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Australian Bushcraft. Richard Graves.


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Devised and produced by Taylor-Type Pu

by Dymocs Publishin! Pty Ltd 1" #learvi

+ ,ichard raves 1984

This boo is copyri!ht. Apart /rom any /ai

permitted under the #opyri!ht Act% no pa

should be addressed to Dymocs Publishi

'ational Library o/ Australia #atalo!uin!-i

published as2 The 1* bushcra/t boos. y

#ampin! 7 Australia. . iin! - Australi

1898-1931. The 1* bushcra/t boos. 000.

Desi!ned by ;. D. #amp

Typeset by on!

#ontents

0ntroduction 3

1 ,opes and cords 9

" >nots and lashin! 4

lications (Australia) Pty Ltd This revised and u

e$ Place% &roovale% ' "1**

r dealin! /or the purposes o/ private study% res

rt may be reproduced by any process $ithout $

n! Pty Ltd.

in-Publication data raves% ,ichard% 1898-1931

dney% Dymocs 193*. 0&' * 9*98"4 5 5. 1.

. 4. ilderness survival - Australia. 0. re!ory%

itle. 0. Title2 The 1* &ushcra/t boos. 39:.5

dated edition published in 1984

arch% criticism or revie$% as

ritten permission. 0nuiries

. Australian &ushcra/t. Previously

utdoor li/e - Australia. ".

,ichard. 00. raves% ,ichard%


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uts and thatchin! 3*

4 #ampcra/t 1*8

5 ?ood and $ater 13

: ?ire main! ""5

3 Animal habits "49

8 Travel and $eather ":8

9 Time and direction "9* &iblio!raphy 1: 0nde@ 18

0ntroduction

,ichard raves% $ho died in 1931% /irst published The 1* &ushcra/t &oos in 195*. A cousin o/ poet and author ,obert

raves% he $as an enthusiastic bush$aler% sier and a pioneer o/ $hite-$ater canoein!. Durin! the econd orld ar he

realised that no$in! the bush helped to save lives% particularly those o/ men stranded behind enemy lines in the island

un!les o/ the Paci/ic =one. e /ounded and led the Australian Bun!le ,escue Detachment% assi!ned to the ?ar


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el/-con/idence and the ability to adapt to a chan!in! environment and to overcome the di//iculties is /ollo$ed by a rapid

improvement in the individuals daily $or. This in turn leads to advancement and promotion.

&ushcra/t% by developin! adaptability% provides a broadenin! in/luence% a necessary counter to o//set the narro$in!

in/luence o/ modern specialisation.

?or this $or o/ bushcra/t% all that is needed is a sharp cuttin! instrument2 ni/e a@e or machete. The last is the most

use/ul. ?or the $or% dead materials are most suitable. The practice o/ bushcra/t conserves and does not destroy $ildli/e.

1 ,opes and cords

6ne o/ the basic sills needed in bushcra/t is the ability to oin or tie poles or stics to!ether. The only method available is

to use lashin!s. Althou!h the ready availability these days o/ cheap li!ht$ei!ht and e@tremely stron! nylon ropes have

made their inclusion almost automatic in any survival bush it% emer!encies can arise. Cnder these circumstances ropes

made /rom bush materials can be the ey to survival.

The ability to spin or plait ?ibres into ropes or cords is one o/ the oldest o/ all primitive sills. The basic method is simple

and has remained unchan!ed /or thousands o/ years.

Eou can /ind the material /rom $hich to spin or plait ropes or cords almost any$here in the bush. Any /ibrous material

$hich has reasonable len!th% moderate stren!th and is /le@ible or pliable can be used. These three properties are the ones

to loo /or $hen selectin! materials. They can be /ound in many vines% !rasses% bars% palms and in the hair o/ animals.

The breain! strain o/ handmade ropes and cords varies !reatly $ith di//erent materials. &ecause o/ this variation it is

essential that the rope or cord be tested be/ore bein! actually put to use.

The list o/ uses to $hich handmade ropes and cords can be put is almost endless.

The main! o/ ropes and cords

Almost any natural /ibrous material can be spun into !ood% serviceable rope or cord. ;any materials $hich have a len!th

o/ * to :* cm or more can be plaited or braided.

,opes o/ up to 5 and 1* cm diameter can be laid by /our people% and breain! strains /or bushmade rope o/ 5 cm

diameter ran!e /rom 5* ! to as hi!h as 1*** !.

&reain! strains Tain! a three-lay rope o/ cm diameter as standard% the /ollo$in! list o/ breain! strains !ives an idea

or !uide to the !eneral stren!ths o/ various bush materials. ?or sa/etys sae al$ays re!ard the lo$est /i!ure as the actual

breain! strain unless tests have sho$n other$ise.


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reen !rass 5* -1** !

&ar /ibre "**- 3** !

Palm /ibre **-1*** !

ed!es 9**- 1*** ! Lianas (money vines) "5*- ** !

La$yer vine (#alamus) 5** !

(1* mm diameter% unsinned)

Principles o/ selectin! rope-main! materials To discover $hether or not a material is suitable /or rope-main! it must

have /our essential ualities.

F 0t must be reasonably lon! in the /ibre

F 0t must have stren!th

F 0t must be pliable

F 0t must have adhesion or !rip so that the /ibres $ill bite into one another

There are three simple tests to /ind out i/ any material is suitable.

?irst pull on a len!th to test it /or stren!th. 0/ it does not immediately snap or pull to pieces% it should be t$isted bet$een

the /in!ers and the /ibres should be rolled to!ether. 0/ it $ill stand this and not snap apart% tie a not in the material and

slo$ly and !ently ti!hten it. 0/ the material does not cut in on itsel/ and you can pull the not reasonably ti!ht% it is

suitable /or rope-main!% providin! it $ill bite or !rip to!ether and does not slip apart instantly.

Eou $ill /ind these ualities in all sorts o/ plantsG in !round vines% in most o/ the lon!er !rasses% in some o/ the $ater


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$eeds and rushes and in the inner bar o

ome !reen% /reshly !athered materials

Pass them over the /lames o/ a hot /ire /o

the cell structures main! the material pli

/ many trees and shrubs.

ay be sti// or unyieldin!. o$ever% they still m

r * seconds or so. The heat $ill o/ten cause th

iable.

y be suitable /or rope-main!.

e sap to burst throu!h some o/


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Apart /rom /ibre sources in the plants me

can members o/ the lar!e aloe /amily.

atherin! and preparin! materials 0n som

removed by soain! in $ater (such as th

cleaned. A runnin! stream is suitable onl

lar!e enou!h containers are available the

then tease the /ibres out.

ome materials have to be used !reen i/

$ater rushes% !rasses and liana vines. r

!round. #uttin! above !round level $ith

tioned above some sea$eeds can be use/ul so

e plants there may be a hi!h concentration o/

bac-eddy o/ a stream or in a $aterhole) /or s

i/ the material can be anchored or secured. La

material can be boiled. A third method is to dr

any stren!th is reuired. Those that should be

asses% sed!es and $ater rushes should be cut a

sharp ni/e or

rces /or rope-main! material as

e!etable !um. This can o/ten be

everal hours until the material is

r!e stones are use/ul /or this. 0/

it out thorou!hly in the sun and

sed !reen include the sed!es%

nd never pulled out o/ the


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machete is harvestin!. &ut pullin! it out

hen harvestin!% $or over as $ide an a

least some stands o/ the plant to !o to se

care/ul $ith your harvest. #ut $hat you r

Palm /ibre in tropical or sub-tropical re!io

uses. 0t is /ound at the unction o/ the lea

species o/ palm. 0t is one o/ the best rope

The la$yer vine or #alamus must be appr

Hueensland it can also be obtained (altho

'e$ outh ales. The leaves o/ the la$y

7 once much used by the Abori!ines to c

estroys the root structure and ills the plant.

rea as possible. Do not completely clear any on

ed to allo$ /or re!ro$th. Thus $ith the sed!es

euire above !round level and tae only /rom t

ns used to be re!ularly harvested as a matter o

/ and the palm trun. 0t can also be /ound lyin!

- and cord-main! materials available.

oached $ith some caution. 'ormally /ound in t

u!h it is rarer) in similar areas in the southern

er vine have needle-lie pricles and the branc

atch /ish.

e site. ,emember to leave at

and !rasses be particularly

e bi!!est clumps.

/ course and $as put to many

on the !round beneath many

e rain/orest areas o/ northern

art o/ that tate and in northern

es are armed $ith sharp hoos


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6nce the di//icult process o/ strippin! o// the leaves and the hoos themselves is completed% the la$yer vine% i/ the outer

bar is not removed% $ill be /ound to have enormous stren!th. 0n the past it has been used /or main! cables to haul

lo!s% as ri!!in! /or boats% in suspension brid!es and in the main! o/ /ish traps and basets.

0n /avourable circumstances individual vines up to 1** metres in len!th are not uncommon.

0n temperate areas /ibrous matter /rom the inner bar o/ certain trees and shrubs is an e@cellent source o/ rope-main!

material. 0t is most suitable $hen the tree is dead and the material has dried out. The inner bar o/ many eucalypts

possess this use/ul /ibre. 0/ the tree is dead $hen the /ibre is teased and separated the natural !um $ill have dried out

and $ill separate /rom the material as a /ine po$der.

Do not use the bar /rom !reen trees or shrubs unless it is

absolutely essentialG even then cut o// branches rather than /ell the $hole tree. 'ever cut do$n a complete tree simply

because you $ant some o/ its bar /or a len!th o/ cord.

