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ICAS 2008 Conference October 23 – 25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania

Contents

Opening discussions

Impact of Natura 2000 sites designation on forest management

Peter Veen …………………………………………….......................................................7The history of Forest Research and Management Institute and its development prospects (in

Romanian)

Marian Ianculescu ………………………………………………………........................11

The forest in a changing natural and socio-economic environment

Researches regarding the parametric objective approach of the climatic year structure in hilly

and mountainous regions, in the frame of climate changes

Viorela Huber ………………………………………………………………...................21

Effects of accidental fl uorine pollution on Prahova Valley’s forest stands

Marian Ianculescu, Ionel Popa, Ştefan Neagu, Cristina M. Măcărescu …………….......29

Hungarian oak and Turkey oak fructi fication in the Western part of the Getic Plateau

Iulian Bercea ……………………………………………………………….....................41

Research on structural variety of stands for three European beech forests with different ages,

located in middle and superior Valley of Arge ş River

Gheorghe Guiman, Virgil Scărlătescu, Constantin Truică …………………...................53

Ecological reconstruction by regeneration of pine stands located on degraded lands in the South-

Eastern Romania (in Romanian)

Cristinel Constandache, Sanda Nistor ……………………………………......................65

Research on ecological reconstruction of the declining forests in embanked areas located in the

Danube fl ood plain and Delta (in Romanian)Manole Greavu …………………………………………………………….....................79

Aerodynamic study of forest shelter belts (wind breaks)

Titus-Traian Or ădean ………………………………………………………....................89

Local networks of forest shelterbelts – solution to achieve a national plan

Maria Magdalena Vasilescu, Cornel Cristian Tereşneu ……………………………….....91

Forest resources – assessment, management, use

Evolution of the European concept of forest management and the incidence on the Romanian

silvicuture (in Romanian)Petre Bradosche ………………………………………………………............................99

Wood biomass resources of Romania – an alternative source of energy (in Romanian)



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Gavril Budău, Mihai Ispas, Mihaela Câmpean ……………….......................................117

Current structure and growth in diameter of hornbeam stands in northeast Bulgaria

Hristo Tsakov, Alexander Delkov ……………………………………...........................123

Considerations on some current problems of management in Romania’s silviculture (in

Romanian)

Ion Machedon …………………………………………………………….....................131Certi fication schemes – a first step towards sustainable management of forestry in Romania

Corina-Ionela Dumitrescu, Beatrice Leuştean……………………………....................139

Beech timber preservation during storage

Octavia Zeleniuc ………………………………………………………….....................145

Assessment of anthropogenic and climatic changes impacts on forest systems by satellite and

biogeophysical data

Maria Zoran, Mihaela Caian ………………………………………………...................151

Aspects regarding the use of digital orthophotomaps in forest cadastre

Iosif Vorovencii ……………………………………………………………..................159

Integrated forest planning and management system: pathway to the future in Romania?

Eugen Iordache, Marius Petrila …………………………………………….................169

Inventory of primary and secondary forest ways using GPS/GIS in Romanian mountainous

forests

Eugen Iordache ……………………………………………………………...................177

Operational model for assessment of environmental impact in forest road construction (in

Romanian)

Valeria Alexandru, Rostislav Bereziuc, Valentina Ciobanu …………………………....183

Possibilities of estimating discharge in small watersheds by means of TR-55 model

Cornel Cristian Tereşneu, Ştefan Tamaş, I. Clinciu, Maria Magdalena Vasilescu .........189

Contributions to the kinematics study of the blade borers for seedling planting holes

Ilie Popescu, Rudolf Derczeni, Eugen Iordache, Horia Şotoc ……………...................195Gully erosion in Suceava Plateau – a case study

Ovidiu Iacobescu, Ionuţ Barnoaiea ………………………………………....................203

Forest biodiversity – assessment, monitoring, conservation, improvement

The importance of some endemic plant taxa in maintaining the identity of Dacian Beech forest

(Symphyto-Fagion)

Anca Păunescu ……………………………………………………………....................211

Formation, development and early abscission of the Italian oak (Quercus frainetto) acorns during

vegetation season (in Romanian)Marius Sorin Nică, Marcel Octavian Bădele, Constantin Neţoiu, Ionel Cioc,

Cornel Şoancă ................................................................................................................219

Physiological aspects of Quercus species under chemical and integrated pest control in North-

Eastern Romania’s forests

Ligia Acatrinei ……………………………………………………………....................227

Management principles of fi sh populations in mountain waters (in Romanian)

Ioan Cristea ……………………………………………………………….....................235



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ICAS 2008 Conference October 23–25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania

Preface

The proceedings is the result of the international conference „Sustainable forestry in a changing

environment” held in Bucharest, Romania, from October 23rd to 25th of 2008. The meeting was

organized under the auspices of the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations

(IUFRO), the European Forest Institute (EFI), the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development(MADR), the National Forest Administration (RNP-ROMSILVA) and the Academy of Agriculture

and Forest Sciences (ASAS), and hosted by the Forest Research and Management Institute

(ICAS).

The purpose of this conference was to bring together, on the occasion of the anniversary of 75

years of institute foundation, specialists from various areas - forestry sciences, biology, ecology,

wood industry, environmental protection, nature conservation, social and economic sciences, etc.

- to partake of their recent experience and achievements on sustainable forest management in the

context of socio-economic and natural environment changes.

The specific objectives of the conference were: presentation of scientific and technical aspects

regarding the priorities in forest research, management and policy in the context of the natural

and socio-economic environment changes; presentation of the latest achievements in scientific

forest research; strengthening contacts and scientific exchanges among the members of scientific

community; presentation of research and development activities of ICAS at its anniversary.

The conference was structured in a plenary session, three working sessions (Forest in the context

of natural and socio-economic environment changes; Forest resources - evaluation, management,

use; Forest biodiversity - assessment, monitoring, conservation and improvement), poster session

and a field trip to the experimental forest district Mihăieşti, Argeş county.

193 participants from 10 countries joined the meeting presenting 6 opening speeches and 93

oral presentations and posters.

Acknowledgements The editors wish to express their gratitude to all people involved in the preparation of the

meeting, for excellent organization of the scientific and field program, as well as for pleasant

atmosphere.

Special thanks go to the organization committee. We are indebted to Elena Avădănii, Pollyana

Pârnuţă and Dana Mohor, who have done the technical editing and computer formatting of the

entire volume.

The Editors



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ICAS 2008 Conference October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania

Impact of Natura 2000 sites designation on forest

management

P. Veen

Veen P. 2009. Impact of Natura 2000 sites designation on forest management. In:

Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sus-

tainable forestry in a changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, For-

est Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 7-10.

Abstract. Forests are important habitat types within the Natura 2000 network and the

central task of forest managers should be the keeping of the “favourable conserva-

tion status” alive for all qualified habitats and species. Consequently, the EU Habitat

Directive stated several obligations for the forest managers: the conservation value

(species and/or habitats of European concern) should be the leading principle; for

every activity in the site it is necessary to do an assessment according the manage-

ment plan or to do a case-to-case judgement, and conservation measures are needed

to support the Natura 2000 goals. The forest management should be seen not only as

management of forests as tree-stands, but also as places where species of European

importance live.Key words: Natura 2000 sites, forest habitats, forest management

Author. Peter Veen - Royal Dutch Society for Nature Conservation, The Ne-

therlands.

Myths about Natura 2000 and forestry

It was stated by EU that several myths exist concerning Natura 2000 sites and the possibility to

manage the site as a forest. Some selection of arguments:

- Natura 2000 sites all will become nature reserve: EU Membership Countries are free to choosefor the status of Natura 2000 sites. There are 3 possibilities to solve the status:

• Statutory status like for example to make a nature reserve;

• Contractual status like to sign a management agreement with the owner of the site;

• Administrative status to give possibilities for management of the site.

- We will have to stop all our activities for the sake of nature: the conservation of species and

habitats can be quite compatible with well-managed human activities such as tourism, hunting

and forestry. Eventual restrictions must be based on a case-by-case judgement.

EU Habitats Directive and Natura 2000

Forests are important habitat types within the Natura 2000 network. Information from 2003

(before accession of the New Member State Countries) learned that within about 50% of the

designated Natura 2000 sites in the EU Member States forest is an important habitat (Figure 1).



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Even in 10% of the sites, the forests cover more than 80% of the total surface. It is expected that

in the New Member States this percentage will be higher.

The EU Habitat Directive (HD) provides the forest manager with several obligations. The

following obligations are to mention:

- Art.4: After designation of the Natura 2000 site, the site has to be managed according art.6 of

the HD.

- Art.6: This article is very important for management of the forests like:

• The conservation value (species and/or habitats of European concern) should be the leading

principle.• For every activity in the site it is necessary to do an assessment according the management plan

or to do a case-to-case judgement.

• Conservation measures are needed to support the Natura 2000 goals.

Central task for the forest manager is “to take all necessary conservation measures’’ in order to

keep the ‘’favourable conservation status’’ alive for all qualified habitats and species.

For that art.6 HD foresees in:

- Identification of special areas for conservation (pSCI);

- To prepare appropriate management plans;

- To take all statutory, administrative, contractual measures to preserve all targeted habitats and

species.

Management plans for Natura 2000 sites

Every forester of Natura 2000 sites has to deal with ‘’habitats’’ and ‘’species’’ management. In

figure 2 a management strategy scheme has been provided based on the requirements of the EU

Habitats Directive. In the centre of the scheme are the conservation objectives of the species and

the habitats which are selected as qualifying habitats and species for the Natura 2000 sites (see

annexes of the Habitats Directive with lists of habitats and species of European importance). For

these habitats and species a Favourable Conservation Status (FCS) is obligated. For every habitat

and species it is needed to defi

ne a benchmark like number of species in the site or total areacovered by a habitat type. A good conservation status means that the species number or the habitat

area is stable or increasing compared with the total population in the country or the total coverage

Fig. 1 Number of Natura 2000 sites connected with presence of forest habitats (EU, 2003)



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of that habitat in the country. During the selection of the Natura 2000 sites it is necessary to

identify the benchmark for species and habitats.

The management plan starts with the conservation goals which can be based on these

benchmarks indicators. The objectives for the management plan follow these conservation goals

and give information about the FCS during the period of the management plan. Monitoring of

these species and habitats need to be done to deliver information about these status in time.

During the evaluation of the management plan the objectives should be evaluated also. Based

on these results it is necessary to follow a maintenance management or to develop a recovery

management strategy in order to improve the conditions for species and/or habitats.

Conclusions

Foresters have to deal in Natura 2000 sites with management of species and habitats.

Management of the forests means to create good conditions for nature. The knowledge for this

type of management means a challenge for forest faculties in the university. From now, forest

management is not only management of forests as tree-stands but also as places where species of

European importance live.

Fig. 2 Management strategy based on conservation of species and habitats of European importance



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Bucharest, Romania

Istoricul Institutului de Cercetari şi Amenajari Silviceşi perspectivele de dezvoltare ale acestuia

M. Ianculescu

Ianculescu M. 2009. Istoricul Institutului de Cercetări şi Amenajări Silvice şi per-

spectivele de dezvoltare ale acestuia. [The history of Forest Research and Manage-ment Institute and its development prospects]. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., BouriaudO. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a changing environ-ment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management InstituteICAS, pp. 11-20.

Abstract. The paper presents a short history of the Romanian forest researchinstitute, its achievements as well as its development prospects. The Forest Re-search and Management Institute was founded in 1933, but concerns on forestexperimentation animated Romanian sylviculturists much earlier, in the secondhalf of the 19th century. After 1933, the institute underwent a lot of organiza-tional changes. However, with professionalism and devotion, the people work-ing in all activities (research, designing and forest administration) contributedsignificantly to the development of our national sylviculture. The main expecta-tions for the institute concern its nomination as national institute, obtaining of anunambiguous judicial status and acknowledging of its patrimony.Key words: Forest Research and Management Institute, history, development prospects

Author. Marian Ianculescu - Forest Research and Management Institute, Bd.Eroilor 128, 077190 - Voluntari, Romania.

1. Experimentatia forestiera pâna la institutionalizarea cercetarii silvice în tara

noastra

În ordine cronologică prezentăm principalele acţiuni şi promotorii acestora referitor laexperimentaţia forestier ă, până la instituţionalizarea cercetării silvice în ţara noastr ă.• 1845 – încercări pentru abordarea experimentaţiei forestiere (D. Heyer, distins forestier german,la un congres al silvicultorilor.• 1868 – la congresul silvicultorilor de la Viena s-a definitivat conceptul de experimentaţieforestier ă (Gustav Heyer, Judeich, Baur, Ebermayer, Oser).• În Romania, părinţii experimentaţiei forestiere pot fi consideraţi: Ion Ionescu de la Brad şiP.S. Aurelian, care au realizat în 1865 (deci cu 3 ani înaintea silvicultorilor de la Congresul dela Viena) primul proiect de cultur ă pentru exploatarea moşiei Pantelimon proiect aprobat în ian.1865 de Mihail Kogălniceanu, ministru de Interne, Agricultur ă şi Lucr ări Publice.• 1887 – V. Cârnu Munteanu prezintă în cadrul Societăţii ,,Progresul Silvic”, conferinţa intitulată ,,Rolul experimentaţiunii în silvicultur ă”, unde susţine ideea efectuării de cercetări proprii pentru

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fundamentarea unei silviculturi specifice condiţiilor din ţara noastr ă. Ideea a fost preluată de A.M.Iliescu (1888), care propune înfiinţarea de ,,Staţiuni de experimentaţie forestier ă”, idee susţinută de N.G. Popovici (1901), D.R. Rusescu (1906), P. Antonescu (1907, 1911, 1915, 1922).• 1918 – Necesitatea înfiinţării unei instituţii de cercetare ştiinţifică forestier ă apare după întregireaistorică a neamului. Pe arena silviculturii româneşti apare, în acest context, figura proeminentă

a prof. Marin Dr ăcea ca şef al ocolului silvic Ţigăneşti (1919-1920), unde sesizează necesitateacercetărilor în domeniu forestier.• 1920 – Teodor Cudalbu – administratorul Casei pădurilor (azi RNP) decide începerea unorlucr ări de cercetare la ocoalele silvice Sinaia şi Ţigăneşti.• 1920 – este semnată decizia (Mon. Oficial nr. 210 din 1920) de înfiinţarea Staţiunii experimentalede la Sinaia sub conducerea lui Marin Dr ăcea şi V. N. Stinghe Din păcate, aceasta a funcţionat o

perioadă scurtă de timp.• 1929 – După experienţa din SUA, ca bursier şi după participarea sa la cel de-al VII-lea Congresmondial al staţiunilor de experimentaţie forestier ă, Marin Dr ăcea îşi conturează concepţia privindorganizarea unei instituţii de cercetare ştiinţifică forestier ă.• 1930 – Ia fiinţă CAPS (azi RNP). Marin Dr ăcea în calitate de director general, organizează în cadrul CAPS un birou de studii, unul de publicaţii şi trei laboratoare (soluri, entomologie,

botanică şi fitopatologie forestier ă).• 1932 – decembrie, sub auspiciile Societăţii ,,Progresul Silvic”, se înfiinţează ,,Cercul de studiiforestiere”.• 1932 – Marin Dr ăcea – director general la CAPS, înfiinţează ,,Oficiul de studii” în cadrul CAPS-ului, prin transformarea celor două birouri şi laboratoarele înfiinţate în 1930. Oficiul cuprindea:o secţie de cercetări şi experimentaţie forestier ă şi o secţie de documentare şi era condus de V.N.Stinghe. Până la înfiinţarea institutului nu mai era decât un pas.

2. Înfiintarea Institutului de Cercetari Forestiere

Începând cu înfiinţarea Institutului de Cercetări Forestiere, în ordine cronologică, este de menţionaturmătoarea evoluţie în structura acestuia:• 1933 – Prin Jurnalul Consiliului de Miniştrii nr. 561 din 16 mai 1933, publicat în MonitorulOficial nr. 115 din 22 mai 1933 – Oficiul de Studii al CAPS se transformă în ,,Institut de Cercetărişi Experimentaţie Forestier ă”. Primul director al Institutului devine Marin Dr ăcea. SediulInstitutului – str. Clopotarii Vechi nr. 1.Membrii fondatori: M. Dr ăcea, V.N. Stinghe, C. Chiriţă, C.C. Georgescu, Gr. Eliescu, I. Popescu-Zeletin, N. Rucăreanu D. Drâmbă, M. Petcuţ, V. Sabău, D. Sburlan, I. Demetrescu, At. Haralamb,

N. Ghelmeziu, V. Dinu, T. Bălănică, Tr. Ionescu-Heroiu, G. Toma, S. Paşcovschi, E. Vintilă, M.Badea, M. Ene, A. R ădulescu, A. Constantinescu.• 1935 – Prin Decizia ICEF nr. 422 se înfiinţează staţiunile experimentale Gurghiu şi Timişoara(Casa Verde) condusă de S. Paşcovschi.• 1936 – Legea de organizare a Ministerului Agriculturii şi Domeniilor, aprobată prin Decretulnr. 986/1936 şi publicată în Monitorul Oficial nr. 255 din 2 nov 1936, dă o nouă consfinţireInstitutului de Cercetări şi Experimentaţie Forestier ă.• 1938 – Se înfiinţează Staţiunea silvică experimentală ,,Dobrogea” cu sediul în Comorova,condusă de M. Petcuţ, apoi de I. Z. Lupe, prin decizia ministerială nr. 845 din 4 august 1938.Staţiunea silvică experimentală ,,Dobrogea” este înzestrată, prin Decizia ministerială nr. 1438 din1942, publicată în M.O. nr. 226 din 26 sept. 1942, cu 808 ha din pădurea Comorova.• 1939 – Prin Jurnalul Consiliului de Ministrii din 12 aprilie se înfiinţează Câmpul de Experienţă Băneasa. In prealabil, prin Jurnalul Consiliului de Ministrii din 12 aprilie 1935 s-a aprobatcumpărarea de către Institut a unui teren de cca. 15 ha de la locuitorii din comuna suburbană

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Sediul actual al Institutului de Cercetări şiAmenajări Silvice Bucureşti

Prof. Marin Dr ăcea - fondatorul Institutuluide Cercetări şi Experimentaţie Forestier ă

