be at school.

2. Past time reference:

a) Might and could are used:

i. after a past reporting verb: He said it might rain.

ii. if there is an adverb denoting past time:

In those days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime.

b) may/might/can/could + Perfect Infinitive express a possibility about a past action: I wonder how Tom knew about it. He may/might/could have heard it from John.

ii. in interrogative and negative sentences can, could are frequently used:

She is two hours late. What can have happened?

In the negative, the meanings between might not and could not differ:

Ann might not have seen Tom yesterday (=perhaps she didn’t see him

Ann couldn’t have seen Tom yesterday (negative deduction).

V. PROBABILITY (supposition, likelihood) is expressed by must, ought to, will, would.

Must is used to indicate strong likelihood, a high degree of certainty.

Must + Present infinitive indicates supposition about a present action:

That church must be very old.

Must + Perfect infinitive indicates logical deduction about a past action:

She must have left her umbrella on the bus (= I suppose she left it).

Must is used to express logical deduction only in affirmative sentences. In interrogative and negative sentences can is used instead:

‘He must be at least 60.’ ‘He can’t be as old as that.’

Should and ought to are weaker equivalents of must in the sense of deduction: they express a lesser degree of certainty than must.

Judging by his accent he should be a foreigner.

Will + Present infinitive expresses suppositions about a present action:

That will be the hotel we are looking for.

Will + Perfect infinitive expresses a present supposition about a past action: They will have arrived by now (= I’m sure they have arrived )

Would is weaker than will in expressing suppositions:

Would your name be Brown, by any chance?

VI. VOLITION, WILLINGNESS is expressed by will, would, shall.

Will expressing strong volition, determination is stressed and cannot be contracted to ’ll. It is used in all persons:

a) With a 1st person subject, the speaker makes his own volition and determination felt: ‘Can somebody help me?’ ‘I will.’

I will go to the dance and no one shall stop me. (determination)

b) With a 2nd person subject, will expresses volition in: i. conditional clauses (Type I): it is used to express a polite request or invitation: If you will help me we can finish in time .

ii. questions expressing invitation or request: Will you come in, please? Will you help me?

c) with a 2nd and 3rd person subject will expresses obstinate determina- tion, insistence (strong volition): You will have your way.

d) in negative sentences will not (usually contracted to won’t) expresses absence of willingness, i.e. refusal. It has present time reference: I won’t do it (= I refuse to do it)

Would expresses volition, willingness in the following contexts:

a) With a 2nd person subject would expresses more polite, more tentative willingness than will. It has present time reference and occurs in:

i. conditional clauses (Type 2): If you would lend me the book I would be grateful to you.

ii. questions expressing polite invitation or request (would is more tactful than will): Would you come to dinner tomorrow?

b) With a 2nd and 3rd person subject would indicates obstinate determination. It has past time reference: She would come though we warned her it would be rough.

c) In negative sentences would not expresses absence of willingness, i.e. refusal. It has past time reference: He was angry because I wouldn’t give him the book

QUESTIONS

1. The semantic characteristics of Modal Verbs2. Formal characteristics of Modal Verbs3. Modal verbs expressing ability 4. Modal verbs expressing permission 5. Modal verbs expressing obligation, necessity 6. Modal verbs expressing supposition, probability7. Modal verbs expressing volition, willingness8. The uses and values of the modal verbs CAN, COULD9. The uses and values of the modal verbs MAY, MIGHT

10. The uses and values of the modal verb MUST11. The uses and values of the modal verbs SHALL, SHOULD12. The uses and values of the modal verbs WILL, WOULD

Capitolul 4. Categoria gramaticală a diatezei

Obiective: Studentii vor revedea principalele diateze in limba engleza

Timp de studiu alocat : 4 ore

Voice is the grammatical category which shows the relationship between subject and the action expressed by the verb phrase. There are two voices in English: the active and the passive.

The active voice (e.g. Tom wrote the letter) shows that the grammatical subject performs the action.

The passive voice (The letter was written by Tom) indicates that the grammatical subject is the goal/recipient of the action.

The active-passive transformation involves three grammatical levels: I. morphological; II. syntactic; III. semantic / pragmatic level.