0/ there is no alternative to !reen timber% test be/ore you cut. lice a small section about 1* cm in len!th and about 5 cm

$ide /rom the selected branch. This sample should be cut throu!h to the sap$ood. Peel it o// the tree and then test the

di//erent layers. 0/ it is not oo=in! !um it probably $ill be suitableG but it should still be soaed in $ater /or some time and

then sun dried.


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0n the case o/ !reen lianas and vines only

a$ay /rom the sin. This principle applies

material must be bent a$ay /rom the thi

the other split side.

To mae cord by spinnin! $ith the /in!er

the outer sin is usually stron!. This $ill split

to palm lea/ stals and most other !reen mate

side. 0t $ill then !radually !ain in si=e and co

Cse any material $ith lon!% stron! threads or

// easily i/ the main stal is bent

ial. 0/ a split starts to run o//% the

e bac to an even thicness $ith

/ibres $hich have been tested


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previously /or stren!th and pliability. at

t$isted cloc$ise. The t$ist $ill hold the

ready rule there should be about 15 to "

and this t$istin! to!ether or layin! is do

$hich have not yet been laid up are t$ist

The person $ho t$ists the strands to!eth

uni/orm and that the tension on each stra

0n layin! he must $atch that each o/ the

other t$o. This invariably happens the /ir

a sill that is not acuired at one !o.

hen spinnin! /ine cords /or such thin!s

and the lay even. ?ine thin cords capable

by the be!inner.

'ormally t$o or more people are needed

IJ

er the /ibres into loosely held strands o/ even t

/ibre to!ether. The strands should be /rom 1 m

/ibres to a strand. T$o% three or /our o/ these

ne $ith an anti-cloc$ise motion% $hile at the s

ed cloc$ise.


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up the strands /or cord. 0t is a community e//ort% in other $ords.

ome people% $hen spinnin! cord% do so unaided% t$istin! the material by runnin! the /lat o/ the hand alon! the thi!h%

$ith the /ibrous matter bet$een hand and thi!h. ith their /ree hand they /eed in /ibre /or the ne@t spin. &y this means

one person can mae lon! len!ths o/ sin!le strands.

o$ever% this method is slo$ i/ any considerable len!th o/ cord is reuired.

A simpler and easier $ay to mae len!ths o/ rope /rom 5* to 1** metres or more in len!th is to mae a rope$al and set

up multiple spinners in the /orm o/ crans.

0n a rope$al each /eeder holds the material under one arm and $ith one /ree hand /eeds it into the strand $hich is bein!

spun by the cran. The other hand li!htly holds the /ibres to!ether until they are spun. As the li!htly spun strands are

increased in len!th they must be supported on cross lays. They should not be allo$ed to lie on the !round.

trands o/ bet$een "* and 1** metres can be spun be/ore layin! up. Do not spin the material too thicly. Thic strands

do not help stren!th in any $ayG rather they tend to mae a $eaer rope.

ettin! up a ,ope$al

hen spinnin! ropes o/ 1* metres or lon!er it is necessary to erect crossbars every " or metres to carry the strands as

they are spun. 0/ crossbars are not set up the strands or rope $ill sa! to the !round and some o/ the /ibres $ill entan!le

themselves $ith !rassG t$i!s or dirt. The sa!!in! can also either interrupt or stop completely the t$istin! o/ the /ree end.

The strand then $ill be uneven or lumpy.

The easiest $ay to set up crossbars /or the rope$al is to drive pairs o/ /ored staes into the !round at the reuired

intervals. The crossbars must be smooth and /ree /rom t$i!s and loose bar that can am the spinnin! strands.

Looin! at the illustration overlea/% the crossbar A is supported by t$o upri!hts and pierced to tae the crans% K.

These crans can be made out o/ natural stics% morticed slab and pe!s% or% i/ available% thic bent $ire. The connectin!

rod% #% enables one man to turn all crans cloc$ise simultaneously. #rossbars supportin! the strands as they are spun

are sho$n in /i!.D. A similar cran handle to is supported on a /ored stic at the end o/ the rope $al. This handle is

turned in a reverse direction (ie. anti-cloc$ise) to the cran% #% to t$ist the connected strands to!ether. These are laid

up by one or more o/ the /eeders.

Al$ays mae it a rule to turn the /irst strand cloc$ise. Then the layin! up o/ the strands $ill be done anti-cloo$ise and

the ne@t layin! $ill a!ain be cloc$ise.


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0/ your rope is $ell made the individual /ibres $ill lie len!th$ays alon! the rope.

0n the process o/ layin! up the strands the actual t$istin! to!ether or layin! $ill tae some o/ the ori!inal t$ist out o/ the

strand $hich has not yet been laid. There/ore it is necessary to eep t$istin! the strands $hile layin! to!ether.

hen main! a rope too lon! to be spun and laid in one piece% a section is laid up% and coiled on the !round at the end o/

the rope$al /urthest /rom the crans. trands /or a second len!th are spun and these strands are married or spliced into

the strands o/ the /irst section. Then the layin! up o/ the second section continues the rope.

The actual marryin! o/ the strands is done only in the last lay $hich% $hen completed% maes the rope. The ends $here

the strands are married should be sta!!ered in di//erent places. &y this means rope can be made and e@tended in

sections to a !reat len!th.

A/ter the complete len!th o/ rope is laid up pass it uicly throu!h a /ire to burn o// loose ends and /ibres. This $ill mae

it smooth and pro/essional looin!.

Layin! the strands The strands lie on the crossbars as they are spun. hen they have been spun to the reuired len!th%

$hich should be no more than about "5 metres% they are oined to!ether by bein! held at the /ar end. They are then

ready /or layin! to!ether.


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The turner% $ho is /acin! the crans% t$is

the rope end $hich is bein! laid up. The l

hen the layer is e@perienced this can b

0t is important to learn to /eed the materi

attempt to rush rope-main!. 0/ you do%

in poor rope.

peed in rope-main! comes only $ith pr

mae a "5-metre len!th o/ rope o/ three l

diameter o/ about "5 cm. &ut $ith practi

minutes. These times do not% o/ course% i

0n /eedin! the /ree ends o/ the strands t$

bac$ards at a speed !overned by the /e

;ain! rope $ith a sin!le spinner T$o pe

ts the ends to!ether anti-cloc$ise% at the sam

ayer advances% placin! the strands side by side

done uicly.

al evenly and lay up slo$ly thereby !ettin! a s

ll that $ill result is a mess o/ uneven badly spu

actice. At /irst it $ill tae a team o/ three or /o

lays% each o/ three strands 7 a total o/ nine str

e the same three or /our people can mae a si

clude the period spent in searchin! /or materia

ist in the loose material pushed in by the /eede

edin! rate. As he moves bac$ards he must e

ople can mae rope usin! a sin!le cran.

time eepin! his /ull $ei!ht on

as they turn.

ooth and even rope. Do not

n strands and u!ly lays% resultin!

r up to t$o hours or more to

nds /or a rope $ith a /inished

ilar rope in /i/teen or t$enty

l.

r. The /eeder must move

ep a sli!ht tension on the strands.


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A portion o/ the material is /astened to the eye o/ the cran (as $ith the multiple cran handle) and the /eeder% holdin!

the /ree ends o/ this strand a!ainst the bundle o/ loose material under his arm% /eeds in $alin! bac$ards. upportin!

crossbars% as used in a rope$al% are reuired $hen a len!th o/ more than 5 metres is bein! spun.

?eedin! 0/ the /eeder is holdin! material under his le/t arm% his ri!ht hand is en!a!ed in continuously pullin! material

/or$ard to his le/t hand /rom $here it is /ed into the turnin! strand. These actions% done simultaneously and continuously

as the /eeder $als bac$ards% !overn the thicness o/ the strands. is le/t hand% li!htly closed over the loosely turnin!

material% must /eel the /ibres bitin! or t$istin! to!ether.

hen the /ree end o/ the turnin! strand% $hich is a!ainst the loose material under his arm% taes in too thic a tu/t o/

material he closes his le/t hand and so arrests the t$ist o/ the material bet$een his le/t hand and his bundle. This allo$s

him to tease out%the over/ull bite% $ith his ri!ht hand. 0n proceedin! in this manner the /eeder maintains a uni/orm

thicness in the spinnin! strand.

There is a de/inite nac in /eedin!. 6nce a person has mastered it he can move bac$ards and /eed $ith considerable

speed.

Thicness o/ the strands


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Plaitin!

6ne person alone may need a considerable len!th o/ rope. &ut main! such a len!th by ones sel/ is an arduous and slo$

process.

o$ever one may be lucy enou!h to have at hand a considerable amount o/ material that is reasonably lon! 7 say

bet$een * cm and 1 metre or more.

This material can be plaited or braided into a suitable rope len!th. The normal three plait maes a /lat rope% $hich $hile

uite !ood does not have the /inish or shape o/ a true rope. 'either is it as ti!ht as the lariat or /our plait.

At other times it may be necessary to plait broad bands /or bolts or /or shoulder straps. There are many /ancy plaits or

braids and one can develop /rom these. &ut these three are basic and are essential /or practical $or.

A !eneral rule /or all plaits is to $or /rom the outside into the centre.

0n learnin! to plait or braid there is no need to !o bush%

as it $ere% nor to even use bush materials. The sills can be acuired usin! standard ropes and t$ines or leather strips.