Localizarea în teritoriu a centralei şi a subunităţilor ICAS



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Băneasa, în vederea construirii pavilioanelor şi laboratoarelor necesare I.C.E.F.-ului. În anii 1939şi 1940 s-au achiziţionat 12,47 ha din cele 15 ha aprobate.• 1942 – Se înfiinţează Staţiunea Experimentală ,,Băr ăgan” prin Jurnalul Consiliului de Miniştriinr. 736 din 14 iulie 1942, căreia i se dă în folosinţă 1200 ha din moşia satului Jegălia.• 1942 – Prin Decizia ministerială nr. 1438 din 18 sept., publicată în M.O. nr. 226 din 28 sept.,

se înzestrează I.C.E.F.-ul cu trei ocoale silvice experimentale: Sinaia, Carol I Mihăeşti-Muscelşi Huffel – Ţigăneşti-Ilfov. Astfel se realizează năzuinţa institutului în dotarea cu ocoale silviceexperimentale.• 1945 – Se aduc modificări structurale importante I.C.E.F.-ului. Au fost sporite numărul secţiilorde la 5 la 8, apoi de la 8 la 10 şi s-au creat noi organe de conducere şi îndrumare. Denumireainstitutului s-a schimbat în ,,Institutul de Cercetări Forestiere al României”, conducerea fiindîncredinţată prof. C.C. Georgescu.• Până în 1947 Institutul de Cercetări şi Experimentaţie Forestier ă (I.C.E.F.) a funcţionat pe bazalegilor de organizare a Ministerului Agriculturii şi Domeniilor şi conform deciziilor ministerialede înfiinţare şi organizare.• El n-a avut o lege proprie, organică, de funcţionare.• 1947 – Este promulgată Legea nr. 173 pentru reorganizarea Institutului de Cercetări Forestiereal României (I.C.E.F.) în Institutul de Cercetări Forestiere, republicată în M.O. nr. 129 din 9iunie. Apariţia acestei legi, cu sprijinul nemijlocit al acad. Tr. Săvulescu, ministrul Agriculturiişi Domeniilor din acea perioadă, a constituit o recunoaştere oficială a str ăduinţelor îndelungatedepuse de corpul silvic pentru binele pădurilor ţării, ştiinţei forestiere româneşti şi economieinaţionale. Această lege fixează în coordonatele ei fireşti cercetarea silvică românească, fixându-i patrimoniul, considerându-l inalienabil. Numărul secţiilor se reduce de la 10 la 8, avândurmătoarele denumiri:I - Cultura şi exploatarea pădurilor;II - Botanică, ecologie, genetică şi fitopatologie;

III - Protecţia pădurilor, fenologie, zoologie, entomologie şi vânătoare;IV - Pedologie forestier ă;V - Amenajări forestiere, cubaje, creşteri şi estimaţiuni;VI - Tehnologie şi industrializarea lemnului şi a altor produse forestiere;VII - Construcţii forestiere, instalaţii de transport şi cadastru;VIII - Economie, administraţie şi politică forestier ă, studiul muncii. Ca unităţi exterioare, Institutul de Cercetări Forestiere, avea:- staţiunea experimentală forestier ă şi cinegetică ,,Banat”;- staţiunea experimentală forestier ă ,,Băr ăgan”;- staţiunea experimentală forestier ă ,,Dobrogea”;

- staţiunea experimentală forestier ă ,,Mihăeşti”;- staţiunea experimentală forestier ă ,,Sinaia”;- staţiunea experimentală forestier ă ,,Snagov”. Institutul a primit un local propriu corespunzător (Şos. Kisselef nr. 55-65), care a permis, pentru

prima dată, gruparea în aceeaşi incintă a tuturor laboratoarelor. A urmat dotarea cu aparatur ă modernă şi trecerea la o nouă etapă de organizare a cercetărilor pe bază de planuri tematicecorelate cu cerinţele economiei naţionale.• 1949 – Se înfiinţează Staţiunea experimentală forestier ă ,,Câmpulung Moldovenesc”.• 1948-1976 – Institutul sufer ă unele metamorfoze, fie prin contopirea lui cu activităţile deamenajare a pădurilor şi proiectarea de investiţii, fie cu activitatea de mecanizare a lucr ărilorsilvice,fie prin revenirea acestuia la gruparea cercetărilor forestiere cu profil de cercetare complex,după cum urmează:• 1950 – Decretul 88 grupează activitatea de cercetare în două noi sectoare, unul pentru silvicultur ă şi altul pentru exploatarea şi industrializarea lemnului.



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• 1951 – Cele două sectoare sunt transformate în institute de sine stătătoare: Institutul de CercetăriSilvice (I.C.E.S.) şi Institutul de Cercetări pentru Industrializarea Lemnului (I.C.E.I.L.).• 1956 – Se înfiinţează Institutul pentru mecanizarea lucr ărilor silvice şi a exploatării pădurilor(I.C.M.S.E.), care în 1958 prin ordinul nr. 50 din 15 mai privind aplicarea HCM nr. 530/1958se comasează cu I.C.E.S. formându-se astfel Institutul de Cercetări Forestiere (I.C.F.), organizat

pe 5 secţii de cercetare cu 22 laboratoare, 17 staţiuni, 22 puncte experimentare şi 12 puncte deobservaţii, în cadrul cărora activau 164 cercetători, din care 86 la unităţile exterioare şi 207 cadreajutătoare.• 1960 – Se revine la gruparea cercetărilor forestiere într-un institut cu profil de cercetare complex.I.N.C.E.F. (prin HCM 765/1960 – se uneşte I.C.F. cu I.C.E.I.L.) cu şapte secţii de cercetare(secţii noi: silvotehnica, vânătoarea şi produsele accesorii). La exterior se păstrează organizareaanterioar ă.• 1969 - Silvicultura trece de la Ministerul Economiei Forestiere la Ministerul Agriculturii.Ca urmare, prin HCM nr. 1110/1969 sectorul de cercetare din I.N.C.E.F. se uneşte cu cel deamenajare a pădurilor şi proiectare din I.S.P.F. (Institutul de Studii şi Proiectări Forestiere),formând Institutul de Cercetări, Studii şi Proiectări Silvice (I.C.S.P.S.). Astfel se face primul

pas spre integrarea de mai târziu a cercetării cu proiectarea şi producţia, fapt care s-a doveditviabil şi de mare actualitate şi eficienţă şi în prezent. În anii următori, şi acesta a mai suferitunele restructur ări neesenţiale, dar cu modificări în denumirea institutului: Institutul de Cercetări,Proiectări şi Documentare silvică (I.C.P.D.S.) şi Institutul de Cercetări şi Amenajări Silvice(I.C.A.S.) legiferat prin Decretele nr. 297/1973 şi nr. 139/1974, denumire care se păstrează şi azi,fiind cea mai lungă perioadă din existenţa institutului cu această denumire, chiar dacă, pe parcurs,a suferit unele modificări structurale, de statut juridic şi de relaţii de coordonare şi de subordonarefaţă de diferite instituţii.• 1976 – Modificări importante în structura organizatorică şi în activitatea institutului. Prin,,Programul naţional pentru conservarea şi dezvoltarea fondului forestier în perioada 1976-

2010”, aprobat prin Legea nr. 2/15.IV.1976, publicată în Mon. Ofic. Nr. 35/23.IV.1976 se prevedeorganizarea I.C.A.S. pe şase filiale zonale cu profil mixt de cercetare – amenajare – producţie,subordonat Ministerului Silviculturii şi în coordonarea ştiinţifică a Academiei de Ştiinţe Agricoleşi Silvice. În cadrul fiecărei filiale zonale funcţionau staţiuni de cercetare, staţiuni de amenajaresau staţiuni mixte de cercetare, amenajare şi proiectare de investiţii. În scopul integr ării activităţii,de cercetare cu producţia, institutul este dotat cu şase ocoale silvice experimentale (Tomnatic,Vidra, Mihăieşti, Caransebeş, Lechinţa şi Săcele).• 1990 – I.C.A.S. intr ă în structura Regiei Autonome a Pădurilor (devenită Regia Naţională

potrivit Legii nr. 26/1996 Codul Silvic), conform HG nr. 1335/1990, păstrându-şi patrimoniulcu cele şase ocoale silvice experimentale. Cu toate criticile aduse de o serie de personalităţi

ştiinţifice din institut, vis-a-vis de apartenenţa acestuia la Regia Naţională a Pădurilor, consider că opţiunea aleasă, pentru acea perioadă, a fost bună. În organizarea teritorială a cercetării ştiinţificeşi a amenajării pădurilor s-au f ăcut unele modificări de natur ă funcţională în sensul că au fostdesfiinţatefilialele teritoriale iar activitatea ocoalelor silvice a fost trecută în subordinea staţiunilorde cercetare pentru a face o legătur ă directă între cercetarea ştiinţifică şi producţie.• 1992 – Pe baza propunerilor Consiliului ştiinţific din ICAS, Regia Autonomă a Pădurilor aaprobat Strategiile de restructurare organizatorică a activităţilor de cercetare ştiinţifică, amenajarea

pădurilor şi producţie.• 2002 – O nouă lege pentru ICAS – Legea nr. 633/2002. Prin Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizareaşi funcţionarea unităţilor de cercetare-dezvoltare din domeniul agriculturii, silviculturii, industrieialimentare şi a Academiei de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Silvice ,,Gheorghe Ionescu - Şişeşti”, I.C.A.S. afost inclus în anexa 1, în subordinea Academiei. Imediat, la o zi după, Guvernul din acea perioadă,a dat Ordonanţa de Urgenţă nr. 62/2002 pentru modificarea anexei 1, în sensul că I.C.A.S. să r ămână, în continuare, în structura Regiei Naţionale a Pădurilor, f ăr ă personalitate juridică.



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Prin Legea nr. 633/07 decembrie 2002 de aprobare a Ordonanţei de urgenţă nr. 62/2002,Parlamentul României, prin amendamentele aduse Ordonanţei de urgenţă, a schiţat o nouă lege

pentru I.C.A.S. Din păcate nici până azi nu s-a elaborat Hotărârea de Guvern care să definească statutul juridic al I.C.A.S. şi patrimoniul I.C.A.S.

Parlamentul României

Lege nr. 633/2002 din 07/12/2002

privind aprobarea Ordonanţei de urgenţă a Guvernului nr. 62/2002 pentru modificarea anexei nr.1 la Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizarea şi funcţionarea unităţilor de cercetare-dezvoltare dindomeniile agriculturii, silviculturii, industriei alimentare şi a Academiei de Ştiinţe Agricole şiSilvice “Gheorghe Ionescu-Şişeşti”

Publicat în Monitorul Oficial, Partea I nr. 896 din 10/12/2002

Actul a intrat în vigoare la data de 10 decembrie 2002

Parlamentul României adoptă prezenta lege.

Articol unic. - Se aprobă Ordonanţa de urgenţă a Guvernului nr. 62 din 30 mai 2002 pentrumodificarea anexei nr. 1 la Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizarea şi funcţionarea unităţilor decercetare-dezvoltare din domeniile agriculturii, silviculturii, industriei alimentare şi a Academieide Ştiinţe Agricole şi Silvice “Gheorghe Ionescu-Şişeşti”, publicată în Monitorul Oficial alRomâniei, Partea I, nr. 369 din 31 mai 2002, cu următoarele modificări şi completări:

1. Titlul ordonanţei de urgenţă va avea următorul cuprins:

“ORDONANŢĂ DE URGENŢĂ pentru modificarea anexelor nr. 1 şi 6 la Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizarea şi funcţionareaunităţilor de cercetare-dezvoltare din domeniile agriculturii, silviculturii, industriei alimentare şia Academiei de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Silvice «Gheorghe Ionescu-Şişeşti»”

2. După articolul I se introduce articolul I1 cu următorul cuprins:“Art. I1. - Anexa nr. 6 la Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizarea şi funcţionarea unităţilor de

cercetare-dezvoltare din domeniile agriculturii, silviculturii, industriei alimentare şi a Academieide Ştiinţe Agricole şi Silvice «Gheorghe Ionescu-Şişeşti», publicată în Monitorul Oficial al

României, Partea I, nr. 358 din 29 mai 2002, se modifică, în sensul că poziţia nr. 6, referitoare laStaţiunea de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Acvacultur ă şi Ecologie Acvatică Iaşi, se elimină.”3. Articolul II va avea următorul cuprins:“Art. II. - În urma modificării prevăzute la art. I, Institutul de Cercetări şi Amenajări Silvice

r ămâne ca unitate cu personalitate juridică în structura Regiei Naţionale a Pădurilor.”4. După articolul II se introduc articolele III-VIII cu următorul cuprins:“Art. III. - Autoritatea publică centrală care r ăspunde de silvicultur ă coordonează, organizează şi

îndrumă activitatea de cercetare ştiinţifică şi inginerie tehnologică în domeniu, sprijină dezvoltareaacestora şi urmăreşte folosirea eficientă a rezultatelor obţinute în vederea fundamentării tehnico-ştiinţifice a măsurilor de gospodărire a pădurilor.

Art. IV. - Institutul de Cercetări şi Amenajări Silvice este în coordonarea ştiinţifică a Academieide Ştiinţe Agricole şi Silvice «Gheorghe Ionescu-Şişeşti» şi beneficiază de facilităţile prevăzutela art. 14-17 din Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizarea şi funcţionarea unităţilor de cercetare-dezvoltare din domeniile agriculturii, silviculturii, industriei alimentare şi a Academiei de Ştiinţe



17

Agricole şi Silvice «Gheorghe Ionescu-Şişeşti».Art. V. - Prevederile art. 13, art. 19 alin. (2) şi ale art. 20 din Legea nr. 290/2002 r ămân aplicabile

Institutului de Cercetări şi Amenajări Silvice.Art. VI. - Terenurile forestiere aflate în administrarea Institutului de Cercetări şi Amenajări

Silvice evidenţiate în SILV 1 - EFF la data de 31 decembrie 2001 au regimul juridic prevăzut de

art. 35 alin. (2) din Legea nr. 18/1991, republicată, cu modifi

cările şi completările ulterioare, şide Legea nr. 213/1998 privind proprietatea publică şi regimul juridic al acesteia, cu modificărileulterioare.

Art. VII. - În urma modificării prevăzute la art. I1, Staţiunea de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentruAcvacultur ă şi Ecologie Acvatică Iaşi trece ca unitate f ăr ă personalitate juridică în structuraUniversităţii «Al. I. Cuza» Iaşi şi în coordonarea ştiinţifică a Academiei de Ştiinţe Agricole şiSilvice «Gheorghe Ionescu-Şişeşti».

Art. VIII. - Staţiunea de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Acvacultur ă şi Ecologie Acvatică Iaşi beneficiază de facilităţile prevăzute la art. 14-17 din Legea nr. 290/2002.”

Această lege a fost adoptată de Senat în şedinţa din 18 noiembrie 2002, cu respectarea prevederilor art. 74 alin. (1) din Constituţia României.

PREŞEDINTELE SENATULUI NICOLAE VĂCĂROIU

Această lege a fost adoptată de Camera Deputaţilor în şedinţa din 26 noiembrie 2002, curespectarea prevederilor art. 74 alin. (1) din Constituţia României.

p. PREŞEDINTELE CAMEREI DEPUTAŢILOR,VIOREL HREBENCIUC

Bucureşti, 7 decembrie 2002. Nr. 633.

• 2004 – Consiliul de Administraţie al Regiei Naţionale a Pădurilor, prin încălcarea flagrantă aart. 35 alin. (2) din Legea nr. 18/1991, republicată, a art. nr. 24 alin. (2), lit. h). din Ordonan ţade urgenţă a Guvernului nr. 102/2001, aprobată prin Legea nr. 400/2002, a art. VI din Legeanr. 633/2002 publicată în Mon. Ofic., Partea 1, nr. 896 din 10/12/2002 şi art. 223 din Legeanr. 147/2004, a luat unele terenuri forestiere din administrarea Institutului prin efectul legii nr.2/1976 şi date în administrare unor direcţii silvice.

Ne punem întrebarea de ce nu i se recunoaşte dreptul legal al ICAS de administrare a propriilor baze materiale? Consider ăm că este cazul ca atât ministerul de resort, cât şi Regia Naţională a Pădurilor, să manifeste receptivitate pentru dotarea I.C.A.S. cu baze experimentale, fiind

benefice pentru silvicultura română, după cum arată marele silvicultor Marin Dr ăcea, fondatorulInstitutului.• 2008 – Apare un nou Cod Silvic: Legea nr. 46/2008, în care, un capitol special, capitolul X,cu articolele 74-77, este consacrat cercetării ştiinţifice din silvicultur ă. Institutul de Cercetări şiAmenajări Silvice ,,Marin Dr ăcea”, reorganizat prin Hotărâre de Guvern, are în administrare,

potrivit acestei legi, ocoale silvice experimentale şi alte baze experimentale, în care se efectuează cercetări în vederea generalizării rezultatelor în practica silvică.Dar pentru ca acest lucru să devină realitate, autoritatea publică centrală care r ăspunde desilvicultur ă trebuie să promoveze proiectul de hotărâre de Guvern, care să definească statul juridical I.C.A.S., patrimoniul I.C.A.S, organizarea I.C.A.S., etc. De ce oare se întârzie cu realizareaacestui deziderat? Ne-am fi aşteptat, ca la acest moment aniversar din viaţa I.C.A.S, 75 de ani de



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existenţă, cel mai preţios dar din partea ministerului de resort şi a Regiei Naţionale a Pădurilor, să fie elaborarea şi aprobarea actului normativ în cauză.

3. Perspectivele de dezvoltare ale I.C.A.S.

3.1. Realizari ştiintifice mai importante

Etapa 1933-1947. În această perioadă de pionierat au fost puse bazele cercetării ştiinţificeromâneşti în domeniul silviculturii. Preocupările de bază s-au axat pe iniţierea primelorexperimentări de durată şi pe necesitatea evidenţierii specificului cadrului natural şi al silviculturiinaţionale. Contribuţiile ştiinţifice aduse de cercetători de marcă, membrii fondatori ai institutului,

publicate în Analele institutului şi în alte publicaţii ale acestuia, prezintă şi astăzi interes pentruştiinţă şi practică, demonstrând astfel din plin eficienţa institutului, înfiinţat în anul 1933. Etapa 1948-1960. Cele mai remarcabile progrese s-au înregistrat în domenii ca: silvobiologie,inclusiv pedologie forestier ă, silvotehnică, protecţia pădurilor, biometria forestier ă, amenajament,

biologia vânatului, exploatarea forestier ă şi industrializarea lemnului. Au fost elaborate numeroase

lucr ări ştiinţifice originale de mare valoare practică în baza cărora au fost întocmite instrucţiunişi norme tehnice de cea mai mare importanţă pentru conturarea silviculturii în ţara noastr ă. Întoată această perioadă s-a împletit în mod armonios munca de creaţie ştiinţifică a două generaţiidistincte de cercetători: cea a membrilor fondatori ai institutului care au atins maturitatea lorsub raportul creativităţii şi cea a tinerilor cercetători. Acest lucru a constituit un exemplu deconlucrare în interesul progresului între două generaţii pătrunse de acelaşi devotament faţă de

pădurile ţării. Etapa de după 1960. La început silvicultura s-a aflat sub presiunea cererilor crescândeale industriei de prelucrare a lemnului pentru care s-a angajat în acţiunea de creştere rapidă a

producţiei pădurilor. În acest context, cercetarea ştiinţifică îşi amplifică preocupările în direcţia

creşterii productivităţii pădurilor, în care sens s-au f ăcut unele greşeli prin curentele şi modeleadoptate. Astfel, conceptele de bază ale silviculturii tradiţionale (naturalistice) sunt în parte

păr ăsite, în favoarea intereselor economice pe termen scurt. Pe prim plan se înscriu preocupările privind împăduririle pe cale artificială. Mai târziu, începând cu deceniul al nouălea, cercetările din silvicultur ă sunt reorientate în sensulunei armonioase îmbinări a concepţiei naturalistice (ecologice) cu cea economică, acordându-seimportanţă speciilor autohtone valoroase, în special stejarilor şi fagului, inclusiv amelior ării lor

pe cale genetică, regener ării naturale a arboretelor, combaterii biologice şi integrate a bolilor şidăunătorilor, funcţiilor de protecţie exercitate de păduri, ocrotirii naturii şi a mediului înconjur ător,valorificării complexe şi raţionale a tuturor resurselor forestiere. Prin aceasta se trece într-o nouă

etapă de dezvoltare a cercetării silvice româneşti se face un pas înainte pe linia mijloacelor deinvestigaţie, trecându-se la aplicarea pe scar ă largă a tehnicii moderne experimentale, bazate pemodele matematice evoluate şi pe prelucrarea automată a datelor. Bază materială şi dotarea laboratoarelor se amplifică considerabil. Peste 25 de lucr ări decercetare sunt premiate de Academia Română. Cercetătorii institutului reprezintă cu cinsteştiinţa silvică românească la congrese IUFRO, simpozioane şi consf ătuiri internaţionale. Peste15 cercetători ştiinţifici devin membri titulari şi membri corespondenţi ai Academiei de ŞtiinţeAgricole şi Silvice ,,Gheorghe Ionescu – Şişeşti” şi ai Academiei Române. Cercetătorii români

preiau conducerea unor compartimente I.U.F.R.O., aducând astfel partea noastr ă de contribuţiela propăşirea ştiinţei universale, realizându-se obiectivul enunţat de fondatorul Institutului,

profesorul Marin Dr ăcea. În perioada de după 1990, Institutul s-a confruntat şi încă se mai confruntă cu dificultăţifinanciare evidente. Totuşi, cu toate greutăţile inerente unei economii aflate în perioadă detranziţie, Institutul a fost dotat cu tehnică nouă de calcul, practic fiecare cercetător dispunând de

,

^



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cel puţin un calculator. Au fost dotate laboratoarele de cercetări pedologice, fiziologice, ecologice,cu aparatur ă performantă, unele din acestea de ultimă generaţie. Tot mai mulţi cercetători devindoctori în ştiinţe silvice şi predau cursuri la diferite universităţi.