I. The morphological level: the form of the verb. The passive form of the verb consists of the auxiliary Be (or get in some cases) + the Past Participle of the main verb. The auxiliary (Be/Get) marks the categories of person, number, tense, aspect.

A passive verb has forms for all the tenses of the indicative, simple aspect. The conjugation of a verb in the passive voice, indicative mood:

The Simple aspect: Present tense: he is helped; Past tense: He was helped; Present Perfect: He has been helped; Past Perfect: He had been helped; Future simple: He will be helped; Future Perfect: He will have been helped.

The English verb has passive forms for only two tenses of the continuous aspect: The Present and Past. Present Continuous: He is being helped; Past Tense Continuous: He was being helped.

Get is used as a resulting, dynamic auxiliary to emphasize the idea of change. With verbs of result such as break, burn, steal, stick the auxiliary get expresses a detrimental meaning: actions that happen suddenly, unexpectedly or by accident: My money got stolen.

II. The syntactic level (the clause level): Changing from active to passive involves the transformation in the position and status of the subject NP and the Object NP. a) The subject of the active construction becomes an object of agent introduced by the preposition by; b) the object of the active construction becomes the subject in the passive.

The prepositional object of agent (the by-phrase) is generally an optional element. The Object of agent is only expressed when it is important to mention, when it conveys relevant information:

Edison invented the electric bulb → The electric bulb was invented by Edison.

The prepositional object of agent is not expressed (it is omitted) when:

- it is unknown to the speaker: That pyramid was built around 4000 AD

- it is indefinite: the subject of the sentence would be expressed by an indefinite noun or pronoun (people, they, someone, one). In such cases the passive is generally preferred and the resulting object of agent is omitted: People speak English all over the world → English is spoken…

- passive-like causatives:

Mr. Brown can’t type. His secretary types his letters for him

→ Mr. Brown has his letters typed.

Types of verbs used in passive constructions

1. Transitive verbs: represent the largest class of verbs which allow passivization.

a) transitive verbs + one object (Monotransitive verbs): according to the rule, any transitive verb followed by a direct object can be passivized (the Direct object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive): The board has already discussed the matter → The matter has already been discussed by the board.

Some transitive verbs (state verbs) do not occur in the passive: contain, fit, have, hold, lack, possess, resemble. Thus, the following active sentences have no passive correspondent: He lacks confidence: John resembles his father.

b) transitive verbs with two objects (Ditransitive verbs)

i. a small number of verbs - ask, teach, envy – are followed by two objects: a [+animate] object and a [-animate] one. The [+animate] object usually becomes the subject in the passive:

They asked the pupils some questions → The pupils were asked

ii. Verbs like deny, grant, hand, lend, offer, etc. are followed by two objects: a [+animate] Indirect Object and a [-animate] Direct Object. With these verbs either the Indirect Object or the Direct Object can become the grammatical subject of the passive verb:

They offered Tom a very good job → A very good job was offered

to Tom. / Tom was offered a very good job.

c) Transitive verbs + THAT-clauses: Verbs like believe, consider, expect, know, etc. are followed in the active voice by a That-clause

They consider that dolphins are very intelligent.

These sentences normally have two passive constructions:

- an impersonal construction: it is only the main clause that undergoes passivization while the rest of the sentence is left unchanged:

It is considered that dolphins are very intelligent.

- a Nominative + Infinitive construction:

Dolphins are said to be very intelligent.

2. Intransitive verbs

a) Some intransitive verbs such as live, sleep, sit:

Nobody has slept in the room. - The room has not been slept in.

b) Prepositional and phrasal verbs like account for, laugh at, look after:

They will deal with the matter. – The matter will be dealt with.

III. Semantic and pragmatic aspects of the passive: The passive is far more common in English than in other languages.

1. The passive voice is especially useful when the doer, agent of the action is unknown or unimportant: I have been robbed (<Someone has robbed me).

2. The passive is especially associated with impersonal style (in scientific writing) where the question of who performs the action described by the verb is unimportant or irrelevant: The new methods that have been introduced will increase productivity.

QUESTIONS:

2. Auxiliary verbs used in the passive.3. Cases when the Object of Agent is omitted.4. Classes of transitive verbs used in the passive.5. Semantic and pragmatic aspects of the

passive.