6nce the sill is acuired $ith these more mana!eable and /amiliar materials then trials can be conducted $ith various

bush products to see $hich plait or braid is most suited to $hat is at hand.

Three plait Tae the ri!ht-hand strand and pass it over the strand to the le/t.


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Tae the le/t-hand strand and pass it over the strand to the ri!ht and repeat alternately rom le/t to ri!ht.


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?lat /our plait Lay the /our strands side b

le/t.

'o$ tae the outside le/t-hand strand as

strand.

Tae $hat is no$ the outside ri!ht-hand

Tae the outside le/t strand and put it un

Therea/ter your ri!ht-hand strand !oes o

as sho$n in ?i!. 4.

&road plait To commence. Tae si@% seve

side. Tae the ri!ht-hand strand as in ?i!. 1 a

in ?i!. " and lay it under the ne@t strand to itse

trand% and lay it over the /irst strand to its le/t.

er and over the ne@t t$o strands respectively

er one strand to the le/t% and your le/t-hand st

or more strands% and hold them /lat and to!et

d lay it over the strand to the

l/ and over $hat $as the /irst

ovin! to$ards the ri!ht.

and under and over to the ri!ht%

her.


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Tae a strand in the centre and pass it ov

Tae the second strand in the centre to t

points to$ards the ri!ht as in ?i!. ".

'o$ tae the ne@t strand to the /irst one

er the ne@t strand to the le/t% as in ?i!. 0.

e le/t and pass it to$ards the ri!ht over the str

and $eave it under and over as in ?i!. .

and you /irst too so that it


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eave the ne@t strands /rom le/t and ri! t alternately to$ards the centre as in ?i!. 4%5%: .


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The /inished plait should be ti!ht and clos

To /inish o// Tae one o/ the centre stran

'o$ tae the /irst strand $hich it enclose

Tae a strand /rom the opposite side% an

e as in ?i!. 3.

s% and lay it bac upon itsel/ as in ?i!. 1.

d in bein! /olded bac% and $eave this bac up

lay it bac and $eave it bet$een the strands

n itsel/ as in ?i!. ". -

lready plaited.


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All the strands should be so $oven bac t

over-under o/ the alternatin! $eaves.

0/ you have plaited ti!htly there may be a

This can be done easily i/ you sharpen a t

to allo$ the ends bein! /inished to pass b

,oll under a bottle to $or smooth a/ter

hat no strands sho$ an uneven pattern% and th

di//iculty in $orin! the loose ends bet$een th

hin piece o/ $ood to a chisel ed!e% and use this

et$een the $oven strands.

inishin! o//.

ere should be a re!ular under-

e plaited strands.

to open the strands su//iciendy


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,ound or lariat plait% /our strands Lay the

strand over% and then around the le/t-han

/our strands to!ether side by side% as in ?i!. 1%

d strand.

and cross the ri!ht-hand centre


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Tae the le/t-hand outside strand% and pa

t$o% so that it is pointin! to$ards the le/t

Tae the /ree ri!ht-hand strand% and pass

one o/ the t$o% as in ?i!. .

,epeat this $ith the outside le/t-hand str

,epeat $ith the ri!ht-hand strand as in ?i

The /inished plait should loo lie ?i!. :.

ss it over the t$o crossed strands% and then un

% as in ?i!. ".

it over the t$o t$isted strands to the le/t and

nd as in ?i!. 4.

i!. 5.

der the ri!ht-hand one o/ the

ompletely round the le/t-hand


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Tyin! split canes and vines to!ether

These bush materials $ill only tie $ith sp

o/ the not. 0/ you try to tie $ith the insid

$ill either crac or snap o// /orcin! you to

hen pullin! the not taut% do so !ently.

cial nots. As a sa/ety rule tie $ith the outside

e o/ the material on the outer sur/ace o/ the be

come to the conclusion that the material is us

0/ you snap the oinin! not the material $ill ei

o/ the slan on the outside bend

nd it is probable that the material

less.

her cut itsel/ or brea.


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0/ the canes or vines are brittle throu!h !

The nots $hich are most suitable /or tyi

Boinin!2 sheet bend% ree/ not% /isherman

ecurin!2 timber hitch

?or descriptions on ho$ to tie these not

Csin! bush ropes /or climbin!

&e/ore entrustin! your li/e to a bush-mad

reenness% try the heat treatment mentioned pr

! canes and vines to!ether are as /ollo$s.

s not

see #hapter "% >nots and Lashin!s.

e rope it should be tested.

viously.


32/362

The simplest $ay o/ doin! this is to tie one end o/ your intended heavy-duty rope securely to a tree. Three or /our people

should then !et hold o/ the other end o/ the rope. They should tae the strain !ently at /irst. They should slo$ly increase

this strain until all their combined $ei!ht is on it. 0/ it does not brea then it is sa/e /or one person at a time to use to

ascend or descend a roc or cli// /ace.

hen climbin! up a bush-made rope al$ays use the /oot-loc and $hen descendin! never slide do$n it. #limb do$n%

usin! the same /ootloc.

The /ootloc o//ers a measure o/ sa/ety and the climber is so secure that he can actually stand on the rope and rest

$ithout his body $ei!ht bein! carried entirely on his arms.


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To prove this use the /ootloc and clasp t

The /ootloc is made by holdin! onto the

/oot. The /oot on the opposite side to the

$hich $as a!ainst the rope and under th

he rope to your body $ith your arms.

rope $ith both hands% li/tin! the nees and ic

rope is pointed so that the toe pics up the ro

instep o/ the /oot $hich piced it up.

in! the rope to the outside o/ one

e $hich is pulled over the /oot


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The t$o /eet are brou!ht to!ether and the rope is no$ over the instep o/ one /oot and under the ball o/ the other. Then%

to secure the !rip and loc the rope% the /eet are placed one on top o/ the other so that it is clamped do$n by the /oot on

top.

&y strai!htenin! the nees and raisin! the hands the body is li/ted and a /resh !rip taen /or the ne@t rise.

0n descendin!% the body is bent% the hands lo$ered and the /ootloc released. A /resh !rip is then taen $ith the /eet at a

lo$er level on the rope.

This method o/ descendin! is much sa/er than slidin!. 0n slidin! there is !rave ris o/ bad rope burns to both hands and

le!s.

Another method o/ descendin! a roc /ace is by usin! the abseil. 0n some cases it also can be used /or ascent.


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0n the abseil the body is upri!ht but the le!s are stretched out and the /eet pressed a!ainst the roc /ace.

The rope passes do$n bet$een the thi!hs% around one thi!h arid dia!onally up and across the upper hal/ o/ the body and

over the shoulder opposite to the le! under $hich it passes. The rope may be !ripped $ith one hand.

0n descendin! the /ree hand pulls the rope over the shoulder. This leaves a loop belo$ the thi!h and the /eet are $alin!

do$n the roc /ace until the thi!h is a!ain snu! in the loop. Csin! the abseil /or descendin! maes it practically impossible

to /all.

0n ascendin! a roc /ace $hich has an e@treme slope but is not vertical the /eet are $aled up the incline% the body is

pulled up the rope and the slac% han!in! belo$ the le!s% is pulled up in its turn by one hand and /ed over the shoulder.

&y this means the climber can sit on the rope and rest.

hen usin! the abseil it $ill be /ound that bare /eet% sandshoes or ones $ith ripple rubber soles made especially /or such

a purpose !ive a better !rip than plain leather soles.

6ther uses ?or bush-made ropes

&ush ropes have many other uses other than /or descendin! or climbin! roc and cli// /aces. The /ollo$in! are but a /e$

e@amples o/ uses to $hich they can be put.

in!le rope ladder $ith stics A sin!le rope ladder is made by openin! the lays o/ the rope and insertin! sturdy cross

stics about "*-"5 cm lon! $ith an eual amount protrudin! on either side. They must be secured to the rope by lashin!s

both above and belo$. The distance bet$een these ladder holds should be bet$een * and 5* cm% dependin! on the

a!ility o/ the climber.

To climb such a ladder hold the rope $ith both hands% bend the nees and dra$ both /eet up to!ether and lay them $ith

even pressure on the cross stics. hen your /ootin! is secure raise the hands and continue the action.

&ush sin!le rope ladders have the advanta!e o/ bein! able


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to be used by people $ho have di//iculty i

roc /ace or a looout.

in!le rope ladder $ith chocs This type

hard$ood should be about 15 cm in diam

n climbin! by ordinary means. They provide a r

/ ladder has the advanta!e o/ bein! portable a

eter and 5 cm deep. They are suitably bored to

elatively easy $ay o/ ascendin! a

d uicly made. The chocs o/

tae the diameter o/ the rope.


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plice an eye at the top end and sei=e in a thimble to lash the rope head securely. To secure the chocs put t$o strands

o/ sei=in! bet$een the strands o/ the rope and then $or a $all not.

,ope brid!e A rope brid!e is no easy undertain!. 0t should be made only i/ there is no other possible $ay o/ cros-

sin! a river or a ravine and secondly% only i/ the crossin! is intended to be a semi-permanent one.

At the outset t$o ropes are spun. They must be very stron! and thorou!hly tested. They are anchored to either side o/

the river either to convenient trees or staes.

hen the ropes have been stretched taut% li!ht A /rames are made. The number reuired depends on the len!th o/ the

brid!e decin!.

The /irst A /rame is hooed onto the rope and pushed /or$ard $ith a lon! pole. The /ootin!% a strai!ht saplin!% is dropped

do$n onto the crotch o/ the /rame. The brid!e builder $als out alon! this and hoos on the ne@t A /rame% pushes it out

to the reuired distance and repeats the process until the /ar ban is reached.