3.2. Perspective. I.C.A.S. este necesar să aibă statut de Institut naţional. Acest lucru este posibil

prin promovarea unei Hotărâri de Guvern, potrivit noului Cod Silvic – Legea nr. 46/2008 încare să se stabilească statutul juridic şi patrimoniul ICAS (clădiri, ocoale silvice experimentaleşi alte baze materiale). Pentru înf ă ptuirea acestui deziderat, principalii interesaţi ar trebui să fieministerul de resort şi Regia Naţională a Pădurilor. Cercetarea silvică românească trebuie reconsiderată în contextul schimbărilor climatice. Cudotarea existentă şi cu specialiştii săi de înaltă clasă, I.C.A.S. a dovedit că este capabil să efectuezelucr ări complexe de anvergur ă, aşa cum a demonstrat în cazul realizării studiilor de necesitate,studiilor de fezabilitate şi a proiectelor tehnice pentru realizarea Sistemului naţional al perdelelorforestiere de protecţie în ţara noastr ă, potrivit Legii nr. 289/2002. I.C.A.S. trebuie să se facă respectat şi să fie respectat, să se impună opiniei publice şi atenţieilumii forestiere internaţionale prin realizări de prestigiu în folosul pădurii şi al silviculturiiromâneşti, spre binele întregii societăţi!

Bucureşti, 20 oct. 2008



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Bucharest, Romania

Researches regarding the parametric objective ap-

proach of the climatic year structure in hilly and mo-

untainous regions, in the frame of climate changes

V. Huber

Huber V. 2009. Researches regarding the parametric objective approach of the cli-

matic year structure in hilly and mountainous regions, in the frame of climate chan-

ges. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference

“Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest,

Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 21-28.

Abstract. The paper presents the results of the researches carried out in the region of

“Carpaţii de Curbur ă “ with regard to the structure of the climatic year in mountain

and hill regions. The researches started from the well known truth, according to

which “mountain seasons” rarely coincide with calendar seasons. This is the reason

why the mountain climate has been analyzed by “dividing” the climatic year into

its real, natural components and by identifying those homogenous temporal seg-

ments, individualized through distinct features and delimited on objective scientificcriteria: daily climatic data throughout a period of 35 years (1962-1996). Thus, there

has been framed a structure of the climatic year made of four seasons – these sea-

sons are not similar to calendar seasons, except for their denomination – as well

as 12 climatic stages clearly delimited on climatic layers. For instance, beyond the

‘borders’ of the three months of the calendar year considered, the winter mountain

climatic season lasts for 5 months and a half (165 days). In conclusion, under the

conditions of climate changes and, implicitly, of structuring forestry on layers, our

researches bring contributions to developing the mountain climatology and set he

bases for the elaboration of a “unique phenoclimatic calendar of forestry works”, on

phytoclimatic layers.

Key words: the structure of the climatic year, mountains’seasons, phenological ca-

lendar.

Author. Viorela Huber - Transylvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Silviculture

and Forest Engineering, Şirul Beethoven St. 1, 500123 - Braşov, Romania.

Introduction

In mountainous regions the researcher deals with a geographical complexity characterized by a

diversity of climatic conditions which are not found in any other region.

The mountainous relief generates the most complex changes in the assembly of latitudinal and

altitudinal bio-geographical zonality.

Local climatogenesis, so complex in mountainous regions, may be best deciphered under the

conditions of a spatial-temporal research, under seasonal aspect, throughout the whole year.



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Notwithstanding, in our country, the issue of structuring the climatic year, the climatic seasons

has not drawn the attention of researchers. The studies, which have been carried out so far,

have considered only the framework of calendar seasons, except for the studies upon the winter

season when a certain approach was brought to the months of this season (last December and this

January-February).

Three basic issues are put forward when scientifi

c research approaches climatic seasons:meteoclimatic genesis of seasons, their structure and inter-seasonal connections that actually aim

at delimiting and structuring climatic seasons.

In this paper: (i) Climatic seasons were conceived as divisions of the astronomic year,

characterized by a relative meteoclimatic homogeneity, by a particular evolution of atmospheric

processes and phenomena, expressed through certain (phenological) aspects of landsaft of the

vegetal layer; (ii) The climatic stage is that part of the climatic season which is distinguished

through either the “weakness” tendency of the preceding season or the “accentuation” tendency

of the following season, with obvious changes of the active surface aspect. The stages of the

climatic season may be individualized within seasons as well, when they are characterized by

a rhythm of different intensities of meteorological processes and phenomena, for instance the

mid-summer stage, which expresses a distinct regime, relatively more constant, “calmer” of the

weather, as compared to the other stages of the season.

Research location. Research material

Researches were carried out under the conditions of a mountainous system of great complexity

in the sector of “Carpaţii de Curbur ă” (Fig. 1) made up of mountainous massifs “Postăvaru” and

“Piatra Mare” and a great depression – Depression of Braşov – the greatest intra-mountainous

depression in the Romanian Carpathians. Meteorological data were provided by a network

of meteorological stations that operated in the whole Postăvaru massif, on climatic layers, at

Fig. 1 Map of “Carpaţii de Curbur ă” Mountains. Territorial subunits



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altitudes of 534-1724 m, during the period 1912-2007 (main meteorological station – Braşov

– 609 m), and during the period 1962-1996 the other meteorological stations as shown in figure

2. (i) Meteorological station from Ghimbav (534 m) for Bârsa depression plain, belonging to

the Transilvanian plateau hills layer; (ii) Meteorological station from Braşov – city (609 m) for

sub-mountainous sector, belonging to the same layer of Transilvanian hills; (iii) Meteorological

station from Poiana Braşov (1026 m) from the lower mountainous layer; (iv) Meteorologicalstation from Cristianu Mare (1724 m) situated at the limit between upper mountainous layer and

sub-alpine layer.

Research results

To objectively delimit climatic seasons and their stages, daily meteorological and phenological

data were required. Essentially, objective (parametric) criteria and phenological (observational)

criteria have been considered.

The fulfillment of objective criteria resided in daily meteorological data regarding: (i) daily

mean temperature (inter-diurnal variation of daily mean temperatures: (i.i) intense increasing

– spring; (i.ii) rapid decreasing – autumn; (i.iii) relative “stability” – winter and summer. (ii)

daily maximum mean temperatures; (iii) absolute maximum temperature; (i.v) absolute minimum

temperature; (v) cumulative sums of daily mean temperatures >0°C; (v.i) mean duration of the

first and last frost (tmin

< 0°C); (v.ii) mean and maximum daily duration of insolation; (v.iii) mean

and maximum depth of the snow layer.

The observation-oriented criteria stem from the data provided by the daily observations

regarding: (i) formation and disappearance date of stable and unstable snow layer; (ii) beginning

date of the snow layer “partial melting”; (iii) date of first and last snows; (iv) aspects of the

geographic and phenological landscape (phenosignals): (iv.i) apparition (blooming) of some

plants and succession of the other phenophases; (iv.ii) long-lasting snow water “stream”; (iv.iii)

autumn coloring and leaves falling etc. The above enumeration shows that most of the objective criteria considered belong to the air

thermal regime on account of the fact that: (i) air temperature is surely the most representative

and important climatic parameter (atmospheric air impresses through its temperature); (ii) it is

Fig. 2 The network of weather stations that operated in the whole Postavaru massif, on climatic layers, at

altitudes of 534-1724 m.



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the climatic element that best synthesizes the action of all weather and clime generating factors

(solar radiation, atmospheric circulation and subjacent surface) and that is characterized by a

well-expressed seasonal variety; (iii) it best conditions the phenological rhythm of both organic

and anorganic world.

Figure 3 illustrates that the daily mean temperature, during its evolution throughout the whole

year, expresses not only the general rhythm, “in waves” of meteoclimatic processes, but also thevarious intensity of these processes throughout the year.

Starting from these parametric and phenological criteria, 4 seasons and 10 stages of the climatic

year were delimited. They are presented in figure 4 and show as follows: (i) in upland regions of

the mountain, meteorological seasons are not similar to calendar seasons; they are delayed and

have a variable altitudinal duration; (ii) spring stages delay on highest summits by 30-40 days,

and winter stages are 46 earlier as compared to lowland regions; (iii) spring, summer and autumn

seasons, on mountain summits, have a duration of about two months each; (iv) whereas “Brasov

summer” at the foot of the mountain lasts for about 100 days, the “mountain summer” on the

highest tops of the massif lasts for only two months; (v) the duration of the winter season presents

the greatest altitudinal difference: from a duration of 94 days in Braşov, to 5 months and a half

(167 days) at the altitude of 1724 m.

The real and objective practical utility of the data provided by phenological observations in

delimiting and characterizing climatic seasons and layers is shown in the data presented in figure

4 “Phenoclimatic calendar of “Carpaţii de Curbur ă”.

As for the possibilities to use the elements provided by the phenological calendar to plan

forestry works, we state, in the first place, the fact that in production it is very important to know

the best time for carrying out various works. Therefore, the first two stages of spring indicate

exactly the periods when spring works must be carried out.

The best period to start the afforestation works, especially on slopes exposed to early snow

melting, is the period that comes just after the blooming of the nut tree, Alnus incana and prevernal

herbaceous plants. The altitudinal variation of the climatic stages duration between the altitudes of 600 to 1800

meters.

The data regarding the buds blossom indicate the moment when the afforestation works must

be finished in the respective phytoclimatic layer. The shrubs and the arborescent species that have

an early vegetation must be planted around the date when the snow is to melt and racemosa buds

blossom.

The phenomena characterizing summer and autumn layers indicate the dates for harvesting the

forest fruits and forest seeds.

The works for fir cone ( Abies alba) harvesting may be planned around the dates in the

phenoclimatic layer when autumn crocus (Colchychum autumnale) blossoms and just after thefirst autumn frosts.

Conclusions

Our researches have emphasized that “mountain seasons” are rarely similar to “calendar

seasons”.

This is the reason why, by “dividing” the climatic year in its real, natural and relatively

homogenous components, the researchers have structured the climatic year in 4 seasons and 12

climatic stages, clearly delimited, on objective criteria, on climatic layers. By framing the real

phenoclimatic calendar, within the framework of anticipated climate changes and, implicitly,

within the framework of forestry specialization, on phytoclimatic layers, researchers bring

contributions to the development of the Romanian mountainous climatology and set the bases for

the elaboration of a unique calendar of forestry works, on phytoclimatic layers.



25

F i g .

3

T h e c l i m a t i c y e a r s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e i n t e r d i u r n a l e v o l u t i o n o f d a i l y a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e s i n t h e i n f e r i o

r l e v e l o f t h e m o u n t a i n



26

F i g

. 4

T h e c l i m a t i c y e a r s t r u c t u r e i n t h e C a r p a ţ i i d e C u r b u r ă ” M o u n t a i n s



27

References

Arlery, R. 1973. Climatologie. Editura Gauthier-Villars, Paris.

Barry, G.R. 1981. Mountain, Weather and Climate. Metheuen, London and New York, 313 p.

Bâzâc, Gh. 1983. Influenţa reliefului asupra principalelor caracteristici ale climei României. Editura

Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 179 p.

Cadéz, M. 1957. Sur une clasification des types de temps. La Météorologie, nr. 1-6, Paris.

Donn, L.W. 1965. Dinamica atmosferei. Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti, 475 p.

Huber, Viorela 2001. Cercetări asupra regimului meteoclimatic al spaţiului montan. Teză de doctorat,

Universitatea din Bucureşti, 217 p.

Malberg, H. 2001. Meteorologie und Klimatologie. Ed. Springer, Berlin, 364 p.

Marcu, M. 1971. Cercetări topoclimatice şi fenologice in masivul Postăvarul. Teză de doctorat, Institutul

Politehnic, Braşov, 210 p.

Velcea, V. 1964. Relieful ca element de bază in cercetările fizico-geografice. Natura nr. 3.



28



29


Bucharest, Romania

Efects of accidental fluorine pollution on Prahova

Valley’s forest stands

M. Ianculescu, I. Popa, Şt. Neagu, C. M. Macarescu

Ianculescu M., Popa I., Neagu Şt., Măcărescu C. M. 2009. Efects of accidental uo-

rine pollution on Prahova Valley’s forest stands. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouri-

aud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a changing

environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management

Institute ICAS, pp. 29-40.

Abstract. The accidental pollution with uorine from Azuga Valley was inves -

tigated by dendroecological techniques. The effect of this pollution event is re-

ected in a signicant loss of relative volume growth differentiated by the degree

of damage. The maximum loss of radial growth is recorded one year after the

ecological accident and varies form 45% in heavily affected spruce stands to

27% in the moderately damaged stands.

Key words: uorine pollution, dendroecology, growth loss

Authors. Marian Ianculescu, Ionel Popa, Ştefan Neagu, Cristina Mihaela

Măcărescu - Forest Research and Management Institute, Bd. Eroilor 128, 077190

- Voluntari, Bucharest, Romania.

Introduction

Between December 2003 and June 2004, during a relatively short time, there was an environmental

accident in Azuga Valley because of an accidental pollution with uorine from the refractory brick

factory, readjusted for processing of waste ore enriched with uorine. Following the dischargeof uorine, in concentrations higher than the allowable limit, without the existence of restraining

lters, the forests surrounding the source of pollution alarmingly coloured in red on over 1700

ha.

Materials and methods

Auxological (dendrocronological) researches have been carried out in the forest stands of the

Azuga Forest District, which have been in the period December 2003 - June 2004 under the

inuence of accidental pollution with uorine resulted from the calcination of ores rich in uorine

in the former refractory brick factory in the town Azuga. It was analyzed the annual ring width,

in chronological sequence, using core samples for long time series extracted from average trees

of the forest stands located in the permanent sample plots which are presented in Table 1. After

^ ^



30

measuring the width of annual rings from 10-15 average trees of the forest stands in permanent

sample plots, the following data were calculated: the series of statistical parameters of growth

obtained with the Hugershoff function of the generalized growth (Ianculescu 1975, 1977, 2005;

Popa 2004), the average radial increment series - I r (mm) – for the average trees in the research

area, average growth index of the stands affected by pollution with uorine in relation to the

growth indexes of unaffected stands (Table 2). In order to determine the growth losses of the tree stands which were affected by pollution, it

was used a method described in the scientic literature (Ianculescu 1975, 1977, 1987, 2005). This

method consists mainly in research into the chronological sequence of annual rings from average

trees of the stands mapped according to the extent and area of injury. The general rule that the

average tree of the stand is also the average tree of diameter increment, within the even- and

relative even-aged stands, is used for determining diameter increment of forest stands based only

on 10 to 15 core samples taken from trees with approximate average diameters, estimated based

on inventory of trees in permanent sample plots and located in damaged and undamaged forest

stands. Because the forest stands are not homogenous (practically unlikely to nd in real life)

the increment was compared against their relative values, using annual ring width index (growth

index). These values are the relative expression of the variation curve of the annual rings against the

ideal increment curve and the result of the relation between the actual width of annual rings

and the normal value, given by the compensated value of the increment curve, multiplied by

a hundred. In these situations, annual rings indices allow comparison of increment variations

both for different forest sites and for different ages. They also facilitate the mutual comparison

between different time intervals of increment curve. In order to compensate the actual diameter

increment for beech and spruce stands in Azuga research area, a complex exponential function,

which does not contradict the properties of the development curve, is proposed by Hugershoff as

follows:

(1)

being easy to see that it is obtained by merging a parabolically degree m function and an

exponential function.

The relative growth indices ( IC i) are determined, for the forest stands that are unaffected by

pollution and for those in various damage categories, as a relative ratio of the annual increase in

diameter (id ) and the compensated value of the diameter increment (i

dc), multiplied by 100.

(2)

According to the work methodology presented by Ianculescu (1975, 1977, 1987, 2005),

knowing the relationship between indices of growth in forest stands affected by noxious inuence

and those of witness stands, denoted symbolically by IRi, the growth loss in diameter ( ΔP

id ) will

result from the following relation:

ΔP id = 1 – IR

i, where

ΔP id = growth loss in diameter,

IRi = ratio between increment indices,

i = damage extent.

From research conducted by Ianculescu (1977, 1987, 2005), it results that the basal area growth

loss ( ΔP ig ) is higher with maximum 2% than the diameter increment loss ( ΔP

id ), and consequently

we are able to approximate the following relation: ΔP id ≅ ΔP

ig .

Because the reduced hight growth loss (ΔPihf) is regarded as negligible, we consider the

following approximations: ΔP id ≅ ΔP ig ≅ ΔP iv, where ΔP ig = basal area growth loss and ΔP iv =volume growth loss.

In case of uorine pollution from Azuga, growth samples (core samples) obtained from average



31 T a b l e

1 B i o m e t r i c a l d a t a o f t h e f o r e s t s t a n d

s i n p e r m a n e n t s a m p l e p l o t s l o c a t e

d i n A z u g a a r e a a f f e c t e d b y u o r i n

e p o l l u t i o n

A z u g a F o r e s t D i s t r i c t

S i t e

D i s t a n c e

t o

p o l l u t i o n

s o u r c e

( k m )

M a i n

t r e e

s p e c i e s

R e -

g i m e

A g e

( y e a r s )

N u m b e r

o f t r e e s

p e r h a

N . h a - 1

B a s a l

a r e a p e r

h a

G . h a - 1

( m p )

A v e r a g e

d i a m e t e r

o f t h e

m a i n t r e e

s p e c i e s

D g ( c m )

A v e r a g e

h e i g h

t

o f t h e

m a i n

s p e c i e

s

h g ( m )

D e n -

s i t y i n - d e x

S i t e

c l a s s

V o l u m e

p e r

h e c t a r e

V . h a - 1

( m c .

h a - 1 )

D a -

m a g e

d e -

g r e e

I d e n t i -

c a t i o n

b a t c h

M a n a

-

g e m e n t

U n i t

U . P .