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Durin! buildin!% rope brid!es must not b

6nce the base poles have been e@tended

buildin! pole. hort len!ths o/ /lat split

0/ lianas or #alamus (la$yer vines) are a

spun rope and can support /our to si@ pe

To provide e@tra stability and to stop viol

anchored by attachin! a heavy stone to

be $ell above the no$n heavy rain /lood

the brid!e in hal/.

overloaded 7 one $orer at a time is the rule.

to the /ar ban crossbars should be lashed to t

timber are then lashed to these poles to provid

ailable% mae the support ropes /rom these. Th

ple on the brid!e at a time.

nt s$ayin! $hen people are crossin! $ith hea

a cord and suspendin! it /rom the middle o/ the

in! level o/ the river crossin! other$ise it $ill b

e A /rames above the base

a secure decin!.

ey are much stron!er than any

y loads% the rope brid!e can be

brid!e span. This anchor should

e dra!!ed by the current and tear


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0n some cases the ori!inal buildin! suppo

decin!. &ut in this case mae sure that

rt pole can be used as the permanent brid!e /o

he bottom A /rame lashin!s are e@tremely stro

t$al $ithout /urther top slat

! and secure.


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To measure the distance across a river or

ban K. al at ri!ht an!les /or a no$n

number o/ paces and put in a third mare

Turn at ri!ht an!les a$ay /rom the river

side are in line at


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Then the person crossin! the line 7 usually the li!htest member o/ the party 7 han!s onto it% li/ts his le!s and hoos

them over the rope $ith his /eet to$ards the opposite ban.

&y this means he can $or himsel/ across the river% /asten the rope absolutely securely and allo$ the rest o/ the party to

cross in a similar manner.


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a/ety line /or a river crossin! A bush rop

made% the hardest part is !ettin! the /irst

e can be spun to serve as a sa/ety line /or cros

member o/ the party across $ith the rope.

in! /ast or /looded rivers. 6nce


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The method is similar to that used $ith t

and the other tied around the $aist o/ th

somethin! to aid buoyancy% such as a pa

in/lated air mattress or air pillo$. As the

line and pay it out slo$ly. e or she $ill

made lon! enou!h to allo$ /or this. 6n n

lar!e /loatin! masses o/ debris.

6nce on the other side% the line should b

should stand on the do$nstream side o/ t

step at a time% holdin! on to the rope at

0/ the current is so stron! that the person

$ashed do$nstream. 0/ necessary any pa

holdin! onto the line and $orin! hand o

The 1-"- anchor This anchor is used $h

rope.

A very stout stae is driven into the !rou

this. T$o ropes are secured to the head o

e beltman in sur/ li/esavin!. 6ne end o/ the ro

stron!est s$immer in the party. 0/ possible he

tially

erson enters the $ater the other members o/ t

ndoubtedly be $ashed do$nstream to some de

account should this be attempted i/ the river i

anchored so it han!s above $ater level. The /i

he rope and /ace upstream. e then crosses by

ll times to maintain balance.

crossin! loses /ootin!% the !rip on the line $ill

c or other ba!!a!e should be abandoned. The

er hand until a secure /ootin! is a!ain possible

n there are no supportin! trees or tree stumps

d at an an!le o/ 45M. The main rope to be anc

/ this stae and

e is /irmly anchored to the ban

or she should be provided $ith

he party should tae hold o/ the

!ree and the rope should be

runnin! /ull /lood and is /ull o/

rst person crossin! the%line

movin! his /eet side$ays one

prevent him or her /rom bein!

ban can be made in sa/ety by

.

available to securely anchor a

ored is /astened to the /oot o/


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these are /astened to the /oot o/ t$o sta

o/ three other staes. This anchor $ill hol

Anchorin! a pe! in sand or sno$ The onl

the pe!.

crape a trench in the sand (or sno$) to

e@pected. Pass the rope around the centr

es to the rear. The heads o/ these staes are% i

d securely in almost any conditions.

$ay to anchor a rope into so/t sand or sno$ is

a depth o/ bet$een * and 5* cm. 0t can be de

e o/ the pe! and scratch a channel /or it at ri!h

turn% /astened bac to the /oot

to attach it to a pe! and bury

per i/ $indy or stormy $eather is

an!les to the pe! trench.


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?ill in the trench and rope channel and /a

#hapter " >nots and Lashin!s) and pull t

conditions.

The bush $indlass A bush $indlass% capa

$here a tree has its /or lo$ to the !roun

stout /or can be driven in and anchored

ten the /ree end o/ the rope to the standin! en

ut. The buried pe! should hold a tent rope in s

le o/ tain! a very heavy strain on a rope% can

d% $ith the /or /acin! the direction in $hich th

$ith the 1-"- method.

d $ith a stopper hitch (see

and or sno$ under all normal

be made by selectin! a site

pull is reuired. Alternatively a


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The $indlass portion is a /ored lo!. The /ors are


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notched to tae the lever (up to 1 metre lon!). The rope is passed around the roller a /e$ times so that it locs upon

itsel/. Alternatively i/ the /or o/ the roller is lon! and rather narro$ the rope may pass throu!h the /or.

This type o/ bush $indlass has many uses.

" >nots and Lashin!s

The ability to oin t$o pieces o/ natural material to!ether and so increase their len!th !ives man the ability to mae uite

complicated constructions in the bush% or indeed any$here.

ailors $ere al$ays the leaders in the tyin! o/ nots because /or them it $as necessary to tie securely but also to be able

to untie rapidly% o/ten in the dar and in apallin! $eather $ith rain-ti!htened ropes.

0n bushcra/t $or probably hal/ a do=en nots $ould su//ice. &ut once started% not tyin! can become /ascinatin! /or itsel/.

>nots and lashin!s tae the place o/ nails /or much bush$or. A brie/ description is !iven in this chapter o/ the uses o/ the

various nots.

'ote that the letter ? means the /ree or untied end o/ the rope and the letter the standin! or secured end.

>nots /or rope ends or /or !rips on thin rope

Thumb not This not is used to mae a stop on a rope end% to prevent the end /rom /rayin! or to stop the rope slippin!

throu!h a sheave.


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6verhand not 6verhand not may be pu

undo.

t to the same use as the thumb not. 0t maes a better !rip not% and is easy to


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?i!ure ei!ht This not is used as the thumb not. 0ts easy to undo% and more ornamental.

>nots /or oinin! ropes

heet bend This is used to oin or bend t$o ropes o/ uneual thicness to!ether. The thicer rope is the bend.

Double sheet bend This is similar to sin!le sheet bend% but !ives !reater securityG it is also use/ul /or oinin! $et ropes.

#rossover sheet bend This holds more securely than either the sin!le or double sheet bend and has occasional real uses

such as /astenin! the eye o/ a /la! to its halyard $here the /lappin! mi!ht undo the double sheet bend.


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,ee/ not To securely oin t$o ropes o/ e

ends bet$een this and the thie/ not.

ual thicness to!ether. 'otice the di//erence in position o/ the /ree and standin!


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Thie/ not This is used to tie t$o ropes o/ eual thicness to!ether so that they $ill appear to be tied $ith a ree/ not% and

$ill be retied $ith a true ree/ not. This not $as o/ten used by sailors to tie their sea chests% hence the name.

#arric bend This bend is /or the secure /astenin! o/ t$o ropes o/ even thicness to!ether. 0t is particularly suitable /or

ha$sers and steel cables. 0t can be readily undone and does not am% as do many other bends and nots.

topper hitch This is used to /asten a rope to another rope (or to a spar) on $hich there is already strain. hen the hitch

is pulled ti!ht the attached rope $ill not slip% and the tension on the main rope can be taen on the attached rope. Also

use/ul /or a climbin! hitch.


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?lemish not or double overhand not Cs

?ishermans not Csed /or oinin! t$o spr

(one on each rope) pulled ti!ht. The not

6verhand /ishermans not imilar to /ish

d /or securin! t$o ropes or cords o/ eual thic

in!y materials to!etherG suitable /or $ire% /ishi

s loc to!ether.

ermans notG /or !eneral uses. ;ore positive /

ness to!ether.

! !ut or vines. T$o thumb nots

r !ut /ishin! lines and nylon.


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>nots to mae loops in rope


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&o$line This is used to /orm a loop that ill not slip on a rope end.


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&o$line on a bi!ht Csed to mae a double loop that $ill not slip on a rope end. Also called a bosuns chair.

?ishermans eye not This is the best method o/ main! a loop or eye in a /ishin! line. The strain is divided eually

bet$een the t$o nots.

lip not Csed /or /astenin! a line to a pier or a pole or any other purpose $here strain alone on the standin! end is

su//icient to hold the not.

6verhand eye not This method o/ main! an eye or loop is satis/actory and uic% but it sometimes ams and becomes

di//icult to untie.


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?lemish eye not Csed /or all purposes $

rabbins hitch This eye not% thou!h not

itsel/ out or pull out common to some o/

ere a loop is reuired% less liely to am than o

very $ell no$n% is one o/ the stoutest eye no

he other eye nots. 0t also maes a use/ul runn

verhand eye not.

ts. 0t has not the tendency to cut

in! not.


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;anharness not This is a most use/ul not /or main! a series o/ non-slip loops in a rope /or the purpose o/ harnessin!

men /or a pull. The marlinspie hitch is made as in lo$er setch and then the loop is dra$n under and over the other t$o

ropes as indicated. The $hole not is then pulled taut.

;idshipmans hitch This is an old-/ashioned hitch o/ten used to /asten a bloc or sheave to a ropes end.


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Bury not or true lovers not This not is

stayed. 0t is called a ury not because in

hitches as in top setch are /ormed. The l

strai!ht up /or the third loop. is made b

&o$ thon! hitch Csed by 'e$ uinea nat

bo$. Also use/ul /or /astenin! rope over t

>nots /or ?astenin! ,opes

primarily /or a mast head% to /orm loops by me

sailin! ship days it $as o/ten used to ri! a tem

oop is pulled under K and over A. D is pulled

y splicin! the t$o /ree ends to!ether.

ives /or securin! the end o/ the split cane bo$ t

he tapered end o/ a spar.

ans o/ $hich the mast may be

porary or ury mast. Three

over < and under ?. is pulled

hon! to the pointed end o/ the


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lippery hitch ery use/ul because o/ the ease $ith $hich it can be released in emer!ency. 0t holds securely so lon! as

there is a strain on the standin! end.

#love hitch ?or securin! a rope to a spar. This hitch% i/ pulled taut% $ill not slip up or do$n on a smooth sur/ace A use/ul

start /or lashin!s.

&oat not This is a method o/ securin! a rope to a pin or other small piece o/ $ood on a boat. 0t is uicly released.

Double boat not A bi!ht is simply passed throu!h the rin! and a marlin spie or other round piece o/ $ood is put

bet$een the bi!ht or the rope. ithdra$al o/ the spie uicly releases the not.


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,ollin! hitch To /asten a rope to


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a spar. This is a very secure /astenin!-

Timber hitch ?or securin! a rope to suar

end must pull strai!ht throu!h the loop%

alliard hitch ?or /astenin! a rope to a sp

maes a very neat and secure /astenin!.

&lac$all hitch A uic $ay to secure a r

hoo.

ed timber% round lo!s% etc. A !ood startin! no

ot bac$ards% or the rope may cut upon itsel/.

ar. The setch sho$s the hitch open. hen pull

pe to a hoo. The strain on the standin! end $

/or all lashin!s. The standin!

ed taut% and the hitches closed% it

ill hold the rope secure to the


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'oose hitch This is a uic and easy method o/ securin! a rope to a spar or beam. 0/ desired% the rope can be made more

secure by means o/ the over-hand not sho$n in ?i!. ".

#ats pa$ hitch ?or securin! a rope to a hoo or a spar. 0t is most use/ul because it is so easily tied.

Lars head This is an easy method o/ securin! a rope to a rin! or hoo. 0/ desired to mae more secure% it can be

stoppered% as sho$n% $ith an overhand or thumb not.

#rossover lars head Csed /or same purpose as the Lars head.

Double lars head The bi!ht is /irst made. The ends passed throu!h it. This not is very secure.

Triple lar s head The apparently complicated not is easily made by tain! the bi!ht o/ the rope throu!h the rin!% the

ends are passed throu!h the bi!ht and up throu!h the rin!% then do$n throu!h its o$n bi!ht. Lie the double lars head%

this not is absolutely secure.

ailors bachand not Csed to secure a rope to a rin! or hoo. This is very similar to the rollin! hitch and sailors

bachand not.


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ailors bachand not (Alternative variati

ailors not imply t$o hal/ hitches roun

unners not This is simply a carric ben

#atspa$ This not is used /or attachin! a

the hoo.

on) Csed to /asten a rope securely to a spar.

d the standin! end o/ the rope.

d and used to hold t$o shacles or rin!s to!et

rope to a hoo. The t$o bi!hts are rolled t$o o

er.

r three times and then put over


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>ellic hitch Csed /or /astenin! a stone (/

anchor mi!ht /oul. 0t is a timber hitch /ini

Tom /ools not ?ormed by main! a clov

hitch or loop is pulled under and throu!h

This not can be used to improvise a han

usin! the loops as handles.

heepshan This is a convenient not to

or a ellic in lieu o/ an anchor)% that $ill hold i

shed o// $ith a hal/ hitch.

e hitch as t$o loops not e@actly overlayin! each

the outer side o/ the opposite loop% as indicated

le /or a pitcher by pullin! the centre not ti!ht

uicly shorten a rope.

rocy sea bottoms $here an

other. The inner hal/ o/ each

by arro$s.

around the lip o/ the pitcher and


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6ne method o/ securin! the end.

heepshan to!!led The insertion o/ a to !le in the end bi!hts secures the sheepshan !ainst slippin!.


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Drum slin! A slip not is made as indicated. The drum% can or barrel is placed in the slip not and the /ree end is secured

$ith a stopper hitch to the standin! end.

#hain not hen a rope is too lon! /or its purpose one means o/ shortenin! it is the chain not. ,emember to put a

marlinspie or to!!le throu!h the last lin be/ore you put a strain on the rope.

Double chain not This is the most ornamental o/ all the rope shortenin!s. A turn is taen round the standin! end and the

/ree end is passed throu!h the loop so /ormed. 0n doin! this a loop is /ormed throu!h $hich the /ree end is brou!ht. The

end is thus passed /rom one side to the other throu!h the loop precedin!. 0t may be pulled taut $hen su//iciently

shortened and $ill loc upon the last loop.

T$ist not This is another easy method o/ shortenin! a rope. The rope is laid as sho$n and then the strands are plaited or

braided to!ether. A marlinspie or to!!le is placed bet$een the ropes in the centre to secure the hold o/ the plait.

?ancy >nots

all not Cnlay the rope a /e$ inches and then pass each strand throu!h the bi!ht o/ the strand in /ront. 0llustration

sho$s the $all not ready to be pulled taut.


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topper not &rin! the ends o/ the $all

separately.

ot round a!ain and up in the centre o/ the not and pull each one taut


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#ro$nin! not #ommence the cro$nin! as sho$n here.

The cro$nin! is no$ ready to be pulled taut. The strands can be bac spliced to permanently secure the end o/ the rope

a!ainst ravellin! or /rayin!. #ro$nin! may also be used $ith other /ancy nots such as cro$nin! /irst% then pullin! on a

$all not or a ;athe$ aler.

;anrope not This is a /ancy not to put a stop on the end o/ a rope. Top setch sho$s the cro$nin! (in the centre)% the

lo$er setch sho$s the man-rope not pulled taut.

Double-double cro$nin! not This not is started the same as the manrope% but not pulled taut. The ends are laid /or a

second cro$n above the cro$n (similar to the manrope not) and $ith the spie the bends o/ the lo$er cro$n are opened%

and the strands brou!ht throu!h these bends and pulled taut.

;athe$ $aler The strands are laid as in the dia!ram (top) and then each in turn is pulled taut till the not is close and

ti!ht. The not itsel/ is rolled up sli!htly to lay the t$ist evenly. Pull the strands ti!ht a!ain a/ter this.

The ;athe$ aler /inished and rolled ti!ht ?i!. ".

The ;athe$ aler is reputed to be one o/ the most di//icult o/ all nots to undo. The ;athe$ aler can also be made

some distance /rom the end o/ the rope and the strands then relaid.


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Diamond not Lie the ;athe$ aler% t

The rope is unlaid care/ully.


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Double diamond not This is made as /or

throu!h t$o sin!le loops. The last strand

the sin!le diamond not% but the strands /ollo$

comes throu!h t$o double loops. The strands c

the lead o/ the sin!le not

ome out throu!h the centre $hen


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the not is pulled taut. All these stopper

stoppers on cleats% and /or r pe bucets.

Turs head This is a hi!hly ornamental

/ormed $ith smaller corda!e on the rope.

nots can be used /or the ends o/ lanyards% haly

ot $hich% instead o/ bein! made $ith the rope

ards% yoe lines and also as

strands o/ the rope itsel/% is


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A clovehitch is made as in ?i!. 1 -This is made slacly to allo$ the e@tra strands to be $ored throu!h it. Pull the bottom

part o/ the hitch above the top part and put the /ree end under and up (?i!. "). The bottom strand is pulled above the top

part and the /ree end no$ over and do$n. This repeat till the circle is complete. The /ree end /ollo$s round three times.

The completed Turs head is sho$n in ?i!. .

hamroc not This may be /ormed the same $ay as the true lovers not% but the bottom loop is not spliced. 0t may be

used to /orm three loops /or stays /or a mast. 0t may also be /ormed by main! a not as top setch. The loop is dra$n

up throu!h loop D and the loop K is dra$n up throu!h the loop at A. These /orm the side loops and the top loop is /ormed

naturally at


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elved!e To secure a bloc to a standin! spar. The middle o/ the selved!e is laid on the spar and the t$o ends are

crossed over in turns until the bi!hts at the ends come to!ether. The hoo o/ the bloc is then put throu!h these t$o

bi!hts.

Pointin! a rope The rope is unlaid and a tie put on to prevent it unlayin! /urther. The strands are thinned do$n !radually%

and relaid a!ain. The end may be sti//ened $ith a small stic or piece o/ $ire. The end can be /inished o// $ith any o/ the

cro$n or $all nots.


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>notted rope ladder The len!th o/ rope is coiled in a series o/ hal/-hitches and the end o/ the rope is passed throu!h the

centre% as in the illustration on ri!ht (e@cept that the coils are held closer to!ether as /or a coiled rope $hen it is to be

thro$n). The coil o/ hal/-hitches $ith the end passed throu!h the centre is turned inside out% that is% the succeedin! coils

are pulled over each other. The coil is no$ thro$n% and as it pays out a series o/ overhand nots are made at /airly eual

intervals. 0n main! a not ladder this is the uicest and most e//icient method.