C o m -

p a r t -

m e n t

u n i t

u . a .

V I . O b â

r ş i a

A z u g

i i

2 1 A

1 3 . 0

S p r u

c e

P

9 0

5 6 6

7 1 . 7 3 1

4 0 . 1 6

3 1 . 1

1 . 2 7

2

9 4 0 . 4 2 6

w

i t n e s s

-

V I . O b â

r ş i a

A z u g

i i

6 8 A

8 . 5

S p r u

c e

P

7 0

3 1 2

5 2 . 4 7 6

3 0 . 6 8

2 8

0 . 9 8

2

6 7 1 . 9 5

w

i t n e s s

-

I I . V a l

e a

C e r b u l u i

1 1 A

4 . 0

B e e c h

S

1 5 0

1 4 4

3 7 . 3 7 8

5 7 . 4

3 5 . 4

0 . 7 9

1

6 9 8 . 2 4

l o w

A Z U F

I I I . V a l e a

G r e c u l u i

9 B

1 . 5

B e e c h

S

5 0

1 1 6 0

3 3 . 9 3 6

1 9 . 3

2 0 . 9

1 . 0 8

2

3 8 1 . 6 4

s

t r o n g

A Z U E

I V .

C l ă b u c e t u l

T a u r u l u i

3 1 D

3 . 7

S p r u

c e

P

9 5

2 7 6

3 2 . 6 5 6

3 8 . 8

3 1

0 . 5 7

2

4 2 4 . 5

l o w

A Z U A

I V .


T a u r u l u i

4 5 A

3 . 2

S p r u

c e

P

1 0 5

4 3 5

5 9 . 9 8

4 1 . 9

3 3 . 8

1 . 0 4

2

8 8 1 . 7 5

l o w

A Z U B

I V .


T a u r u l u i

5 4 C

1 . 0

S p r u

c e

P

9 0

3 5 7

4 4 . 9 8 5

4 0

3 0 . 9

0 . 8 0

2

5 9 8 . 1 7

l o w

A Z U D

V I I . A z u g a

1 C

0 . 5

S p r u

c e

P

7 0

4 7 6

4 6 . 3 8 1

3 5 . 2

3 4 . 3

0 . 8 2

1

7 0 7 . 1 4

s

t r o n g

A Z U C



32

trees of the stands in permanent sample plots, after drying, were polished with abrasive belt of 200

to 800µ in order to enhance annual tree rings. Measuring the width of annual rings was achieved

with the TSAP program LINTAB, with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. Series of growth were cross-

dated by graphical method with logarithmic scale, the program Carota v.2.1 and veried with

COFECHA (Holmes 1983, Cook et al. 1997) by analyzing the correlation of 50 years dated time

segments (Holmes 1983). For each series of growth were calculated specic statistics parameters

(Douglass 1941, Frits 1976, Cook & Kairiukstis 1990, Popa 2004).

All individual growth series were standardized with Hugershoff function in order to eliminate

age effect for the dendrochronological series. Average series of standardized growth indices was

obtained through robust biweight average (Kairiukstis & Cook 1990). For this purpose it was

used the ARSTAN software (Grissino-Mayer et al. 1996) and the standard dendrochronological

type of series (STD).

Results and discussion

In the Figures 1, 2 and 6, 7 are given indications on growth, IC i, calculated both for spruce and

beech “witness” stands, unaffected by the pollution with uorine, and for those in various degrees

Table 2 Ratio between the growth index of forest stands affected by pollution and control stands in mana-

gement unit 21A U.P. VI

Year

Softly

polluted/

witness

Softly polluted/

witness

Moderately polluted/

witness

Strongly polluted/

witness

2006 92.22 127.13 101.52 79.97

2005 108.70 111.63 72.07 55.222004 85.10 94.52 68.65 54.022003 94.49 114.79 151.51 82.832002 81.58 80.87 95.65 72.572001 84.71 115.63 118.10 98.052000 64.12 94.94 112.79 95.521999 78.93 102.43 114.10 101.621998 66.35 77.57 90.79 77.131997 89.75 97.42 120.59 105.881996 84.87 90.05 112.70 97.99

1995 112.35 94.27 130.98 127.561994 106.00 104.80 127.59 116.251993 104.78 100.44 118.46 118.691992 107.67 106.24 111.39 111.751991 88.74 73.11 92.24 84.151990 99.14 81.75 74.95 82.401989 106.40 92.72 99.56 100.001988 106.50 101.59 91.18 125.141987 86.40 69.94 70.97 97.601986 97.30 91.00 73.90 108.70

1985 100.40 86.91 82.32 109.991984 101.22 80.16 86.16 93.791983 86.18 66.47 75.77 92.92

1982 81.15 72.66 69.53 82.711981 86.71 86.35 82.82 85.531980 94.17 94.17 82.91 92.49



33

of damage, according to the formula (2).

The use of growth indices allows comparison, in terms of growth, for forest stands of different

age, density, climate and site conditions, leaving only the resultant inuence of uorine pollution.

This is evident not only in comparing the indices of growth for 2004 and 2005, years that followed

immediately after excessively strong pollution with uorine during the period December 2003 -

June 2004. In the Figures 2, 3 and 6, where the growth indices for forest stands that were strongly,intermediate and softly polluted are in a descending trend, being below the 1.00 value index of

growth compared with forest stands that are considered witness in terms of the effects of pollution

by uorine, where the growth indices values are over 1.00. Specically, it is to compare Azuc,

Azud curves with Azua and Azub curve in Figure 2 and 3 (see correlation in Table 1) and Azue

curve (representing beech stands heavily affected by pollution with uorine) with Azuf curve, a

witness stand, theoretically (Fig. 6).

The results are much clearer if we analyze the details of the growth indices in Figures 3 and 6.

Thus, in Figure 3 is clearly seen that for the years 2004 and 2005, the indices of growth are below

the 1.00 average in stands that are strongly and moderately affected by pollution with uorine

( Azuc and Azud compared with Azua - presumably as witness). The same comment is valid for

Figure 6: Azue (heavily polluted) with Azuf , assumed as witness. It is worth mentioning that since 2006 it has started a growth recovery of strongly and

moderately affected stands, because of the shutdown in 2004 of the uncontrolled burning of

waste ore enriched in uorine, but is still maintaining at a lower value, compared with the growth

of stands considered without uorine pollution.

Considering the Figures 4, 5 and 7 and data in tables 2 and 3, the resulting variation of the

growth indices of spruce and beech stands, in the stands with various degrees of damage and

the growth indices of unaffected stands, presumed to be a witness and symbolically denoted

as IRi. It is noted here that for the years 2004 and 2005, years that followed to the discharge of

high atmospheric concentrations of uorine, in all spruce and pine stands affected by strong

environmental and noxious inuence, the ratio of growth indices of the polluted against theunaffected forest stands, alleged witness, is below the value of 100% and that for 2006 it has been

found a process of recovery of these increments, due to the elimination of pollution sources, but

Fig. 1 Average growth series for spruce stands (1947-2007)



34

Fig. 2 Average growth index for spruce stands (1947-2007)

Fig. 3 Average growth index for spruce stands (1996-2007)



35

Fig. 4 Variation of the ratio between growth index of spruce stands affected by pollution and

those unaffected in management unit 21A-U.P. VI (1980-2007)

Fig. 5 Variation of the ratio between growth index of spruce stands affected by pollution and

those unaffected in management unit 21A-U.P. VI (1996-2006)



36

Fig. 6 Average growth index for beech stands

Fig. 7 Variation of the ratio between growth index of spruce and beech stands affected by

pollution and those unaffected (witness)



37

still under the witnesses reference values, considered 100%.

In Table 4 are presented the values of the relative growth losses in diameter ( ΔP id ), which often

are equal or approximately equal with the volume growth losses ( ΔP iv).

From the data presented in Table 4 we conclude the following:

- maximum loss of diameter increment was recorded in 2004 and 2005, one year after the ecological

accident in the period December 2003 - June 2004, registering 45.98% and respectively 44.78%

to spruce stands strong affected, 31.35% and 27.93% in the moderately affected, and 26.28% in

the beech stands strongly affected.

- in 2006, two years after stopping the burning of waste ore enriched with uorine, it continues

to register losses in relative diameter increment by 20.03% to spruce stands affected and 25.93%

in beech stands considered affected by the phenomenon of reddening of leaves, but considered

moderately affected by the growth loss. However, it is acknowledged the recovery process,

meaning the decrease in the percentage of loss in diameter increment, after stopping the pollution

source in 2004. Future research could reveal a return to a normal growth of the forest stands in

question;- in the spruce stand heavily affected by pollution from uorine (u.a. 1C, UP VII Azuga, located

near the source of pollution (azua), there have been registered losses in relative diameter growth

Table 3 Ratio between growth index of beech stands affected by pollution and those unaffected

Species Beech

Year Strongly polluted/witness (Azue/Azuf)

2006 74.07

2005 73.72

2004 82.98

2003 108.99

2002 102.34

2001 161.75

2000 121.10

1999 102.68

1998 88.09

1997 106.16

1996 111.35

1995 79.391994 98.62

1993 123.22

1992 133.61

1991 136.59

1990 118.51

1989 137.49

1988 173.81

1987 142.06

1986 101.09

1985 99.691984 91.09

1983 93.40

1982 109.02

1981 93.68

1980 97.26



38

also in previous years, before the environmental accident, of 27.43% in 2002 and 17.17% in 2003.

This might be due to the inuence of the re brick factory’s normal activity, that caused the release

in the atmosphere of some amounts of air pollutants, such as uorine, with negative consequences

for the forest vegetation, especially in the immediate vicinity of the pollution source.

In Tables 5 and 6 are presented the growth losses in volume ( ΔI v) for spruce and beech species,

on damage degrees, in terms of loss of relative growth in diameter, ( ΔP id ), according to the current

annual growth in volume of all forest stands, extracted from the General Study for Management

Planning of the Azuga Forest District, from last edition, in 1999.

Table 4 Relative growth losses in diameter ΔP id for forest stands in permanent sample plots affected by

uorine pollution (Azuga Forest District)

* Average of the ratios between growth index of softly affected stands and growth index of the witness stands (Management

unit VII, compartment unit 21A)

Years

Ratio between growth index of forest stands that

were affected and those unaffected (witness) IRi

Relative growth losses in diameter

ΔPiv ≅ ΔPig ≅ ΔPid

Spruce Beech Spruce Beech

Softly

affected

( IR1)

Moderately

affected

( IR2)

Strongly

affected

( IR3)

Strongly

affected

( IR3)

oftly

affected

1- IR1

Moderately

affected

1- IR2

Strongly

affected

1- IR3

Strongly

affected

1- IR3

2006 109.66 101.52 79.97 74.07 - - 20.03 25.93

2005 110.17 72.07 55.22 73.72 - 27.93 44.78 26.28

2004 89.81 68.65 54.02 82.98 10.19 31.35 45.98 17.02

2003 104.64 151.51 82.83 108.99 - - 17.17 -

2002 81.22 95.65 72.57 102.34 18.78 4.35 27.43 -

2001 100.17 118.10 98.05 161.75 - - 1.95 -

Table 5 Volume growth losses ΔIv, during 2004-2006 period,in spruce stands affected by uorine

pollution Azuga Forest District

* From Forest management planning, 1999

Damage

degree

Years Relative volume

growth losses

ΔP iv ≅ ΔP

ig ≅ ΔP

id

(%)

Current volume growth

in Azuga Forest District

stands*

- I v

–

(m3an-1ha-1)

Current volume

growth losses - ΔI I v –

(m3an-1ha-1)

Softly damage 2004 10.10

7.2

0.732005 - -2006 - -

Mo d era t e l y

damaged

2004 31.35 2.262005 27.93 2.012006 - -

S t r o n g l y

affected

2004 45.98 3.312005 44.78 3.222006 20.03 1.44



39

Conclusions

The auxological investigations in forest stands of Azuga Forest District have highlighted the

signicant loss of relative volume growth, depending on the degree of damage as a result ofthe inuence of uorine pollution resulting from waste incineration of ore with rich content of

uorine in the former factory of refractory brick.

The results conrm for the rst time in our country the inuence of uorine pollution on growth

of forest stands, which results in a signicant damaging process. By law such damages should be

recovered from those who have produced it. In this way the investigations undertaken with the

nancial support of National Forests - Romsilva are justied.

References

Cook, E.R., Kairiukstis, L.A. (eds.) 1990. Methods of dendrochronology. Applications in the environmental

sciences. Kluwer Academic Publischers. Dordrecht. 394 p.

Cook, H.R., Holmes, R.L., Bosch, O., Grissino, M.H.D. 1997. International tree-ring data bank program

library. http:www.rgdc.noaa.gov/paleo/treering.html. (accessed in 2003).

Douglass, A.E. 1941. Crossdating in dendrochronology. Journal of Forestry 39: 825-831

Fritts, H.C. 1976. Tree rings and climate, Academic Press London, 567 p.

Garrec, J. P., Haluwyn, Ch. 2002. Biosurveillance végétale de la qualité de l’air, Londra, Paris, New Zork.

117 p.

Grissino – Meyer, H.D., Holmes, R.L., Fritts, H.C. 1996. International Tree Ring Data Bank program library

version 2.0 user’s manual. Laboratory of Treering Research, University of Arizona. Tucson, Arizona.

Holmes, R.L. 1983. Computer – assisted qualitycontrol in tree ring dating and measurement. Tree Ring

Buletin 43: 69-75.

Ianculescu, M. 1975. Aspecte metodologice privind determinarea pierderilor de creştere în diametru laarboretele poluate. Studii şi Cercetări, Seria I, ICAS, 33: 141-149.

Ianculescu, M. et al. 1977. Inuenţa poluării asupra creşterii pădurilor. Centrul de material didactic şi

propagandă agricolă, Seria II, ICAS, 47 p.

Ianculescu, M. et al. 1987. Cercetări privind dinamica fenomenului de poluare industrială a pădurilor din

zona Copşa Mică. Manuscris, Referat ştiinţic nal. ICAS, 182 p.

Ianculescu, M., Costea., C. 1989. Bewertungs – methoden für die durch Lufverungreinigungen Bedingten

Waldschäden. Berichte aus der Abteilung für Rechnungswesen und Forstliche Marketlehre. Institut für

Forstliche Betriebswirtschaft und Forstwirtschaftspolitik der Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien, Heft 8, pp.

165-169.

Ianculescu, M. 2005. Aspecte ale relaţiilor dintre pădure şi poluare. In Giurgiu V, (ed.): Pădurea şi modicările

de mediu, Editura Academiei Române, pp. 92-125

Popa, I., 2004. Fundamente metodologice şi aplicaţii de dendrocronologie. Editura Tehnică Silvică,

Bucureşti, 200 p.

Table 6 Volume growth losses ΔI v, during 2004-2006, in the beech affected stands with accidental uorine

pollution Azuga Forest District

* From Forest management planning, 1999

Damage

degree

Years Relative volume

growth losses

ΔP iv ≅ ΔP

ig ≅ ΔP

id

(%)

Current volume growth

in Azuga Forest District

stands*

- Iv -

(m3an-1ha-1)

Current volume

growth losses

- ΔI I v -

(m3an-1ha-1)

Strongly

damaged

2004 17.02

7.2

1.23

2005 26.28 1.89

2006 25.93 1.87



40

Ulrich, E., Bonneau, M. 1994. Etat nutritionnel des peuplements du reseau RENECOFOR. La sante de

foret.

UN/ECE – CEC 1994. Manual on methods and criteria for harmonized sampling, assessment, monitoring

and analysis of the effects of air pollution on forest. PCC, Praga, 177 p.

De Vries, W., et al. 2000. Intensive Monitoring of Forest Ecosistems in Europe. CEC-UN/ECE, Brussele,

Genova.



41


Bucharest, Romania

Hungarian oak and Turkey oak fructification in the

Western part of the Getic Plateau

I. Bercea

Bercea, I. 2009. Hungarian oak and Turkey oak fructification in the Western part of

the Getic Plateau. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings ofthe conference “Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“, October 23-25,

2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 41-52.

Abstract. The ecosystems with Hungarian oak (Quercus frainetto Ten.) and Turkey

oak (Quercus cerris L.) have formed stable structures along the time, but they have

been seriously affected since 1989 until 1994 by a long drought, followed by mas-

sive drying. The behavior of the two species differed, especially in what may con-

cern the fructification process, because the Hungarian oak didn’t fructify anymore

and the Turkey oak continued to fructify with the known periodicity. The research

has focused on assessment of fructification periodicity and intensity in the Hungarian

and Turkey oak, under the changes of the present climatic conditions. Fructification

periodicity of the Hungarian oak was very different from that of the Turkey oak

during the last three decades. The Hungarian oak had very abundant fructification in1981 and 2003 and only one weak fructification in 1995. These data together with

the information on fructification in the first half of the 20th century imply that the

Hungarian oak fructification period is between 8 and 11 years. The fructification

periodicity of the Turkey oak remains unchanged and it comprises a 2 to 5 years in-

terval. Climatic changes, manifested through very dry years, with high temperatures

for a long time and very large amplitudes in a short period of time, have resulted in

changing the fructification periodicity for the Hungarian oak and also in a massive

drying phenomenon. This determines differentiated carrying out of the cuttings for

rejuvenation and approaching a new strategy to maintain and perpetuate Hungarian

oak on its territories. Exhibiting a great endurance for climatic changes, the Turkey

oak fructifies normally, with the normal periodicity. This fact ensures an easy natu-

ral regeneration and a tendency of the Hungarian oak elimination from the mixed

stands.Keywords: Quercus frainetto Ten., Quercus cerris L., climatic changes, fructifica-

tion periodicity

Author. Iulian Bercea - Filiaşi Forest District, Radateanu St. 277, 205300 - Filiaşi,

Romania.

Introduction

Hungarian oak (Quercus frainetto Ten.) and Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L.) forests are ecosystems

with stable structures that can be found in the hot and dry regions in South Europe and mostly inthe Balkans and in our country, where they reach the northern and north-eastern extremes of their

natural ranges.



42

In our country, these species occupy 4.8% of the national forest territory with an area of 304

thousand hectares. They dominate the hilly plain of Oltenia and Muntenia, reaching altitudes from

70 to 200 m, with small horizontal and vertical fragmentation. In Oltenia and Muntenia, Hungarian

and Turkey oak can be found on low hills, their territory reaching to the north especially on the

Jiu Valley and the Olt Valley. The widest extension can be found on the Getic Plateau where the

largest Hungarian oak forests in our country are located. Seaca de Pădure forest, positioned tothe west of Craiova and especially Seaca-Optăşani forest, located to the south-west of Pitesti, are

considered to be the largest Hungarian oak forests in Europe.