Lashin!s

uare lashin! This is used to oin poles at ri!ht an!les.

tart $ith a timber hitch or a clove hitch belo$ cross bar. 0/ usin! a timber hitch see that the pull is strai!ht throu!h the

eye and not bac /rom it. Pullin! bac $ill cut the lashin! material.

Put lashin! material ti!htly around upri!ht and cross bar about /our complete times.

?rappin! turns7;ae about t$o or three /rappin! turns. These are turns that !o round the lashin! and pull it taut. These

pull the lashin! ti!ht. ecure end o/ /rappin! turns either by hal/-hitches or by passin! bet$een lashin! at the crossover

and secure $ith a hal/-hitch.

Dia!onal lashin! This is used /or bracin! or oinin! spars at irre!ular an!lesO

tart $ith a timber hitch or a clove hitch and tae about three or /our /ull turns vertically.

Pass rope under top spar and mae about three or /our /ull turns hori=ontally.


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;ae t$o or three /rappin! turns and either secure by t$o hal/-hitches on pole or by passin! the end bet$een the lashin!

and the pole and use hal/-hitches on the lashin!.

heer lashin! This is used to oin t$o poles end to end. tart $ith a clove hitch or timber hitch and lash ti!htly around the

t$o spars /our to si@ times. Pass /ree end under lashin!s and dra$ ti!htly t$o or three times. ecure by passin! it

throu!h itsel/.

There should be at least t$o lashin!s i/ spars are bein! oined to!ether.


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plices

hort splicin! Cnlay the strands and marry them to!etherG butt hard up to each other. The strand D /irst !oes under the

standin! end o/ A% but oyer strand K and over on the standin! end. Thus each strand at either end !oes over one strand

o/ the standin! end on the opposite side and under the ne@t strand% so that there is a strand o/ the standin! end bet$een

each short side o/ the splice. #ontinue $orin! the /ree strand o/ each end /our or /ive times into the strands o/ the

standin! end.

Lon! splicin! The strands are unlaid /or a considerable len!th and then married as /or the short splice. Then the one

strand is unlaid and its married counterpart is laid alon! its place in the rope.

The t$o centres are simply held $ith a cross-over not% and the strands thinned do$n and spliced as /or a short splice.

The end strands areG /inished $ith a crossover not arid a!ain the strands are thinned do$n and /inished as /or a short

splice. This lon! splice does not appreciably thicen a rope $hich may be thus spliced to !o throu!h a sheave.


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Loop splice $ithout a /ree end The rope i

are then spliced bac alon! the rope a/te

unt$isted to the reuired place% as in top illust

the loop has been /ormed.

ration. The /ree ends so /ormed


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hippin!

&e/ore the /inish o/ the bindin! a loop /or

/orm a loop and the last si@ to t$elve tur

loop and the /ree end o/ the loop is pulled

ed /rom the end is laid under the bindin! at t

s bind over this loop. At the last turn o/ the bin

ti!htly% thus dra$in! the end o/ the bindin! be

e start. This end is bent bac to

din! the cord is put throu!h the

neath the last turn.


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Another method is to pull the bindin! taut% and then the t$o /ree ends are cut close in. The $hole bindin! is smooth and

neat.

'ettin!

ammocs and nets are made by the use o/ nettin! needles and a mesh stic. The nettin! needles (as sho$n in the

illustration) can be made /rom a thin piece o/ hard$ood or bamboo. The needles themselves can be /rom "* to * cm lon!

and "* to "5 mm $ide. The mesh stic can be about 1 cm lon!% oval and /rom 5 to "** mm $ide. The nettin! cord is put

onto the nettin! needles as /or an ordinary shuttle. ith needle K and $ith needle A the cord is looped around the pin in

the centre o/ the eye.

At one end o/ the strin!% tie a loop and place the not on a conveniently hi!h nail or hoo. The mesh stic is put under the

loop and the needle $ith cord passed throu!h as in ?i!. " . The needle and cord are passed in /ront o/ the loop /ormed in

?i!. and under the ori!inal loop% $hile at the same time the other end o/ the cord is held on the mesh stic $ith the

thumb o/ the le/t hand. The not is pulled taut.

A succession o/ these loops are /ormed until the reuisite $idth is reached% then this /irst series o/ loops are placed

throu!h a rod or cord% and the loops are netted on to them until the reuisite len!th is reached.


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uts and Thatchin!

&ecause o/ the li!ht$ei!ht nylon tent rev

$ithout a roo/ over their heads. These m

coverin! /ly% plus its aluminium poles and

lution over the past t$enty years /e$ people d

nu/actured shelters are e@traordinarily li!ht. ?

pe!s% can $ei!h as little as 1.5 !.

eliberately embar on a bush tre

r instance a t$o-person tent $ith


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iven this /act it is ine@cusable% not to say% in a conservation sense% stupid% to mae a bush material shelter under normal

circumstances. &ut sometimes circumstances are not normal. Then the ability to construct a $eatherproo/ temporary hut

may save ones li/e.

Little sill is needed to mae a com/ortable% thatched% $eatherproo/ hut usin! materials at hand in any sort o/ country

outside o/ the stony desert re!ions o/ Australia.

The buildin! o/ a thatched hut /rom local materials is a creative e@ercise. Desi!n must provide /or the anticipated $eather

conditions. Althou!h /indin! suitable materials almost any $here presents no problem% considerable or!anisation is

reuired to collect this material. And /or the actual structure itsel/% !ood team$or is needed.

0t should be remembered that many o/ the early $hite settlers lived hal/ their lives in bush structures $hen clearin! their

o$n land. There is a lesson here /or Australias ne$ bac-to-the-earthers and smallholders. Althou!h some local councils

/ro$n on these temporary d$ellin!s% a bush house or hut $ill o/ten !ive valuable service once the reason /or its

iniaberection has ended. And% unlie an old municipal bus or a stripped caravan% it $ill blend into the environment o/ the

bloc.

Thatched uts

The main! o/ huts and shelters /or occasional or continuous use /rom e@clusively local materials and $ithout the aid o/

any man-made euipment is not di//icult. 0n place o/ nails% lashin!s (either o/ vine% bar strips or other /ibrous material)

are used. ?rame$or is o/ round poles. eatherproo/ roo/in! is provided by thatchin! $ith lon! !rass /erns% reeds% palm

leaves% sea$eed% bar sheets% split shin!les or even sods o/ heavy clay tur/.

The material used depends on the 0deation. The shape% si=e and details o/ the hut are lie$ise !overned by the len!th o/

intended occupation% the number o/ people that have to be sheltered% the local climatic conditions and% o/ course% the time

available /or construction.

0/ there are one or t$o people to be sheltered /or a /e$ ni!hts only in a temperate climate% a simple lean-to thatched

shelter $ill su//ice. This can be built in one to three hours. &ut i/ there are ei!ht or ten in your party and they reuire

shelter /or a /e$ months a!ainst cold and bad $eather% then a semi-permanent hut complete $ith doors% $indo$s and a

/ireplace /or heatin! and built-in buns $ill be reuired. To mae such a structure properly $ill reuire $or over t$o to

three $ees 7 even lon!er i/ one is usin! rammed earth or pise.

0n main! any d$ellin! it has to be assumed that a !ood ni/e% a machete and an a@e are available to every member o/

the $orin! party and that all the $orers are% o/ course% $illin!.


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The structures discussed here are merely e@amples o/ $hat can be done. hen it comes to plannin! your o$n hut you are

your o$n architect and builder. 0/ there are several people in the party or!anise the labour so that no hands are idle. ave

one or t$o people cuttin! poles% another carryin! them to the site% a /ourth strippin! bar /or lashin!s and set the others

!atherin! material /or thatchin!. . #ollect all the material /or the structure be/ore you start to build. Then stac it in

orderly piles as close as possible to

the cleared buildin! site. Eour main poles should be in one pile% the battens /or thatchin! in another% the bar strips or

vines shredded do$n /or immediate use in a third% and your thatchin! material in several piles.

0n the meantime the buildin! site should be thorou!hly cleared o/ !round cover and% i/ necessary% levelled. Cnder normal

conditions spades and mattocs are the rule. &ut in an emer!ency di!!in! tools may have to be improvised by usin! bush

timber.

6nce you are ready to start buildin!% have every person in the team on the site. 6r!anise the erection o/ the main

/rame$or arid then brea your team up into small !an!s /or lashin! on the battens and completin! the /rame$or. This

$ay you $ill save hours o/ labour and you $ill succeed in buildin! a better hut.

There is nothin! to it really e@cept intelli!ence. Plan and or!anise to eep everbody busily en!a!ed.


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Desi!n There are three main desi!ns o/ h

pyramid% suitable /or cold conditionsG and

completely $alled% suitable /or cold condi

,e/inements such as doors and $indo$s

important matter o/ /urnishin! it. &ut /irs

ectional lean-to huts mall one- and t$

thatchin! t$o or three /rames% /rom "-

These /rames% built o/ battens% are lashed

/rame$or is simple to construct.

uts2 a simple lean-to% suitable /or /ine% $arm $

a lon! hut suitable /or sub-tropical and tropical

ions.

ay be added as needed. And $hen the hut is

let us loo at $hat the bush d$eller can build

-person huts can be easily constructed in an h

etres in len!th and 1-1.5 metre in depth.

onto t$o /ored stics. The /ors are in the /or

atherG an enclosed round hut or

climates i/ le/t open% or% i/

ompleted there is the all-

s the /irst protective shelter.

ur or t$o by main! and

m o/ hoos at the upper end. The


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0t is important to ensure that the end o/ t

/ront /rame and saves the $or o/ rid!e t

advisable to have the bottom o/ the thatc

cm. The len!th o/ the side poles in this in

Permanent lean-to huts The permanent l

he top /rame proects /or$ard beyond the /or

hatchin!. 0/ raised buns (see #hapter 4 #ampc

h about 5*-:* cm above !round level. This rais

stance is increased to 4 metres.

an-to hut usin! a tree /or bracin! is simple and

nd the rid!e. This protects the

ra/t) are bein! put in% it is

es the rid!e hei!ht bet$een *5*

uic to erect.


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The rid!e pole is raised a!ainst the tree by the means o/ the t$o end-/ored poles to the reuired hei!ht o/ about

metres% dependin! on the $idth o/ the structure. The end-/ored poles should be at an an!le o/ not less than 45M. 0/ the

len!th o/ the rid!e is more than 4 metres it is advisable to put in another one or t$o /ored poles about hal/$ay alon!.

6nto the end-/ored poles lash a crossbar (A in the illustration) and lash it a!ain to the upri!ht tree. This crossbar has

lashed to its /ront end% a pole (&)% connectin! and lashed to the rid!e and also the /ront eaves% pole (#)% plus the /ront

thatchin! battens.

Thatchin! battens are lashed onto the t$o rear /ors. The distance apart /or the thatchin! battens varies. 0t may be

anythin! /rom 15-* cm% dependin! on the len!th o/ the thatchin! material bein! used. A !eneral !uide is that battens

should be spaced apart about one-/ourth o/ the avera!e len!th o/ the thatchin! material.

An upri!ht in the /orm o/ a li!ht /or may be placed under the /ront corners to the /ront eave pole. all thatch battens are

lashed hori=ontally /rom the rear /ored poles to this upri!ht. all pe!s are driven in alon! the rear at $hatever hei!ht is

reuired and to these $all pe!s thatchin! battens are also lashed.

?ored poles should not be less than 3-1* cm in diameterG the rid!e pole should be about the same and thatchin! battens

should be -5 cm in diameter.

Cse dry or dead timber $herever possible. 0t is li!hter to handle and its use avoids any destruction o/ the bush. hen

main! $all pe!s% bevel o// the head. They can be driven in $ithout splittin!.

,ound hut To mae a standard round thatched hut cut or !ather /our poles each about 5 metres in len!th and bet$een

1*-15 cm thic. They should be as strai!ht as possible.

Lash these to!ether in the shape o/ a tepee or pyramid% stand them upri!ht and then sin them into prepared holes in the

!round 7 a depth o/ *-5* cm is usually ample dependin! on the /irmness o/ the soil. 0n sandy conditions the depth may

have to be !reater to ensure stability.

The distance bet$een the dia!onal poles should be about metres to ensure a roo/ slope o/ about 45M. This is the best /or

sheddin! rain$ater /rom the yet-to-be-constructed roo/.

Another ei!ht poles% $hich can be some$hat li!hter% are added to the initial pyramid. They should be spaced evenly


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around the circle. These should be lashed to the roo/ poles a/ter bein! driven into the !round. These main structure poles

should then be stren!thened by cross battens and the inside $all supports constructed $ithin the circle (see illustration).

pace can be le/t /or a tall or lo$ entrance$ay as desired (the lo$ one is easiest).

The hut should then be thatched $ith any materials that are available.

Pyramidal huts The pyramidal hut% havin! a suare base% is particularly use/ul $here it is desired to mae the /ullest

possible use o/ $all and /loor space.

The pyramid and circular hut have similar construction techniues. 0n the pyramidal hut% $hen tyin! on the thatchin!

battens% it is more e//icient to mae one lashin! at each corner secure on the thatchin! battens. hen the span bet$een

the /ored poles becomes less than " metres it is best to lash only onto the corner poles% omittin! any e@tra tyin! to the

intermediate poles. 0/ the span bet$een the corner poles is !reater than " metres it is necessary to lash battens to the

intermediate poles.


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Lon! hut The end portion o/ this structur

be e@tended to any reuired distance by l

rid!e is e@tended in t$o or more len!ths%

sit snu!ly in the interlocin! /ors.

is basically the same as a one hal/ section o/ t

en!thenin! the rid!e pole and by usin! additio

they should be lashed to!ether. 0t is also advis

e pyramidal hut. The len!th can

al supportin! /ored poles. 0/ the

able to notch the rid!e so it $ill


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all pe!s should be driven in at a convenient $all hei!ht and t/iatchin! battens are lashed do$n. ,e/inements% such as

li/t-up sections /or li!ht and ventilation% can be added i/ reuired.

Poles and structures All slopin! sides on any hut must be completely $aterproo/ and should be at an an!le o/ not less

than 45M (althou!h a 4*M slope $ill shed $ater). A slope o/ 45M $ill also !ive !ood headroom in the lar!er huts.

The diameter o/ the timber inside the bar can be rou!hly calculated by allo$in! a minimum o/ "- cm diameter at the

butt /or each 1"*-15* cm o/ len!th. Thus i/ a pole is metres lon! the diameter o/ $ood clear o/ bar at the butt should

not be less than : cm% or% i/ the pole is : metres lon!% the diameter at the butt should not be less than 1"-1 cm.

0/ the span is relatively $ide or the timber used is relatively li!ht% stren!then the structure and prevent sa!!in! or in$ard

bendin! o/ the main poles by puttin! across ties or collar ties so that the thrust or $ei!ht is thro$n /rom one pole on to

the pole opposite.

&racin! 0/ lon! or lean-to huts are bein! built and there is no stron! support% such as a !ro$in! tree% it is advisable to lash

in dia!onal braces that e@tend i/ possible /rom the !round at one end to the rid!e at the other. These bracin!s $ill mae

even a li!ht hut stormproo/.

Doors and $indo$s ,e/inements such as doors and $indo$s are completely practical and also possible in thatched huts.

ery little e@tra $or is involved.

indo$s are simply t$o or three /ored stics cut o// short belo$ the /or $ith the lon! end proectin!.

Thatch battens are lashed to these /ored stics and the /rame$or is li/ted up and hun! on one o/ the battens o/ the hut

itsel/.

0n the !eneral thatchin! o/ the hut this $indo$ space is le/t clear. The $indo$ /rame is itsel/ thatched separately as a

complete unit.

0t is best to mae the $indo$ /rame $ider than the $indo$ openin! o/ the hut itsel/. 0t can be propped open by the use o/

one or t$o stics. o$ever% i/ it is very $ide more props may be needed.

There should be at least 15 cm overlap o/ the $indo$ and


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the roo/ thatch at the sides. The loose ends o/ the thatchin!

above the $indo$ /rames should be allo$ed to come on to

)

the $indo$s o$n thatch and should completely cover the se$in! at the top.

Doors are also made and thatched separately. The hin!e o/ the door can be made by several methods (see illustration). 0n

construction they are similar to a !ate /rame $ith the addition o/ t$o upri!hts lashed across the /or. To these t$o

upri!hts the hori=ontal thatchin! battens are secured.

Tree s$in! shelter 0n s$ampy country or in areas $hich are badly snae in/ested a very simple s$in!in! bun can be

made by one person in a day.

The /ored pole that supports the bun must be very stron!.


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section. 0t is also advisable to have a vin

hi!h up the tree (pre/erably to a /or) as

The /rame poles /or the thatch battens ar

pole. 0n order to !ive ri!idity a short% cro

hen thatchin!% $or one ro$ alon! one

and eep it correctly balanced%

The bun is made separately and then at

or cane rope as additional support stretchin! /

is practicable.

e lashed separately% $ith a suare lashin!% to t

s stic is lashed hori=ontally to each o/ the opp

side and then the ro$ on the opposite. This $ill

ached to the supportin! /ored pole.

rom the end o/ the main /rame as

e bottom o/ the /ored /rame

osite sides o/ the /rame poles.

help stren!then the /rame$or


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0ts main /rame is simply /our poles lashed to!ether to /orm a rectan!le about a metre $ide and a metre or more lon! /

dependin! on the body len!th o/ the person usin! it). The space bet$een the poles can be either $oven or made $ith

crossed stics.

Thatchin! materials ;aterials suitable /or thatchin! ran!e /rom lon! !rass% reeds% rushes% most o/ the lon! staled /erns

(such as bracen)% palm leaves o/ all types and% as a last resort% many pliant% lea/y branches.

Lon! !rass and reeds mae a hi!h uality roo/ $hen they are used dried rather than in their !reen state. 0t is advisable

$hen usin! these materials to cut and stoo them at the very start o/ your buildin! proect 7 particularly i/ it is a lar!e

ob spread out over t$o or more $ees. This enables the material to dry out be/ore bein! used.

0/ placed on the roo/ supports in their !reen state% !rass and reeds $ill shrin and curl% allo$in! rain to enter. All !reen

materials shrin and this $ill a//ect the thatchin! stitches as $ell% causin! them to become loose. The thatch can then slip

out o/ the stitches and in the /irst hal/-decent $ind it $ill blo$ a$ay.