The Hungarian and Turkey oak forests have a special socio-economic importance, due to the

wood they produce, as well as an ecological importance as they modify the terrestrial active

surface facing the hot and dry air masses that reach Oltenia’s Plain from the south and south-west

of Europe. The forests form a buffer area having a strong effect on the environmental equilibrium

of the region they occupy, especially on the climatic conditions.

The ecosystems with Hungarian and Turkey oak have formed stable structures along the time,

but they have been seriously influenced since 1989 until 1994 by a long drought followed by

massive tree dying. The intensity of dying phenomenon was quite different in the two species,

being more intense in the Hungarian oak stands of different ages.

Hungarian and Turkey oak decline has determined the start of some research activities that have

extensively evaluated the stand situation and to which extent the trees were affected. The drying

effect appeared while regeneration works were being applied in different stages to the exploitable

stands. Due to the extraction of dried trees from the stands, a disturbance of the normal course

of works and consequently of the regenerations took place. The behaviour of the two species

differed, especially in what may concern the fructification process, because the Hungarian oak

didn’t fructify anymore and the Turkey oak continued to fructify with the known periodicity.

Our research aimed at determining the fructification periodicity, its intensity and its dissemination

way in order to direct the cuttings for regeneration that will be performed in the Hungarian and

Turkey oak stands. Consequently it focused on the following aspects: establishing the favourablenatural environment for the Hungarian and Turkey oaks, evolution of the periodicity and intensity

of the Hungarian and Turkey oak fructification, and the influence of the fructification on the

assuring the natural regeneration of these tree species.


The territory chosen for the research is located in Oltenia and it comprises Motru Hills, Jiu Hills,

Gilort and Amaradia Hills, the northern area of the Bălăciţa Plateau, Segarcea Plain north-eastern

area, the north-western part of the Leu-Rotunda Field, geomorphologic units that can be found

in the Jiu area. The location for conducting the research was limited to areas with large spreading of Hungarian

and Turkey oak: for the southern part of the territory - Bucovăţ and Seaca de Pădure forests in

the forest departments of Craiova, and for the central and northern part - Argetoaia, R ăzboinicu,

Şuşiţa, Motru, Cărbuneşti, Murgeşti forests in the forest departments of Filiaşi, Strehaia, Motru,

Turceni and Cărbuneşti.

All observations were made in the following forest departments: Segarcea, Craiova, Filiaşi,

Şimian, Corcova, Strehaia, Motru, Tarniţa, Târgu-Jiu, Peşteana, Cărbuneşti, Turceni, Hurezani

and Amaradia, in 49 Production Units.

These representative forests with maximum spreading of the Hungarian and Turkey oak were

chosen in order to observe the standard conditions in which the two species vegetate, with the

aim of not influencing the conclusions that are generally applicable for this territory. In order

to assess the diversity of the conditions in which Hungarian and Turkey oak fructification takes

place, 77 observation plots have been placed. The plots were positioned within the most spread



43

types of forests, where the stand was at exploitability age and where regeneration had started due

to various reasons, and the study of fructification was appropriate.

The research territory was chosen as to comprise the most diverse conditions for the determinant

ecologic factors influencing Hungarian and Turkey oak fructification. The territory should

also have displayed the evolution through time of the destabilizing factors in the area, having

consequences over the stands and, implicitly, over their fructifi

cation. In order to achieve the objectives, a wide range of research that took place both outdoors (in

the field) and indoors (at the of fice) was initiated. Studies were conducted in order to establish

fructification intensity, dissemination distance, as well as Hungarian and Turkey oak acorn

viability, under normal vegetation conditions and under great oscillation of the determinant

ecologic factors condition as well.

Results

Fructification periodicity

The fructification periodicity in the Hungarian oak until 1955 is presented in the literature and it

was revealed that the species had a very good fructification in 1932, 1936, 1942, 1951 and 1955

(Marcu 1965). There is no specification related to the fructification years after that. Taking into

account both the information gathered from the forest districts within the investigated territory

and my personal observations, we can conclude that very good fructification took place in 1981

and in 2003.

Fructifications took place at 4-13 years intervals until 1955, but the periodicity significatly

increased (u to 23 years, during the recent decades. Between the abundant fructifications of the

period 1923-1955, there were also moderate fructifications during the years 1923–1936 and

1937–1942 (Marcu 1965), but only one weak-moderate fructification during the period 1981-

2003, in 1995. Periodicity of middle fructification is about 8 years. Seedlings of Hungarian oak of various ages, raised from seeds, were found in the testing areas

that were set for the research. This proves that the Hungarian oak had frequent weak fructifications

from which the seedling grew.

Taking into account the very long period without fructification in the Hungarian oak during the

last decades, we can conclude that the favourable periods for regeneration are very rare, and that

the Hungarian oak was in decline throughout the last period, the stability and continuity of the

pure Hungarian oak stands that reached the age of exploitability being at risk.

Consequently, this situation led to the reduction of areas naturally regenerated from seeds and

also to a declining quality of Hungarian oak regeneration. At the same time, it is really necessary

that the local sylviculturists optimally render profitable every year with moderate or abundantfructification, in order to reach a natural, but also an artificial regeneration, by directly sowing and

by producing seedlings from the gathered acorns.

The existence of some regeneration groups and pre-existing usable or unusable seedlings in the

Hungarian oak stands that can be harvested is due to the intermediary very weak fructifications.

Between 1981 and 2003, week and very week fructifications contributed to the installing of some

seedlings in the stands that comprise Hungarian oak trees.

In comparison with the Hungarian oak, the Turkey oak had, since 1981, six very abundant

fructifications in the following chronological order: 1982, 1986, 1989, 1994, 1998, 2005, at

intervals of 4-7 years, which means a fructification periodicity of 4-5 years. Between the years

with abundant fructification, there were also moderate fructifications in 1995, 2002 and 2004.

If we take into consideration the intermediary moderate fructifications, we conclude that the

favourable periods for natural regeneration from seeds of the stands that comprise Turkey oak

occur quite often, from 2 to 5 years (Bercea 2007).



44

Quantity and quality of the Hungarian oak disseminated acorn

The related research was conducted during the years 2002-2005 in the area of the following

forest districts: Craiova, Strehaia, Filiaşi, Turceni, Cărbuneşti, Peşteana and Târgu-Jiu, in order to

include different intensities of fructification for the two studied species. For this purpose, testing

areas were placed under the tree crowns and around them; all acorns were gathered periodicallyand their quality was determined by sectioning.

Hungarian oak had very weak fructification in 2002, 2004 and 2005, but a very good fructification

in 2003, an exceptional year. In 2003, also the old debilitated trees with dead tops fructified;

acorns were abundantly found on various offshoots of different ages. For the Turkey oak, 2002

and 2004 were years with moderate fructification. In 2003, the Turkey oak didn’t fructify, while

in 2005 fructification was very good.

For the studied territory, and not only, Hungarian oak fructification was of great interest,

especially through the mechanism of adaptation in order to ensure regeneration and perpetuation

on the occupied territories, taking into consideration the lack of fructification or its very low

intensity for a long period of time.

The following were noticed based on the observations made within Hungarian oak forests,

Turkey and Hungarian oak forests, Turkey oak forests and normal mixtures of common oak,

Hungarian and Turkey oak forests. In 2002, the Hungarian oak fructified very weakly, and the

dissemination period lasted between the 3rd of September and the 10th of November. During the

first period of dissemination, the acorn deteriorated by Balaninus glandium (20-45%) and the

dried or mouldy fell down (55-85%). The mean density was 3.7 acorns/m2 (Table 1), out of which

only 28% healthy acorns.

In the same testing areas, the seedlings raised after the weak fructification of 2002 were

inventoried on February 18th, 2004. A proportion of 53% of these was installed, as compared to

the fallen acorns.

This represents a very high percentage in comparison with the proportion (28%) of soundacorns fallen in the testing areas. The only explanation is that the seedlings installing had resulted

in the auto cutting seedlings. We should mention the fact that the testing areas were placed on

grass-free areas, having a thin layer of litter and forest soil favourable for seed germination in

optimal conditions.

Hungarian oak fructification was very good in 2003, the acorn dissemination starting at the

beginning of September, as the dried and deteriorated acorns fell. Measurements taken on

September 5th and 6th 2003 resulted into 2.2% and 5.3% fallen sound acorns.

The next measurements made on September 19th and 20th 2003 showed that the percentage

of the fallen sound acorns was between 11.4% and 43.2%, also noticing a slight latitudinal

differentiation, as 11.4% was recorded in the southern part of the territory in u.a. 124 A, U.P. IIISeaca de Pădure, and 43.2% in the central part of the territory (Table 2).

The dissemination period ended on November 1st 2003, when the Hungarian oak acorn fell

entirely. The percentage of sound acorns was between 75.1% and 84.9%, thus being noticed a

latitude differentiation: the smallest percentage of sound acorns 75.1% was located in the southern

part, while in the middle the percentage increased to 84.9% on some areas, but on others decreased

by 25% than in the central part of the studied territory. The number of sound acorns that were

disseminated during a year with a very good fructification under the protection of tree crowns

and around them was on average of 181 units on a square meter, varying between 142 and 206

units; this was considered to be an exceptional year for Hungarian oak fructification as a result

of the research. In many stands a great variation of the acorn quantity and quality was noticed,

depending on the site conditions, on the stand condition, on the age and individual characteristics

of trees. Within the research territories, parts of stands with as much as 420 acorns/m2 could also



45

be found (u.a. 112 B in U.P. II Argetoaia).

The dissemination of Hungarian oak sound acorns takes place after September 20th, with a peak

between October 1st and October 15th. This is closely related to the great temperature variation

between daytime and night time and especially to the first white frost day. The change in leaves

colour and the beginning of the leaf falling for the Hungarian oak coincides with the largest sound

acorns dissemination. Knowing the period, the dissemination rhythm and the acorn quantity fallen in the years with

fructification is useful in order to schedule and put in practice the forest workings necessary for

helping natural regeneration. In the years that preceded the exceptional fructification of Hungarian

oak in 2003, observations related to tree vegetation condition were made, in relation with season

weather in 2001 and 2002. The purpose was to notice the external factors that can influence the

Hungarian oak and that can determine fructification periodicity and intensity.

In the spring of 2002 trees started their vegetation late and the development of leaves was

very weak; the Hungarian and the Turkey oak leaves had very reduced dimension, between 1/3

and 1/2 of the normal leaf dimension. The abnormal developing of the leaves was determined

by rain rhythm in 2000, 2001, and 2002. The year 2000 was dry; 339.2 mm were recorded atthe meteorological station in Craiova and 359.2 mm at the meteorological station Bâcleş. When

looking at the rainfall, the first 9 months of 2001 were normal. The last three months were dry as

37.7 mm cumulated were recorded at the meteorological station in Craiova and 48.7 mm at the

meteorological station in Bâcleş.

The drought continued in the first half of 2002, as 120.3 mm cumulated precipitations were

recorded at the meteorological station Craiova and 128.5 mm at the meteorological station

Bâcleş. Practically, in a period of nine consecutive months (October 2001-June 2002) only 158

mm cumulated precipitations were recorded at the meteorological station Craiova and 177.2

mm at the meteorological station Bâcleş (Tables 3-4). The extremely reduced precipitation

was accompanied by high temperatures during spring and summer. This led to a much reduceddevelopment of leaves in Turkey and Hungarian oaks.

By analyzing the total precipitation in 2001 and 2002, we can claim that the values were normal,

SpeciesDate

Area Forest type

N u m b e r o f s e e d l i n g a f t e r o n e

y e a r o f v e g e t a t i o n

Number of

acornsPercentages

Healthy

D r i e d & d

e t e r i o r a t e d

T o t a l

H e a l t h y

D r i e d & d

e t e r i o r a t e d

T o t a l

10.11 u.a. 80 HHungarian oak plateau forest

middle productivity2 11 13 15 85 100 7

Hungarian

oak

10.11u.a.79 I

Hungarian oak plateau forest

middle productivity 5 6 11 45 55 100 6

11.11u.a. 124 A

Turkey oak and Hungarian

oak plain forest middle

productivity

4 12 16 25 75 100 8

Total 11 29 40 28 72 100 21

Table 1 Average number of acorns on 1 m2 area under the crown of the old Hungarian oak trees in 2002,

after a very weak fructification, and the number of seedlings one year later



46

but the distribution on months and seasons was not regular. Starting with July 2002, abundant

precipitations begun to fall and they continued during the first three months of 2003, as well. Thishelped the leaves to develop normally and flower-buds to differentiate, a fact which led to the

abundant fructification in the autumn of 2003. This matched to the extremely small production

Table 2 Average number of acorns disseminated on 1 m2 areas under the crown of Hungarian oak trees,

in 2003, after very good fructification

Species Date Area Forest Type

Number of acorns Percentages

H e a l t h y

D r i e d &

d e t e r i o r a t e d

T o t a l

H e a l t h y

D r i e d &


T o t a l

Hunga-

rian

oak

05.09 124 ATurkey oak and Hungarian oak

plain forests middle productivity0.3 13.1 13.4 2.2 87.8 100

06.09 82 M

Turkey oak and Hungarian

oak plateau forests middle

productivity

0.7 12.6 13.3 5.3 94.7 100

06.09 112 BHungarian oak plateau forests

middle productivity0.6 14.5 15.1 4.0 96.0 100

06.09 112 C Turkey oak and Hungarian oakhills forests middle productivity

0.7 16.4 17.1 4.1 95.9 100

Mean 0.6 14.1 14.7 4.1 95.9 10019.09 124 A 2.1 16.3 18.4 11.4 88.6 10020.09 82 M 22.9 30.1 53.0 43.2 56.8 10020.09 112 B 27.1 40.6 67.7 40.0 60.0 10020.09 112 C 25.1 36.3 61.4 40.9 59.1 100Mean 19.3 30.8 50.1 38.5 61.5 10030.10 124 A 142 47 189 75.1 24.9 10001.11 82 M 180 32 212 84.9 15.1 10001.11 112 B 206 45 251 82.1 17.9 10001.11 112 C 196 40 236 83.1 16.9 100

Mean 181 41 222 81.5 18.5 100

Fig. 1 Hungarian oak abundant fructification in 2003 autumn



47

of corn in the same zone, generating an unfavourable situation for Hungarian oak regeneration in

the stands located near populated areas, because the acorns were gathered by the peasants to feed

their pigs, being consumed by abusive grazing.

Hungarian oak acorns dissemination under the crown of the trees and outside it is nothomogeneous. For this reason, measurements were made on the direction of the four cardinal

points, around the seed-bearing trees in the area of acorns falling, installing on the testing areas

Year StationMonths

AnnualI II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

2000

Craiova 37.4 30.4 11.7 61.8 9.7 12.9 64.6 1.8 72.5 0.3 28.1 7.8 339.0Bâcleş 22.5 10.7 10.7 88.9 12.5 7.3 102.2 3.7 60.9 1.2 15.0 23.6 359.2Tg. Jiu 17.7 18.0 39.3 50.5 43.4 5.5 44.5 3.2 64.1 0.0 14.1 33.1 333.4

2001


2002


2003


2004

Craiova 65.5 27.5 33.9 17.6 66.9 123.4 31.7 27.6 55.6 17.5 99.2 35.7 602.6Bâcleş 39.3 42.5 35.1 49.4 53.4 97.5 44.1 60.8 39.2 33.5 90.4 11.6 596.8

Tg. Jiu 91.0 66.3 44.1 69.5 102.2 150.2 135.6 85.9 67.5 40.4 131.8 35.2 1019.7

2005


Table 3 Monthly and annual rainfall amount (mm) during the years 2000-2005

Year StationMonths Annual

meanI II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

2000

Craiova -3.8 -3.5 6.5 14.4 18.8 22.8 23.9 24.7 16.5 11.9 8.4 2.6 11.9Bâcleş -4.3 2.4 5.4 13.4 17.5 21.9 22.5 23.5 15.4 11.0 7.5 1.8 11.5

Tg. Jiu -4.1 2.1 5.6 14.0 17.4 22.1 22.9 23.5 15.7 11.1 7.2 1.3 11.6

2001

Craiova 0.9 3.0 8.8 11.1 17.1 19.1 23.4 24.3 17.3 14.2 4.7 -3.2 11.7Bâcleş 0.3 2.2 7.9 10.0 16.1 17.8 22.2 23.4 15.6 13.0 3.4 -4.1 10.7Tg. Jiu 0.9 2.8 8.0 11.3 16.5 18.5 22.1 23.0 15.6 12.1 4.0 -3.3 11.0

2002

Craiova -0.8 6.7 9.1 10.6 19.2 22.8 24.1 20.7 16.5 10.5 6.8 -3.5 11.9Bâcleş -1.1 5.9 8.5 9.8 18.2 22.0 23.0 20.1 15.8 9.9 6.7 -3.7 11.3Tg. Jiu -0.9 5.1 8.4 10.7 19.0 21.9 23.7 20.5 15.4 10.2 6.4 -2.7 11.5

2003

Craiova -1.7 -4.3 3.2 10.0 20.4 23.2 22.6 24.9 16.3 9.2 6.7 -0.4 10.8Bâcleş -2.0 -5.3 3.4 9.0 19.5 22.3 21.8 24.3 15.3 8.0 6.4 -0.6 10.2Tg. Jiu -1.6 -4.0 4.3 10.0 19.8 22.6 22.3 23.6 16.0 8.9 6.2 0.1 10.7

2004Craiova -3.5 1.3 6.2 11.7 15.1 19.4 22.4 21.9 17.1 12.6 6.5 1.3 11.0Bâcleş -3.5 0.7 5.2 10.9 14.3 18.8 21.3 21.1 16.0 11.9 5.8 1.0 10.3Tg. Jiu -3.2 0.6 6.4 12.0 15.0 19.3 21.7 20.8 15.7 11.7 6.2 1.3 10.6

2005

Craiova 1.1 -2.8 3.9 11.2 16.8 19.3 21.8 20.3 17.0 11.1 4.2 1.7 10.5Bâcleş 0.5 -3.1 3.0 10.2 16.2 19.0 21.1 19.4 16.5 10.4 3.8 1.2 9.9Tg. Jiu 1.0 -2.7 3.6 11.1 17.2 19.1 21.1 19.9 16.5 10.8 4.0 1.2 10.2

Table 4 Average air temperature (oC) at Craiova, Bâcleş and Târgu-Jiu during the years 2000-2005



48

on the directions north (N), south (S), east (E) and west (W), with the size of 1 m 2, one near the

other, from which all the acorns fallen were gathered on the specified dates (Table 5).

Most acorns fell on eastern and southern areas, 48% and 35% respectively of the whole

disseminated acorns quantity. At East, most of them fell on the testing area no. 3 (21%) and no.2 (16%) and at South, most of acorns fell on the testing area no. 3 (14%), followed by the testing

area no. 2 (12%).

The lowest percentages of acorns were recorded at west and north, 7% and 10% respectively,

and most acorns were on the testing areas no. 1 on both directions.

The greatest proportions of disseminated acorns were found on the testing areas no. 3 and no. 2

for the projection of the entire crown of the seed-bearing tree - 36%, respectively 33%, followed

by areas no. 1 and no. 4 (area no. 4 is usually found outside the projection of the crown of the seed

bearing tree).

Quantity and quality of the Turkey oak disseminated acorns

The research was conducted in the testing areas placed in the exploitable stands of u.a. 46 B (U.P.

II Bucovăţ), 124 A (U.P. III Seaca de Pădure), u.a. 44 B (U.P. I Gogoşu). The fructifications of

the years 2002-2005 were investigated. The investigations led to some conclusions having local

importance.

Turkey oak fructification in 2002 was of a middle intensity; acorn dissemination took place

between September 7th and October 31st, being a year of clear phenological differences, caused

by the abundant rainfall during July, August and September, that delayed the ripening, and by the

reduced dissemination period at the end of October, caused by the sudden cooling of weather,

negative daily average temperatures being frequently recorded in November. Acorns had smaller

dimensions than normal ones. This was caused by the long drought during the last quarter of 2001and the first quarter of 2002.

During the first period of dissemination, low quality acorns, dried ones, those touched by

Balaninus glandium and some of those with split tegument - as a result of the great precipitation

variations in the growing period - fell down. Around September 15th, 4.5% were healthy acorns,

the others were dried (55-80%), deteriorated by Balaninus glandium (15-42%) or with split

tegument in the middle part of the acorn (8-12%) (Table 6).

The small percentage of the disseminated healthy acorns maintained until October 16th (10-

12%), growing to 69% by October 24th, and then to 97% by October 30th. The dissemination

finished at the end of October, being accelerated by the low temperatures and by the early white

frost. Turkey oak fructification during 2002 was not homogeneous, neither in quality, nor in quantity,

with regard to the site conditions, to individual tree characteristics, but especially to tree

Direction from

the seed-bearing

tree

Percentage of the total number of

acorns fallen on the direction…

on the testing area number …..


acorns fallen on the testing area

number. ……...

1 2 3 4 Total 1 2 3 4 Total North 59 34 8 0 100 6 3 1 0 10

East 17 31 44 8 100 8 16 21 3 48

South 22 35 40 3 100 8 12 14 1 35

West 80 20 0 0 100 5 2 0 0 7

Total 27 33 36 4 100

Table 5 Hungarian oak acorns dissemination on 20th of September 2003 in u.a. 124 A U.P. III Seaca de

Pădure



49

positioning on the slope, being better for the trees at the base of the slope, placed in less sunnier

exposures.

In 2004, the acorn dissemination started at the beginning of September and ended on November

12th

. Dried, rotten and deteriorated by Balaninus glandium acorns fell first and this lasted untilOctober 16th. A more intense dissemination of healthy acorns took place by October 31st (80% of

the sound acorns), followed by a period of less intense dissemination by November 10th for trees

placed on the northern sides and at the base of the hill.

Acorn quantity and quality shows variations depending on the stand condition, on previous

exploitation technique, on the site conditions and on the species variability. Due to the abundant

precipitations and their homogeneous distribution throughout the vegetation season, there were

no differences that year regarding acorn quantity between the trees on plateaus and southern sides

and those at the base of the hill or placed on northern sides.

In 2005, Turkey oak fructification was very good; within the investigated areas placed under

the seed-bearing trees, there were around 86 healthy acorns per square metre (53 to 141 acorns

per sq m). The acorn dissemination started on September 5th and ended on November 12th. During

the first stage, which ended around October 15th, the dried and deteriorated acorns fell; then the

healthy ones until November 5th, while the last acorns fell around November12 th, at the same

time with the massive leaf falling start of the Turkey oaks trees. This was another year with non-

homogenous tree fructification, its intensity being different from one place to another, and even

from one tree to another, depending on site conditions, tree age, stand current condition, tree

individual characteristics, as well as on crown shape and developing.

The rhythm of dissemination is accelerated between October 15th and November 5th for the

healthy acorns (over 80%). Previous to this period, helping works for natural regeneration should

be conducted, especially those related to soil mobilization on the grassy areas and to removing of

under-brushes and overwhelming species seedlings. Turkey oak dissemination is not homogenous for the acorns under the seed-bearing trees and

outside them. This is the reason for which measurements were made on the directions of the four

Species

Date

Area Forest Type


H e a l t h y

D r i e d &


T o t a l

H e a l t h y

D r i e d &


T o t a l

Turkey

oak

07.09 80 HHungarian oak plateau forests


07.09 81 D

Normal mixture of sessile oak,

Hungarian oak and Turkey oak

plateau forests (m).

0.08 1.75 1.83 4.4 95.6 100


hills forests middle productivity0.08 1.5 1.58 5.0 95.0 100

06.09 153 B

Hungarian oak plateau forests

middle productivity 0.05 1.75 1.80 2.8 97.2 100Mean 0.07 1.58 1.65 4.45 95.55 10031.10 80 H 3.9 1.7 5.6 70.0 30.0 10031.10 81 D 12.7 1.9 14.6 86.9 13.1 10031.10 82 A 11.8 1.8 13.6 86.8 13.2 10030.10 153 B 15 2.3 17.3 86.7 13.3 100Mean 10.9 1.9 12.8 82.6 17.4 100

Table 6 Average number of disseminated acorns over 1 m2 under the crown of Turkey oak trees in 2002, a

year with a medium fructification



50

SpeciesDate

Area Forest Type


H e a l t h y

D r i e d &


T o t a l

H e a l t h y

D r i e d &


T o t a l

Turkey

oak

05.09 47 C

Normal mixture of sessile

oak, Hungarian oak and

Turkey oak forests

0 6 6 0 100 100

06.09 46 BTurkey oak and Hungarian

oak plateau forests0.1 6 6.1 1.6 98.2 100

07.09 82 LTurkey oak and Hungarian

oak hill forests (s)0.07 2 2.07 3.4 96.4 100

Mean 0.06 4.7 4.76 1.67 98.33 100

24.10 82 L 5.1 2.3 7.4 68.9 31.1 10016.10 47 C 0.8 7.2 8.0 10 90 10004.12 46 B 10.9 7.4 18.3 59.6 40.4 100

Table 7 Average number of disseminated acorns over 1 m2 under the crown of Turkey oak, in 2004, a

year with a medium fructification

SpeciesDate

Area Forest Type


H e a l t h y

D r i e d &


T o t a l

H e a l t h y

D r i e d &


T o t a l

Turkey oak

05.09 81 D

Normal mixture of sessile oak,

Hungarian oak and Turkey

oak plateau forests (m).0.1 4.8 5.9 1.7 98.3 100

07.09 153 BHungarian oak plateau forests



plateau forests middle productivity0 5 5 0 100 100

06.09 44 BTurkey oak and Hungarian

oak silvostepa forests (m)0.3 8.7 9.0 3.3 96.7 100

Mean 0.15 6.0 6.15 2.4 97.6 10001.11 153 B 84 8 92 91.3 8.7 10007.11 124 A 53 26 79 67 33 10012.11 81 D 141 6 147 95.9 4.1 10009.11 44 B 67 28 95 70.5 29.5 100Mean 86 17 103 83.5 16.5 100

Table 8 Average number of disseminated acorns over 1 m2 under the crown of Turkey oak, in 2005, a

year with a very good fructification

cardinal points. The seed-bearing trees selected for assessing the intensity of the Turkey oak

dissemination and the dissemination distance can be found in u.a. 81 D from U.P. II Argetoaia on

a northern side and a 50 slope.

Most Turkey oak acorns 33% can be found in the southern part of the seed-bearing trees,

followed by the eastern part - 31%, the smallest quantities falling in the northern and western part- 18% (Table 9).

Turkey oak acorns disseminate two meters outside the projection area, the greatest quantity of



51

acorns falling within the testing areas on the first three meters at the base of the tree, as it follows:

35% within the first, 32% within the next one and 22% within the third square meter (sq, m).

The southern and eastern parts, where most acorns fell, are relatively close as the proportion of

the acorns fallen within the first three square meters of the base of the seed bearer tree is between

21% and 33%, as compared to the western and northern parts, where the least quantity of acorns

fell (18%), and the greatest percentage of fallen acorns was within thefi

rst square meters fromthe base of the tree.

The largest distances where Turkey oak acorns were disseminated can be found in the southern

(4 m) and eastern (5 m) areas, where most acorns fell.

By analyzing tree acorns, we can observe a slight trend of going south-east, explained by the

phototropism phenomenon. This matches the larger dissemination distance of the crown. The

more intense light and heat influenced the biochemical processes of differentiating the leaf-buds

to a higher extent, as well as the fecundation and preserving of the fruit until their dissemination

in the autumn of 2005.

The acorn dissemination for trees on sloping plots was investigated separately, in order to

emphasize the differences compared to the flat plots. For this reason, testing areas were positioned

in u.a. from U.P. I Gogosu on a sloping side of 260 and southern exposure. It was noted that the

greatest quantity of acorn is disseminated to the south of the seed-bearing trees (60%); acorn

dissemination to the west and east of the seed-bearing trees is quite uniform, 20% and 16% of the

number of the fallen acorns respectively (Table 10). The smallest quantity of acorns is found to

the north of the seed-bearing trees (4% of the number of the fallen acorns).

The distance to which dissemination took place is strongly influenced by the plot slope.

Therefore, in the northern part acorns are found only on the first testing areas placed on this

direction, most acorns being within the first square meter from the tree base, while in the eastern

and western parts, the acorns were disseminated within the first four meters of the tree base, the

highest proportion being on the testing areas placed within two and three meters from the tree

base. In the southern part, the distance of dissemination reaches even 9 meters from the tree base, the

Table 9 Turkey oak acorns dissemination on 12.11. 2005 in u.a. 81 D, U.P. II Argetoaia

Direction from the

seed-bearing tree


acorns fallen on the direction…

on the testing area number …..

Percentage of the total number

of acorns fallen on the testing

area number…

1 2 3 4 5 Total 1 2 3 4 5 Total North 45 33 20 2 0 100 8 6 4 0 0 18East 23 30 21 22 4 100 7 9 7 7 1 31

South 32 33 26 7 2 100 11 11 9 2 0 33West 54 34 10 2 0 100 9 6 2 1 0 18Total 35 32 22 10 1 100

Direction from the

seed-bearing tree


of acorns fallen on the direction…

on the testing area number…


of acorns fallen on the

testing area number…

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total North 36 24 30 6 4 0 0 0 100 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 4

East 16 35 22 27 0 0 0 0 100 2 6 4 4 0 0 0 0 16South 2 5 5 13 14 14 28 19 100 1 3 3 8 8 9 17 11 60West 17 39 27 17 0 0 0 0 100 3 8 6 3 0 0 0 0 20Total 8 18 14 15 8 9 17 11 100

Table 10 Turkey oak acorns dissemination in u.a. 44 B, U.P. I Gogosu in 2005 autumn



52

greatest quantity of acorns (28%) being within testing area placed at seven meters from the tree,

followed by the testing areas placed at eight meters (19%) and at 4-5-6 meters (13-14%). In the

southern part of the seed-bearing trees we can also find the greatest quantity of healthy acorns

(29%), especially within the testing areas placed at 8-7-6 and 5 meters from the tree base. The

healthy acorns are the heaviest and the rolling distance is depending on the acorn weight.

After analyzing the measures taken, the conclusion is that the acorn dissemination happens ondistances between 4 and 9 meters from the massive edge towards the interior of seeding felling

area, depending on the projection size of the tree crown, on the plot slope.

Conclusions

Fructification periodicity for the Hungarian oak was very different from that of the Turkey oak

during the last three decades. The Hungarian oak had very abundant fructification in 1981 and

2003 and only one weak fructification in 1995. These data, together with the information on

fructification from the first half of the 20th century, suggest that the Hungarian oak fructification

period is between 8 and 11 years.

The fructification periodicity for the Turkey oak remained unchanged and it is of 2-5 years. The

ripening and dissemination of the Hungarian oak acorn starts during the first days of September,

by the falling of the dried and mouldy acorns, just the same as for the Turkey oak. Starting with

September 20th in the Hungarian oak, and with October 1st for the Turkey oak, the proportion of

the disseminated acorn increases, reaching the maximum between October 1 st and 15th for the

Hungarian oak and after October 15th for the Turkey oak, and finishes towards the end of the

month for both species.

The dissemination of Hungarian and Turkey oak acorns takes place under the seed-bearing

trees crown and within no more than 2 meters outside their crown projection on flat or with slight

sloping plots. Within the plots with high sloping, the dissemination takes place downstream on a

distance no larger than 9 meters from the base of the seed-bearing the tree, and on the level curveup to a distance of 6 meters from the base of the tree.

The quantity of the acorn fallen in the seeding felling areas usually decreases from the edge of

the areas towards the centre, especially for the large ones.

In the seeding felling areas with the dimension of 0.5 H, the surface of the seeding felling area is

entirely covered by acorns, while in the seeding felling areas with the dissemination exceeding

1.0 H, the central part often remains unsown with acorns.

References

Badea, O., Tănase, M. 2002. Starea de sănătate a pădurilor din România în anul 2001. [The health condi-tion of the Romanian forests in 2001]. Revista Pădurilor 2: 6-10.

Bercea, I. 2007. Cercetări privind regenerarea arboretelor de gârniţă şi cer din partea vestică a Podişului

Getic. [Research on regeneration of the Hungarian oak and Turkey oak tree stands in the western part of

the Getic Plateau]. Teză de doctorat. Universitatea “Transilvania” Braşov, Facultatea de Silvicultur ă şi

Exploatări Forestiere, 224 p.

Marcu, Gh. 1965. Studiul ecologic şi silvicultural al gârniţetelor dintre Olt şi Teleorman. [Ecological and

sylvicultural study of the Hungarian oak forests between Olt and Teleorman rivers]. Editura Agro-Silvică,

Bucureşti. 320 p.



53


Bucharest, Romania

Research on structural variety of stands for three Eu-

ropean beech forests with different ages located in

middle and superior valley of Argeş River

Gh. Guiman, V. Scarlatescu, C. Truica

Guiman Gh., Scărlătescu V., Truică C. 2009. Research on structural variety of stands

for three European beech forests with different ages located in middle and superior

valley of Argeş River. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings

of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“, October 23-25,

2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 53-64.

Abstract. Researches concerned the structure of two European beech uneven-

aged stands which are cultivated one in uneven-aged regeneration system and

the other in even-aged system with progressive regeneration fellings during

a long period. For comparison, we studied the structure of a virgin European

beech forest too. The main objective was to alsoidentify the structural and func-

tional similarities and differences among analyzed stands, in order to establish

the management measures for forests biodiversity preservation, as a componentof sustainable management. Identification and description of structures was ac-

complished using vertical and horizontal structure of the three analyzed stands.

At this stage, the research of stands structure had, as objectives, the following

components: to determine the experimental distribution for trees number and for

basal area, to analyze the distributions using the accepted theoretical distribu-

tions; the volumes and basal area allocation on elementary surfaces (10 m x 10

m); the analysis of structural homogeneity using the texture homogeneity index

Camino (1972) and the presentation of structure for stands having different

ages, using the two-dimensional profiles. Herewith, it has been ascertained that

beech stand cultivated and managed by treatments with a long or continuous re-

generation period have many structural similarities with virgin and quasi-virgin

natural stands. These findings provide further scientific arguments for drawing

the conclusion that managing stands through intensive treatments ensures for-est stability. Under these circumstances, the ecological, social and economical

functions of the forests are accomplished with the maximum ef ficiency, ensuring

in this particular way the forest sustainable development and, on the whole, the

sustainable development of the society.

Key words: European beech forest, structural diversity

Authors. Gheorghe Guiman, Virgil Scărlătescu - I.C.A.S. Bucharest, Research

Station Mihăeşti, 117470 - Mihăeşti, Argeş, Romania; Constantin Truică – Piteşti

Forest District, Trivale St. 84, 110058 - Piteşti, Romania.

^ ^ ^



54

Introduction

Biodiversity conservation and improvement, a part of forest sustainable management, is

manifested in some European Union countries (Prosilva trend) trough management tools applied

according with specific structural laws of the natural forests. These developments are of great

interest also to Romanian forestry, and our research takes into account the latest concerns in thefield worldwide, with real positive influence on forest management.

Material and methods

The structure diversity of the two managed stands, compared with the structure diversity of the

natural virgin stand was observed in three 1 ha experimental areas (one for each type) (Guiman

2007). The inventory was conducted on elementary areas of 100 m2 (10 m x 10 m). The stand

locations in which the research was carried out and the main dendrometric elements are presented

in the Table 1.

The analysis of horizontal and vertical stand structure was conducted by processing the

information collected in the 300 elementary areas (each 0.01 ha). Through the rectangular

coordinates system, the position of each tree was determined, also two crown perpendicular

diameters, overall height and the height of natural pruning. For each elementary area the basal

area and the volume were calculated. In this way, experimental distributions of the elementary

areas on basal area classes and volume classes were obtained.

Results

Diversity analysis of horizontal structure in multi-aged stands

In a first stage, after determining the basal area and the tree volumes for each elementary area(0.01ha), the experimental distributions of the basal area and volume classes were established.

Thus, 16 basal area classes with the value of 0.10 m2 and 34 volume classes with the value of

1 m3 were formed. These experimental distributions were analyzed using statistical parameters:

minimum, maximum, magnitude, average, variation, standard deviation, variation coef ficient

(%), average standard deviation, asymmetry coef ficient and excess coef ficient (Table 2).

The horizontal structure of the three stands was represented in relation with the allocation of

tree basal area and the tree volume for the 300 elementary areas. It was found that the graphic

division of the two distributions is similar. This fact is well defined in Figures 1-3, where the

distribution of volume in elementary areas is presented for the experimental surfaces installed in

the three analyzed stands.Experimental distributions of the number of experimental areas in relation to the basal area and

volume classes were analyzed and adjusted through commonly used distributions. According to

Table 1 The stands dendrometic characteristics in which structure research was conducted

No

Forest

District

Production

Unit

The stand

(u.a.)

Production

class

Compo-

sition

(%)

Canopy

cover

Volume

(m3)

Surface

(ha)

1Mihăeşti(S.G.I.)

213A II 100 beech 0.8 477 15.3

2 Vidraru(U.P. I 50A II 100 beech 0.7 520 17.8

3Muşăteşti(U.P. IV)

15 II 100 beech 0.7 627 17.8



55

data entered in the adjustment test for the experimental distribution of the number of elementary

areas in relation to the basal area classes (Table 3), the adjustment is done with very good result

using normal distribution, exponential distribution, Beta distribution, Gamma distribution (in allcases experimental χ 2 < theoretic χ 2). The studies produced so far have pointed out that the volume

and basal area distribution are following the normal distribution law (Parde 1960, Dissescu 1958,

Table 2 The statistical parameters for the experimental distribution of elementary surfaces in relation with

the basal area classes (a) and the volume classes (b)

Statistical parametersa b

Tree stand Tree standVidraru Mihăeşti Muşăteşti Vidraru Mihăeşti Muşăteşti

Minimum (cm)Maximum (cm)

Magnitude (cm)

Average (cm)

Variation (cm2)

Standard deviation (cm)

Variation coef ficient (%)

Average standard deviation (cm)

Asymmetry coef ficient

Excess coef ficient

0.001.15

1.15

0.35

0.05

0.23

67.19

0.02

0.65

0.08

0.000.75

0.75

0.28

0.05

0.22

77.37

0.02

0.50

-0.68

0.001.45

1.45

0.32

0.11

0.33

101.96

0.03

1.01

0.29

0.0020.50

20.50

5.32

17.01

4.12

77.53

0.41

0.98

0.83

0.0013.50

13.50

4.68

14.73

3.84

82.11

0.38

0.55

-0.80

0.0032.50

32.50

6.36

52.82

7.27

114.27

0.73

1.30

1.32

Fig. 1 Volume distribution for elementary areas (100 m2) in a virgin stand from Muşăteşti Forest District,

U.P. IV Vâlsan Gorge, u.a 15

Fig. 2 Volume distribution for elementary areas (100 m2) in a managed stand from Mihăeşti Forest

District, S.E. I Râul Târgului, u.a. 213A.