0/ the materials are $ell-seasoned the stitches $ill not slacen because there is very little shrina!e% and the thatch $ill

stay do$n securely.

ith most o/ the bracens it is advisable to use the material $hen it is !reen and se$ it do$n ti!htly. This also applies i/

you are /orced by circumstances to use !reen branches.

reen branches do not mae a very e//icient roo/ and their use is not recommended e@cept in an emer!ency .

0n a !eneral $ay usin! bracen and reeds /or thatchin! is !ood service to the land.

&racen destroys pasture and reeds choe $atercourses. Cn/ortunately simply loppin! both has no e//ect on their !ro$th.

They have to be du! up completey.

0/ branches o/ trees or shrubs are to be used see out a dead branch $ith some o/ the leaves still on it. hae the branch.

0/ the leaves immediately /all o// the material is useless and $ill only serve /or a day or t$o. 0/ the leaves $ithstand this

shain! the plant $ill probably serve your purpose /airly e//ectively. ome trees and shrubs drop their leaves $ithin a /e$

hours o/ bein! cut. These are also useless.

Palm leaves are best /or thatchin! $hen they are dead and dry. 0t is uite usual to /ind lar!e uantities o/ them scattered

at the base o/ the tree. They are e@cellent material but can be some$hat brittle and inclined to brea at the hei!ht o/

summer.


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The best time to collect dead palm leaves /or thatchin! is either early in the mornin! $hen the leaves have o/ten been

so/tened by an overni!ht de$% or a/ter rain. 0t is also advisable to $et them do$n i/ possible be/ore se$in! them on the

thatchin! battens. This so/tens the brittle leaves% maes them lie /lat and ensures that you !et a better covera!e.

Thatchin! methods There are almost as many di//erent methods o/ thatchin! as there are di//erent materials.


111/362

material. There they increase in si=e and

0/ the stitchin! interrupts the smooth% co

steeper an!le. The drops $ill creep alon!

each droplet $ill a!ain increase in si=e un

course% leas. Thatch $ill never lea i/ th

$hen they are bi! enou!h /all o// onto the blad

tinuous course o/ the $ater droplets they $ill /

the stitch and $hen they reach its lo$est point

til it is too heavy to remain attached to the se$

stitchin! material is properly covered.

immediately beneath.

llo$ its line because it is at a

on the underside o/ the thatchin!

in! material. The roo/ then% o/


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0t is the uality o/ covera!e% rather than

indproo/in!% on the other hand% depend

e$n thatchin! e$n thatchin! is started

batten. The second layer must lie on top

underneath layer o/ the actual stitch.

0t is better to have each layer held by thr

the /ree ends o/ the layer above it.

the thicness o/ the thatch% that maes a natu

s lar!ely on the ti!htnessand thicness o/ the

by stitchin! at the bottom o/ the /irst layer o/ t

nd cover the stitchin! o/ the /irst ro$ and inclu

ee ro$s o/ stitchin!. The stitchin! o/ every ro$

al roo/ $aterproo/.

hatchin!.

hatch on the lo$est thatchin!

de the top section o/ the

must be completely covered by


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To se$ thatchin!% mae a thatchin! needle by cuttin! a dead% strai!ht-!rained stic about cm thic and about 5* cm

lon!. harpen one end and rub it as smooth as possible on a Qtone. 'arro$ the other end until it is about 5 mm thic.

&e/ore doin! this% ho$ever% cut an eye in this end. 0/ you cut the eye /irst it $ill not split out $hen the end is pared do$n.

Lay the thatchin! material $ith the butts to$ards the roo/

and the lo$er end on the lo$est batten. ecure one end o/ the se$in! material $ith a timber hitch (see #hapter "% >nots

and Lashin!s) to the batten% thread the other end throu!h the eye o/ the needle and se$ the material in the ordinary

manner to the batten.

To avoid holes $here the se$in! may tend to bunch the thatchin! to!ether% pass the needle throu!h the thatch at an

acute an!le. Then push the thatch over the crossin! o/ the stitches.

tic thatch ith the stic thatch% ties about :* cm apart are /astened onto the thatchin! batten. The thatchin! stic is

tied at one end% the material placed under it and $hen the tie% /i@ed on the batten is reached% the thatchin! stic is tied

do$n thus bindin! the material to!ether. This method o/ securin! thatchin! is use/ul $hen lon! len!ths o/ material /or

se$in! are not available.

As $ith se$n thatchin!% the !eneral principles o/ overlappin! the layers to cover the thatchin! stic (rather than the

thatchin! thread) are /ollo$ed. This $ill ensure a rainproo/ roo/. o$ever% this is !enerally not as ti!ht as se$n thatchin!.


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Tu/t thatchin! This is an e@cellent metho

is very suitable /or reeds and sed!es. The

bent over the thatchin! batten. A /e$ str

bunched up material to hold the end secu

The tu/t is then slipped alon! the batten

This thatch maes a very neat ob /rom t

sharp s$ord !rasses are bein! used% prot

0t is important that the lon!% /ree ends o/

oinin! or not end o/ these tu/ts up too t

over ends on the battens. This space $ill

i/ the material is /airly lon! 7 bet$een :*-3*

material is !athered into small sheaves about

nds are then t$isted around the shea/ a /e$ ti

re.

nd the procedure is continued until the batten i

e inside. 0t is secure in all $eather and reuire

ect your hands $ith a pair o/ socs to avoid cut

each tu/t bundle overlap the t$o or three prec

i!htly to!ether. There can be some space (say

be covered by the /ree ends o/ the ne@t ro$ o/

cm and 1 metre 7 and pliable. 0t

cm or so thic. The butt end is

es and pushed throu!h the

s completed.

s no tyin! material. 0/ sed!es or

s i/ !loves are not available.

din! ro$s. Do not push the

p to " cm) bet$een the bent-

tu/ts.


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tal thatch Any type o/ palm lea/% compl

e//icient.

ete $ith stal% can be used /or this type o/ that hin!. 0t is both uic and


117/362

The stals o/ the palms are $oven throu!

the natural pressure on them provides su

plit stal thatch This thatch is suitable /

each /rond is split len!th$ays. The split ri

lappin! /ashion. This eliminates the need

oven thatch This is an alternative to th

important.

h the thatch battens. The stals are literally a

//icient pressure to hold the thatchin! leaves in

r lon! pinnate leaves (such as those /ound on

bs are tied to!ether and secured to the rid!e p

/or thatchin! battens unless e@tra stren!th is r

split stal thatch i/ a number o/ $orers are a

med bet$een the battens and

position.

ate palms). The centre rib o/

les o/ the hut in an over-

uired in the roo/ structure.

ailable and the time /actor is not


118/362

The pinnate /ronds are laid /lat on the !r

the leaves opposite them. The stal is th

overlappin! used in all other thatchin! m

hut a very neat /inish.

e$n batten thatch ith lon!% broad-lea

The leaves are bent over battens on the

t$o sections to!ether. The stics are the

0/ !reen material is used% mae sure be/o

/or hal/ a day.

und and the leaves /rom one side are laid over

n tied onto the /rame$or o/ the hut% observin

thods. oven thatch is particularly suitable /or

ed materials% the se$n batten method can be u

round and a thin sliver o/ split cane or other su

tied to the /rame$or o/ the hut as in split-sta

re startin! the ob that it does not curl as it dri

one another and $oven bet$een

the same principle o/

$all construction and !ives the

sed to !ive !ood results.

itable material used to pin the

l thatchin!.

s out by testin! it in stron! sun


119/362

,id!e thatchin! 0n thatchin! the rid!e o/

0/ this is not done the roo/ $ill lea alon!

This cap there/ore must curl completely o

stand up /rom the rid!e. 0/ bound ti!htly%

best method.

any hut it is essential to cover or cap the topm

the rid!eline.

ver the rid!e pole or% better still% over a /alse ri

this $ill mae an e//icient $atershed. ?or pyra

st ro$ o/ stitchin! or /astenin!s.

d!e pole. Alternatively it may

idal and circular huts this is the


120/362

e$n rid!e thatch ith very lon! materia

they lie on either side o/ it and hold the e

Another method is to tie t$o battens to t

battens so that it overhan!s the stitchin!

An alternative method is to se$ rid!e ma

se$n to the ends o/ the material% han! d

hoisted up to cover the rid!e pole.

Another method is to mae a simple cro$

l t$o heavy poles or strai!ht branches may be

d!es o/ the thatch do$n% (see illustration).

e last line o/ thatchin!. The ends o/ the thatchi

o/ the thatch proper.

terial on to three poles% one o/ $hich acts as a

$n about 5* cm on either side. This can be ma

n o/ thatch $ithout poles and cover the top lay

slun! over the rid!e pole so that

n! material is then se$n to the

alse rid!e and the other t$o%

de on the !round and then

r o/ thatchin!.


121/362


122/362

utterin! Cnder some conditions it may

!utterin! can be made /rom $ide sheets

0n tropical areas an alternative (althou!h

some o/ the palms can be laid so that the

#onsiderable care must be taen $ith thi


123/362

?lashin! 0/ a livin! tree is bein! used as o

applies i/% /or one reason or another% one

roo/.

0/ /lashin! is needed spin up a len!th o/ t

and use it to bind e@tra thatchin! around

this e@tra thatchin! to ensure that the $a

the hut.

,ammed


124/362

Althou!h the attitudes o/ many councils to$ards earth and pise constructions has become more rela@ed in recent years% a

buildin! o/ the type described here $ould not pass the test as a permanent house. There are no$ a number o/ specialised

publications available on the buil

mestesugul tufisului site rusesc-engl

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