56

Giurgiu 1968). The following show that normal distribution is done in particular conditions and

the empirical relations are fitting into more comprehensive models.

The graphical representation of adjustment test of the experimental distribution for the number

of elementary areas in relation with the basal area classes (Fig. 4) and the volume classes (Fig. 5)

is achieved trough normal distribution. The two graphs are similar, a known fact in the literature,

and the following can be concluded:

- the normal distributions for the number of elementary areas in relation with the basal area and

volume classes for the managed tree stands (Mihăeşti u.a 213A and Vidraru u.a. 50) are similar,

the only difference being that for Vidraru, the number of volume classes is greater. From this

point of view, we believe that by restriction trough a limit diameter in stand management may bea limiting factor particularly for the stand diversity and generally for the biodiversity;

- the normal distribution for the number of elementary areas in relation with the basal area

Table 3 The experimental distribution analysis for the number of elementary area on basal area

classes in relation with normal distribution, exponential distribution, Beta distribution, Gamma

distribution (adjustment test)

Forest

stand

(u.a.)

Theoretical

Distribution

Statistic Test

χ 2 Kolmogorov-Smirnov

Experimentalvalue

Theoreticalvalue

Experimentalvalue

Theoreticalvalue

Vidraru

u.a.

50

Normal

Exponential

Beta

Gamma

1.143

6.484

0.778

0.954

18.307

21.026

19.675

18.307

0.077

0.025

0.011

0.047

0.364

0.364

0.364

0.364

Mihăeştiu.a.

213A

Normal

Exponential

Beta

Gamma

1.495

5.111

1.177

3.183

12.592

15.507

14.067

12.592

0.085

0.12

0.003

0.11

0.424

0.424

0.424

0.424

Muşăteştiu.a.

15A

Normal

Exponential

Beta

5.664

3.588

4.427

22.362

24.996

23.685

0.233

0.008

0.015

0.331

0.331

0.331

Fig. 3 Volume distribution for elementary areas (100 m2) in a multi-aged stand with it’s first intervention

of progressive treatment in Vidraru Forest District, U.P. I Aref, u.a. 50.



57

and volume classes from natural virgin stand Muşăteşti (u.a. 15A) is distinguished by a greater

magnitude and a lower frequency as the number of elementary areas.

The analysis shows a great diversity in the structure of natural and cultivated multi-aged beech

stands and an obvious resemblance between managed structures and natural virgin structures.

Analysis of structural uniformity in multi-aged beech stands

In our country, especially in the mountains there were and still are old virgin forests made of

pure or mixed multi-aged beech stands (Giurgiu 1978a, 1978b, 1995, 1999a). These forestsare characterized by an optimal diversity and maximum stability. Their behavior is generated

according to specific and complex cybernetic rules: self-adjusting, self-control, self-regeneration,

Fig. 5 The experimental distribution adjustment in relation with the distribution for the number of

elementary areas (100 m2) on volume classes, in Mihăeşti forest stand (213A), Vidraru (u.a. 50)

and Muşăteşti (u.a. 15A).

Fig. 4 The experimental distribution adjustment in relation with the distribution for the number ofelementary areas (100 m2) on base surface classes, in Mihăeşti forest stand (213A), Vidraru (u.a.

50) and Muşăteşti (u.a. 15A)



58

self-cleaning (Zlei 2006). Such forests present a maximum multi-functionality and preservation

concerns for all these resources are within the range of forestry priority actions, without which

their future will be seriously threatened or compromised (Giurgiu 1978a, 1978b).

The tree stand homogeneity characterized by the homogeneity index (H) is established as the

number of trees in a percentage relation with the volume on different diameter categories (Camino

1976, Barbu & Cenuşă 2001).The graphic expression between the tree number and their volume in percentage values, on

diameter categories is represented trough a curve, Lorentz curve. For an uniform stand, in which

all the trees should have the same volume, Lorentz curve is a diagonal. The degree of structural

uniformity is defined as a violation of Lorentz curve related to the diagonal, meaning that the

value of 10 indicates a high uniformity, and the 2 shows the lack of uniformity (Barbu & Cenuşă

2001). In heterogeneous stands (e.g. managed in uneven-aged systems), a high percentage of thin

trees have a small volume and thick trees – small percentage share - have a large volume.

Fig. 6 Lorentz curve and the uniformity index value for managed stand in u.a. 213A (Mihăeşti Forest

District).

Fig. 7 Lorentz curve and the uniformity index value for managed stand in u.a. 15A (Muşăteşti Forest

District).



59

Camino showed that managed stands with good growth have a lower uniformity thn in low

productivity stands. Managed stands have a heterogeneity coef ficient between 1.4 and 2.8.

The uniformity can also supply information on the type and intensity of the intervention: tree

extractions in the lower floor decreases the uniformity, while in the middle and top floor raises

the uniformity.

The uniformity coef ficient analysis and the construction of Lorentz curve for studied stands is

achieved in Figure 6 - for the stand managed in uneven-aged system (u.a. 213A, Mihăeşti Forest

District), Figure 7 - for virgin beech stand (u.a. 15A, Muşăteşti Forest District) and Figure 8 - for

the beech stand which underwent the first progressive felling (u.a. 50, Vidraru Forest District).

As it was expected, the multi-aged virgin beech stand has the largest heterogeneity (the

structural uniformity index Camion is 2.42). Multi-aged managed beech stands have also a

great heterogeneity, resulted mainly due to the presence of large trees in the superior limit of the

experimental distribution and whose volume is a large proportion from the total volume. The

structural uniformity index Camino is 2.64 for the stand treated with the first progressive felling,

and 2.91 fothe stand managed in uneven-aged system.

The same as the value of structural diversity index, the Lorentz curve (Fig. 28-30) describes

Fig. 8 Lorentz curve and the uniformity index value for managed stand in u.a. 50 (Vidraru ForestDistrict).

Table 4 Structural profile indexes for the studied tree stands

Tree stands

(u.a.)

Structure

Type I

a I

c I

d

Ī (m)

_

b

(m)

_

Ī /b

_

b/d

(m·cm-1)

_

he

(%)

Muşăteşti15A

multi-aged

virgin2.24 0.78 0.82 12.5 12.0 1.04 0.23 66.5

Mihăeşti213A

multi-aged

managed2.07 0.74 0.78 12.2 11.5 1.06 0.19 64.1

Vidraru

50

multi-aged

progressive I

1.6 0.82 0.85 10.5 9.0 1.17 0.17 67.5

Note: soil covering rate index - Ia; closing crown rate – Ic; density index – Id); the biometric crown characteristics

length - l; diameter - b; crown rate – l/b; developing rate – b/d, and the height of natural pruning - the.



60

very similar forms for the three studied stands, the deviation of the last one being very large in

relation with the diagonal. From this point of view, the studied stands are within the category of

various structured stands with a high degree of heterogeneity.

The structure of multi-aged beech stands defined through two-dimensional profiles

The graphical representation of the stand spatial structure models was done with the help of

PROARB v. 2.1. software (Popa 1999).

The characterization of stand structure diversity using structural profiles has recently become

of a wider usage, and despite of the schematic graphics models, they can still give informations

regarding:

- the vertical structure highlight in relation with stand level distribution, maximums, crown depth

and the height of natural pruning;

- the way of forming stand bio-groups in relation with the tree’s biometric characteristics;

- the soil roughly covering rate and the canopy closure index;

- different aspects of forest design, and also the ecosystem’s space and time evolution paths. A major difference has emerged between the soil covering rate index (table 4) and the other

3 indexes of canopy closure for each analyzed situation. This fact reconfirms the great beach

Fig. 9 The vertical and horizontal structure of the managed beech stand in Valea Cireşului experimental

area (Mihăeşti Forest District, S.E. I Râul Târgului River, S.G. I, u.a. 213 A); a – Horizontal

structure 60-80 m section; b – Vertical structure (b 1- 60-70 m section ; b 2 – 70-80 m section; b 3

– 60-80 m section

b1

b3

b2



61

versatility for growing branches to cover the free space in it’s crown. In relation with the coef fi

cientvalues it’s has been noticed that the values for managed stand it’s between the values for the other

two arboretum types. From this point of view, managed arboretum is closer to natural virgin

Fig. 10 The horizontal structure of the managed beech stand in Valea Cireşului experimental area

(Mihăeşti Forest District, S.E. I Râul Târgului River, S.G. I, u.a. 213 A); a – Stand placementin the experimental area. b – Stand placement and horizontally crown projection

a b

Fig. 11 The horizontal and vertical beech structure in normal stands (progressive regeneration treatment)

in Aref experimental area (Vidraru Forest District, U.P. I Aref, u.a. 50); a – Horizontal structure

0-20 m section; b –Vertical structure (b 1- 0-10 m section; b 2 – 10-20 m section; b 3 - 0-20 m

section)

b1

b3

b2



62

arboretum, fact that leads to forming the conclusion that managed stand treatment helps create

diversified structures closer to unregulated stand treatment similar to nature, a subject widelydiscussed in the last period in foreign literature.

In conclusion, the structures presented in fig. 13-14 show regeneration patterns used by nature in

Fig. 12 The horizontal structure in normal beech stands (progressive regeneration treatment) in Aref

experimental area (Vidraru Forest District, U.P. I Aref, u.a. 50); a - Stand placement in

the experimental area. b – Stand placement and horizontally crown projection.

a

Fig. 13 The vertical and horizontal structure of the virgin beech in Zoruleasa experimental area (MuşăteştiForest District, U.P. IV Vâlsan Gorge, u.a. 15A); a – Horizontal structure 0–20 m section; b –

Vertical structure (b 1- 0-10 m section; b 2 –10-20 m section; b 3 0-20 m section).

b



63

relation with the uneven-aged stand regeneration system (Fig. 9–10) and that lead by progressive

regenerations (Fig. 11–12), very similar with the regeneration methods used in uneven stand

treatment with diversified horizontal structures. This type of management places managed stands

in very similar bunches, even identical with the patterns promoted by the European organization

Pro Silva and sets the focus on the importance of managing Romanian forest in the near future,

thus this principles unite the ecological and economical demands (Schütz 1997, Teuffel & Hein

2004).

The management of multi-aged beech stands in uneven-aged system in bunches is in accordance

with the latest European regulations regarding biodiversity preservation and improvement.

Regarding this aspect, an intervention can be very easily conducted, with great success in

reaching the established goals (preserving and improving the biodiversity), the main component

in long-lasting management trough: maintaining a limited number of old trees; setting limits toage areas; ecological corridors; specific management for the forest skirt and forest strips along

rivers, creeks and voids, and also removing from regeneration highly valuable stands in relation

with the biodiversity (virgin ecosystems).

Conclusions

The conducted research confirmed that natural regeneration is the ef ficient solution for the

preservation and establishing highly stable stands, like multi-aged stands managed in uneven-

aged systems.

The research regarding transformation works conducted on managed stands was also targetedon experimenting with wood harvesting in relation with the number of extracted trees. For

the analyzed situation, the harvesting of two, at most three trees that form groups or bunches

on surfaces of maximum 1500 m2, favors the development in time and space of uneven-aged

structures, obtained trough the accumulation of pure and even-aged bio-groups, placed in all the

age classes.

The conducted experiments have shown that the beech stand management at the tree group

level assures the following fundamental characteristics: always an uneven profile; a sustained

ef ficiency on a relatively small surface; managing valuable trees.

The horizontal and vertical structure profile obtained trough this researches prove that the ideal

stand managed in uneven-aged system has the appearance of a chess table, and his profile is build

from “columns” of all height categories. This profile is specific to the stand scale, but is regulated

at the bunch scale.

Fig. 14 The horizontal structure of the virgin beech forest in Zoruleasa experimental area (MuşăteştiForest District, U.P. IV Vâlsan Gorge, u.a. 15A); a – Stand placement in the experimental area.

b – Stand placement and horizontally crown projection.

a b



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References

Barbu, I., Cenuşă, R. 2001. Regenerarea naturală a molidului. Staţiunea Experimentală de Cultura Molidului,

Seria: Lucr ări de Cercetare, Câmpulung Moldovenesc, 238 p.

Dissescu, R. 1958. Cercetări asupra procedeelor de inventariere în arboretele pluriene. Analele INCEF , vol.

XIX, Bucureşti.Giurgiu, V. 1968. Cercetări privind inventarierea statistică a arboretelor. Centrul de Documentare Tehnică

pentru Economia Forestier ă. Bucureşti, 215 p.

Giurgiu, V. 1978a. Zonarea economică a pădurilor cu asigurarea optimă pe zone a funcţiilor de producţie şi protecţie a mediului înconjur ător. Refererat ştiinţific final. Manuscris I.C.A.S. Bucureşti.Giurgiu, V. 1978b. Conservarea pădurilor. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, 308 p.

Giurgiu, V. (sub redacţia) 1995. Protejarea şi dezvoltarea durabilă a pădurilor României. Editura Arta

Grafică, Bucureşti, 400 p.

Giurgiu, V. 1999a. Biodiversitatea şi manageamentul diversităţii biologice a ecosistemelor forestiere pentru

o silvicultur ă durabilă. Revista pădurilor 1: 11-19.

Guiman, Gh. 2007. Optimizarea structurii arboretelor prin aplicarea tratamentului codrului gr ădinărit în

f ăgete din bazinul mijlociu şi superior al Argeşului. Teză de doctorat, Universitatea „Ştefan cel Mare”,

Suceava, 214 p.Pardé, J. 1960. Recherches sur l’application aux futaie régiliéres des inventaires par la méthode statistique.

Ann de l’ecole Nat. D. Eaux et Forêts et de la Stat de Rech.et Exp.Tome XVII, Fasc. 2.

Popa, I. 1999. Aplicaţii informatice utile în cercetarea silvică. Programul Carota şi Programul Proarb,

Revista pădurilor 2: 41-42.

Sçhütz, J.P. 1997. Sylviculture 2, La gestions des forêts irrégulières et mélangées. Presses Polytechniques et

Universitaires Romandes, Lausanne, Suisse, 178 p.

Teuffel, K., Hein, S. 2004. Silviculture du Hêtre proche de la nature en Baden-Wurtemberg. Revuie forestiére

française 6: 519-528.

Zlei, G. 2006. Analiza omogenităţii structurale specifice arboretelor potenţial producătoare de lemn de

rezonanţă. Revista pădurilor 5: 28-32.



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Bucharest, Romania

Regenerarea (reconstructia ecologica) pinetelor de

pe terenuri degradate din zona de sud-est a tarii

C. Constandache, S. Nistor

Constandache C., Nistor S. 2009. Regenerarea (reconstrucţia ecologică) pinetelor

de pe terenuri degradate din zona de sud-est a ţării. [Ecological reconstruction byregeneration of pine stands located on degraded lands in the South-Eastern Roma-nia] In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference“Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest,Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 65-78.

Abstract. Forest plantations with multiple protective roles established before1990 on degraded land in the South-Eastern part of the country are generally built , with only few exceptions, of European black pine (Pinus nigra) and/orScots pine (Pinus sylvestris). In time it has been acknowledged a larger and larg-er area of such pine stands under decline (affected by the snow breaks, diebackor simply because of lack of management under old stands age), but recently wasalso noticed the initiation of a natural regeneration by seedlings of natural in-

digenous forest species. Despite high promising ecological and economic valueof occurring succession, it is not suf ficiently capitalized in practice. Researchobjective was to identify the appropriate means and ways for the promotion andimprovement of natural regeneration based on characteristics of the stands, seed-lings and sites, in order to ensure the transition from provisional, pine basedstands, to natural type ecosystems, in the concerned area. Research has beenconducted in pine stands with different openings across concerned geographicalarea. In sample plots of 10 m2 an inventory and biometrical description of exist-ing seedlings was achieved. In most cases, in opened pine stands existing on cur-rently improved and stabilized lands, there are seedlings of various local indig-enous forest species (oak, sessile oak, common beech, sweet cherry, sycamore,etc.), which reflects both success of land improvement measures and successiontendency of vegetation toward the natural type. Carried research conducts to

the finding that the seedlings of valuable forest tree species strives in those pinestands which are established on successfully improved degraded lands, under both moderate to strongly eroded or mildly fragmented sliding soils, placed inthe middle and lower third of slopes, coupled with open pine stands mixed with broadleaved or in presence of neighboring of broadleaved trees or stands.Key words: natural regeneration, opened pine stands, degraded lands

Authors. Cristinel Constandache, Sanda Nistor - Forest Research and Menage-ment Institute, Research Station Focşani, Republicii St. 7, 620018 - Focşani,Romania.

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,

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Introducere

În contextul schimbărilor climatice cu care ne confruntăm, realizarea unor structuri stabile aculturilor forestiere de protecţie de pe terenurile degradate şi asigurarea continuităţii pădurii

pe aceste terenuri reprezintă un obiectiv principal. Se constată existenţa unor suprafeţe mari de

terenuri degradate cu arborete de pin destructurate (cu vârstă înaintată sau afectate de rupturi deză padă, de uscare) în care sunt necesare lucr ări de reconstrucţie ecologică în vederea exercităriifuncţiilor de protecţie (Constandache 2003). Aceste arborete sunt destinate să îndeplinească,în primul rând, funcţii de protecţie a mediului inconjur ător, fapt pentru care alterarea, într-omăsur ă mai mare sau mai mica, a echilibrului realizat de arboretele în cauză, ar putea conduce la

perturbări în viaţa economică şi socială a zonei. Necesitatea cercetărilor decurge din faptul că în anumite arborete de pin instalate pe terenuridegradate s-a declanşat regenerarea naturală, de regulă cu specii foioase autohtone de valoareecologică şi economică ridicată, dar care nu este suficient valorificată.

Scopul cercetărilor a fost identificarea modalităţilor de promovare/valorificare a regener ăriinaturale în raport cu caracteristicile arboretului şi ale seminţişului, în vederea asigur ării tranziţieide la ecosisteme provizorii către ecosisteme zonale, pe terenuri degradate din zona de sud-est aţării.

Materiale şi metode

Teritorial cercetările s-au desf ăşurat în arborete de pin instalate pe terenuri degradate din razade activitate a direcţiilor silvice: Focşani (O.S. Focsani – perimetrul Andreiaşu, O.S. Dumitreşti,O.S. Nereju), Bacău (O.S. Tg. Ocna, O.S. Oituz), Vaslui (O.S. Vaslui - perimetrul Valea Caselor),Buzău (O.S. Rm. Sărat – perimetrul Livada), Tulcea (O.S. Măcin – perimetrul Cheia, O.S.Babadag, O.S. Casimcea), Constanţa (O.S. Băneasa) şi I.C.A.S. (O.S.E. Vidra – perimetrul Valea

Sării, Bârseşti, Colacu).Pentru atingerea scopului propus au fost efectuate observaţii şi măsur ători privind caracteristicile

arboretelor, respectiv: i) investigaţii referitoare la particularităţile biometrice, biologice şistructurale ale arboretelor de pin de pe terenuri degradate, factorii destabilizatori ai arboretelorcare fac obiectul cercetărilor; ii) inventarieri privind speciile forestiere instalate natural submasiv sau la adă postul arboretului, în benzile sau ochiurile deschise natural şi/sau prin lucr ărileefectuate anterior; iii) urmărirea evoluţiei culturilor experimentale instalate în anii anteriori(ajutorare şi dirijare a regener ării sub masiv sau la adă postul masivului, în goluri create anterior

prin extragerea arborilor vătămaţi de ză padă şi vânt, în perimetrele de ameliorare a terenurilordegradate Bârseşti, Ruget-Colacu şi Valea Sării).

Pentru inventarierea şi determinarea caracteristicilor seminţişului au fost instalate suprafeţede cercetare de 10 m2, amplasate în trei zone diferite ale unei parcele, fiind efectuate determinăriasupra următorilor parametrii: specia, numărul de puieţi, modul de r ăspândire, starea de sănătatea puieţilor, înalţimea, diametrul coroanei ş.a. Rezultate

În lucrarea de faţă sunt prezentate rezultate privind caracteristicile regener ării naturale înarborete de pin instalate pe terenuri degradate în diferite zone fito-climatice din sud-estul ţării(Constandache et al. 2003-2007). Regenerarea natural

ă s-a realizat diferit în func

ţie de: condi

ţiile sta

ţionale, caracteristicile

(structura) arboretului, existenţa unor arbori maturi (din specii de interes) care fructifică, poziţiafitoclimatică ş.a.



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Caracteristicile regenerarii naturale în arborete de pin din silvostepa

În zona de silvostepă procesul de regenerare naturală în arboretele de pin de pe terenuri degradatea fost semnalat pe suprafeţe reduse, datorită condiţiilor pedo-climatice dificile. Totuşi s-a remarcat regenerarea pinului negru, stejarului pufos, cerului sau altor specii xerofite(mojdrean, jugastru, ar ţar tătăr ăsc, vişin turcesc ş.a.), în condiţii de terenuri moderat la puternicerodate, favorizate de anumite topoclimate locale. Astfel, a fost analizat arboretul din u.a. 8A, UP VI, OS Babadag, instalat pe teren puternicerodat, cu substrat calcaros, cu următoarele caracteristici: compoziţie 4 Pi.n 6 Mj, consistenţa 0,8,vârsta de 35 ani. Sub masivul r ărit datorită uscării mojdreanului, au apărut puieţi de pin negru,

mojdrean şi stejar pufos. Au fost identificaţi 2-3 puieţi/m2

, cu înălţimea între 5 şi 20 cm (fig. 1).În goluri mai mari, rezultate în urma extragerii arborilor uscaţi sau cu defecte, s-a regenerat

Fig. 1 Distribuţia puieţilor proveniţi din regenerarenaturală, pe categorii de înălţimi şi pe specii(ua 8a, UP VI, Os Babadag)

Fig. 2 Distribuţia numărului de puieţi (Pi.n) în raportcu înălţimea în goluri specii (ua 8a, UP VI,Os Babadag)

Fig 3. Regenerare naturală de pin negru în goluri (O.S. Babadag – U.P. VI, u.a. 8 A)

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pinul negru. Înălţimea puieţilor variază de la 0,20-1,50 m (fig. 3), înălţimea medie fiind de 0,52m, cu aproximativ 3 exemplare/m2, din care 1-2 exemplare/m2 sunt viabile (seminţiş utilizabil).Diferenţa mare de înălţime a puieţilor de pin negru arată că aceştia provin din cel puţin 2-3generaţii succesive. Legătura corelativă între înălţimea puieţilor regeneraţi natural şi numărulacestora este puternică (fig. 2) rezultând un coeficient de determinare R 2 = 0,9462.

Regenerarea naturală a apărut la adă postul arboretului care favorizează acumularea ză pezii şimenţinerea umidităţii solului, în zonele unde panta terenului este de maxim 10 grade şi stratul desol fertil are cel puţin 5-10 cm iar scheletul este mărunţit. O situaţie asemănătoare a fost întâlnită şi în perimetrul Livada, unde la marginea masivului(u.a 20, U.P. II, O.S. Râmnicu Sărat) s-a regenerat natural pinul negru (regenerare în margine demasiv). Înălţimea puieţilor variază de la 0,40-1,90 m iar starea de vegetaţie este foarte activă. Peterenuri moderat erodate, în arborete de pin negru, pin silvestru sau strob, pure sau în amesteccu ulm, paltin, frasin, stejar ş.a. cu vârsta de peste 50 de ani, cu consitenţa redusă neuniform, îngoluri s-au regenerat speciile foioase existente în amestec cu pinul. Într-o altă situaţie analizată în zona de silvostepă (u.a. 44 B, U.P. II - O.S. Băneasa), într-unarboret de pin negru şi pin silvestru cu vârsta de 40 de ani pe teren cu eroziune moderată, după inventarierea seminţişului (fig. 4) se constată că ponderea cea mai mare o înregistrează cerul(34,29%) şi stejarul pufos (31,43%). Mai apar şi alte specii regenerate natural: vişinul turcesc(17,14%), cărpiniţa (11,42%), pinul negru şi jugastru având procente scăzute (fiecare cu câte

Fig. 4 Repartiţia seminţişului pe specii în u.a. 44 B,U.P. II, O.S. Băneasa

Fig. 5 Înalţimea puieţilor pe specii în u.a. 44 B,U.P. II, O.S. Băneasa

Fig. 6 Distribuţia puieţilor pe categorii de înălţimi în u.a. 44 B,U.P. II, O.S. Băneasa



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2,86%).Regenerarea naturală este semnalată în ochiuri cu diametrul de aproximativ 10 m, având forma

mai mult sau mai puţin eliptică, r ăspândite neuniform în arboret. Sub arboretul de pin aparefrecvent cerul şi stejarul pufos din regenerare naturală. Puieţii inventariaţi ai speciilor întâlnite

prezintă variaţii ale înălţimilor, regenerarea fiind din generaţii succesive. Înălţimea medie a

puieţilor variază între 15 şi 35 cm (fig. 5). Înălţimi medii comparabile înregistrează stejarul pufosşi cerul; vişinul turcesc şi cărpiniţa. Legătura corelativă între înălţimea puieţilor rezultati din regenerare şi numărul acestora esterelativ puternică (fig. 6) rezultând un coeficient de determinare R 2 = 0,8051.

Caracteristicile regenerarii naturale în arborete de pin din subzona stejarului

În subzona stejarului (perimetrele Valea Caselor – Vaslui, Livada – Rm Sărat, Ţifeşti-Vrancea),în pinete r ărite de pe terenuri moderat la puternic erodate şi alunecatoare, prin regenerare naturală s-au instalat: stejar, cireş, frasin, paltin, pin negru.

Astfel, în perimetrul Valea Caselor

(O.S. Vaslui, UP IV Floreşti, u.a. 78), pe terenuri moderatla puternic erodate şi alunecătoare, acolo unde în modul de grupare a exemplarelor de pin auapărut goluri din diverse motive, regenerarea s-a instalat în urmă cu circa 4-5 ani, având o starede vegetaţie foarte activă. Speciile participante la regenerare sunt paltinul (62%), cireşul (22%),stejarul (16%) (fig. 8a, 7a). Înălţimea puieţilor proveniţi din regenerare naturală variază de la 0,2la 1,5 m, fiind identificaţi 3-5 exemplare/m2, cu stare de vegetatie foarte activă. Cele mai mariînălţimi medii le realizează cireşul (1,37 m) şi paltinul (0,59 m), iar stejarul 0,38 m. Legăturacorelativă între înălţimea puieţilor participanţi la regenerare şi numărul acestora este foarte

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Foto 7 a,b Regenerare de cireş în goluri (a); stejar şi cireş sub arboret de pin negru (b); (Perimetrul ValeaCaselor – jud. Vaslui)

a b



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puternică (fig. 8b) rezultând un coeficient de determinare R 2 = 0,9773. În aceleaşi condiţii staţionale, dar sub arboret de pin având consistenţa 0,7-0,8, regenerareanaturală este r ăspandită relativ uniform (fig. 7b). Şi aici procesul de regenerare s-a declanşatîn urmă cu câţiva ani, dar datorită umbririi au rezistat puţine exemplare. În prezent compoziţiaseminţişului instalat este: 35 Pa.c 30 St 15 Ci 15 Fr 5 Fa (Fig. 8c). Aproximativ 80% din numărultotal de puieţi au înălţimea de 0,1-0,3 m, provenind din fructificaţii din ultimii ani. Înălţimile

medii ale puieţilor nu variază mult situandu-se între 0,18 m în cazul paltinului (valoarea minimă)şi 0,53 m la cireş (valoarea maximă) iar legătura corelativă între înălţimea puieţilor regeneratinatural şi numărul acestora este relativ puternică (fig. 8d) rezultând un coeficient de determinareR 2 = 0,8582.

Caracteristicile regenerarii naturale în arborete de pin din subzona gorunului

În subzona gorunului cercetările au fost efectuate în arborete de pe terenuri degradate din cadrulO. S. E. Vidra. Inventarierea seminţişului din u.a. 61A, UP III Valea Sării (arboret cu compoziţia 6 Pi.n 1 Pi 1 Sc 1 Mo 1 Fa; consisten ţa 0,6; vârsta 48 ani, pe teren puternic erodat), a evidenţiatexistenţa regener ării naturale r ăspândită relativ uniform pe toată suprafaţa. R ăspândirea speciilor

participante la regenerarea naturală pe suprafaţă este prezentată în fig. 9 a, constatându-se că ceamai mare parte din suprafaţă este ocupată de puieţi de gorun (44%), urmat de cireş (31%) şi fag(25%). Înălţimea puieţilor variază de la 0,2-1,8 m la gorun, la 0,5-2,5 m la fag. Diferenţa mare

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Fig. 8 Caracteristicile regener ării naturale în u.a. 78 (Perimetrul Valea Caselor)

a – repartiţia seminţişului pe suprafaţă, în ochiuri; b – distribuţia puieţilor pe categorii de înălţimi,în ochiuri; c – repartiţia seminţişului pe suprafaţă, sub arboretul matur de pin; d – distribuţia

puieţilor pe categorii de înălţimi, sub arboretul matur de pin.

a

b

c

d b



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de înălţime la gorun şi fag arată că seminţişul provine din cel puţin 2-3 generaţii succesive (fig.9b, 10).

Într-o altă situaţie analizată, în u.a. 64B, în arboret de pin silvestru (10 Pi), cu consitenţa 0,7,vârsta de 62 ani, pe terenuri puternic spre foarte puternic erodate, cea mai mare parte a suprafeţeieste regenerată natural. În acest caz s-au inventariat puieţii din două suprafeţe de probă (10 m2 fiecare probă) în poziţii diferite pe versant: (i) în treimea superioar ă a versantului: compoziţiaseminţişului 22 Go 33 Fa 12 Ci 15 Sc 15 Pi 3 Me. În această suprafaţă s-au identificat puieţide diferite vârste cu un procent al puieţilor utilizabili de peste 70% şi o regenerare uniformă r ăspândită pe aproximativ 80% din suprafaţa studiată; (ii) în treimea mijlocie a versantului:

compoziţia de regenerare este 25 Go 43 Fa 18 Ci 5 Sc 9 Pi, procentele fiind diferite de cele dintreimea superioar ă a versantului. Înălţimile medii ale puieţilor pe specii din această suprafaţă suntmai mari decât cele din treimea superioar ă a versantului, fiind cuprinse între 0,6 m la cireş şi 3,0

Fig. 9 Caracteristicile regener ării naturale în u.a. 61 a – repartiţia seminţişului pe suprafaţă; b – înălţimeamedie a puieţilor pe specii.

a b

Fig. 10 Regenerare naturală de gorun, cireş şi fag sub arboret de pin negru/silvestru r ărit(O.S. Exp. Vidra, U.P. III, u.a. 61A)



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m la fag. Pe terenuri cu eroziune puternică (u.a. 101 B) într-un arboret cu compoziţia 5 Pin 2 Pi 2 Ci1 Dt, cu consistenţa medie 0,8, vârsta 40 de ani, s-a constatat regenerarea cu preponderenţă afoioaselor. Numărul de puieţi la hectar rezultaţi din regenerare naturală este diferit în cele trei

parcele analizate (P1 - 12497; P2 - 14000; P3 - 21665). Vârsta puieţilor proveniţi din regenerare

naturală difer ă (1-6 ani), deoarece provin din fructifi

caţii succesive, la fel şi înălţimile medii pespecii (fig. 11). În staţiuni de terenuri foarte puternic erodate (u.a. 105A, UP III Valea Sării) cu erodosoluri tipice,

pe versanţi cu înclinare peste 15 grade, în substrat de marne cu gresii, cu textur ă luto-argiloasă la argiloasă, oligotrofice şi distrofice, într-un arboret cu compoziţia 9 Pi.n, 1 D.t, consistenţa 0,8,vârsta 40 ani, regenerarea naturală este semnalată în treimea mijlocie şi inferioar ă a versantului,

pe circa 50% din suprafaţă. În treimea superioar ă a versantului regenerarea se semnalează izolat,eroziunea fiind foarte puternică.

Inventarierea seminţişului în 6 suprafeţe de probă şi distribuţia speciilor participante laregenerarea naturală prezentată în fig. 12 a, arată că şi în aceste condiţii cea mai mare parte dinsuprafaţă (cca. 60%) este ocupată de puieţi din specii valoroase: gorunul şi paltinul cu câte 19%;cireşul - 16% şi fagul - 6%, diferenţa fiind reprezentată de mojdrean şi zarzăr. Înălţimea puieţilor variază de la 0,1 la 1,5 m; pe specii înălţimea medie variază de la 25 cm laexemplarele de gorun şi fag, la 85 cm – mojdrean. Celelalte specii au valori intermediare, Ci - 55cm, Pa.c. - 60 cm, Zz - 80 cm (fig. 12 b). Diferenţa mare de înălţime arată că seminţişul provinedin cel puţin 2-3 generaţii succesive. În ceea ce priveşte starea de vegetaţie a seminţişului, s-a

Fig. 11 Repartiţia seminţişului natural pe suprafaţă în parcelele din u.a. 101 B a – repartiţia seminţişului pe suprafaţă în P1; b – repartiţia seminţişului pe suprafaţă în P2;

c - repartiţia seminţişului pe suprafaţă în P3; d – variaţia înălţimilor medii pe specii şi pe parcele.

a b

c d



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constat că majoritatea speciilor au o stare de vegetaţie foarte bună.

Caracteristicile regenerarii naturale în arborete de pin din subzona fagului şi amestecurilor de

fag cu raşinoase

În perimetrul Andreiaşu O.S. Focşani, UP IV u.a. 87 A (61,3 ha), pe teren cu eroziune foarte puternică, cu roca la suprafaţă, panta 38 grade, expoziţie sud-estică, arboretul are compoziţia 4Pi 3 Pin 1 Pam 1 Fa 1 Dt, vârsta 42 ani, consistenţa 0,6, cu goluri rezultate datorită rupturilor devânt la pin şi regenerare neuniformă. În anumite goluri, s-a regenerat natural pinul silvestru (fig. 13). Vârsta exemplarelor de

pin silvestru provenite din regenerare naturală este de la 2 la 10 ani (instalat după producerea

rupturilor), în unele situaţii atingând înălţimea de aproximativ 4 m, densitatea fiind de 1-2exemplare pe m2.

Fig. 9 Caracteristicile regener ării naturale în u.a. 105 Aa – repartiţia seminţişului pe suprafaţă; b - variaţia înălţimilor medii pe specii.

Fig. 13 Regenerare naturală de pin silvestru în goluri în u.a. 87A, U.P. IV, O.S. Focşani

a b

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Sub masivul r ărit, la baza versantului, tot pinul silvestru deţine ponderea între speciile regeneratenatural (fig. 14a): pinul silvestru (72%), paltinul de câmp (16%) şi fagul (12%). Analizandcompoziţia seminişului din treimea mijlocie a versantului (fig. 14b), s-a constatat că propor ţia

pinului silvestru este sensibil mai redusă (64%), comparativ cu baza versantului. Compoziţia

seminţişului este: 64 Pi 16 Fa 13 Mj 7 Go. Puieţii din regener ări naturale prezintă variaţii mariale înălţimilor medii şi ale diametrului coroanei (fig. 14 c). Diferenţa apare nu numai în funcţiede poziţia pe versant, ci şi în funcţie de specie. Astfel, pinul silvestru provenit din regenerarenaturală de la baza versantului înregistrează înălţimea medie de 0,65 m şi diametrul coroanei 40cm, comparativ cu fagul şi paltinul care au înălţimi medii mai mici (Pa - 0,08 m, Fa - 0,24 m).Înălţimile medii ale puieţilor din treimea mijlocie a versantului sunt relativ apropiate (Pi, Fa -0,21 m, Go - 0,20 m, Mj - 0,18 m). În subzona amestecurilor de fag cu r ăşinoase (O.S. Nereju, U.P. I, u.a 70 A), în arboretul de pinsilvestru cu vârsta de 77 ani, consistenţa 0,7, situat pe un versant cu panta de 45 grade, moderatla puternic erodat, regenerarea este r ăspândită neuniform, fiind prezentă mai ales în zonele în care

consistenţa arboretului este mai redusă sau în goluri (ochiuri) cu suprafaţa de 30-200 m2

.Compoziţia seminţişului sub arboretul matur şi în ochiuri mici este: 86 Fa 8 Pi 6 Ci. În această suprafaţă s-au observat puieţi de diferite vârste, cu un procent al puieţilor utilizabili de peste 50%

Fig. 14 Caracteristicile regener ării naturale în u.a. 87A perimetrul Andreiaşu a – repartiţia seminţişului pe suprafaţă, la baza versantului; b – repartiţia seminţişului pe suprafaţă, în treimea mijlocie a versantului; c – variaţia înălţimilor medii pe specii



75

şi o regenerare neuniform r ăspandită pe suprafaţa studiată.Compoziţia seminţişului în goluri (ochiuri mai mari de 100 m2) este: 55 Fa 18 Ci 10 Go 8 Mo 8Br 1 Pam. Înălţimile medii ale puieţilor pe specii din această suprafaţă sunt mai mari decât celedin suprafaţa amplasată sub arboretul matur de pin silvestru. Procentul seminţişului utilizabil estede peste 70% iar numărul speciilor mult mai mare.

Puieţii inventariaţi prezintă variaţii mari ale înălţimilor la toate speciile, regenerareafi

ind dinmai multe generaţii succesive. Astfel, puieţii de fag ajung până la 2,5-3 m înălţime şi au starea devegetaţie foarte activă. În altă situaţie (O.S. Nereju, U.P. I Paltinul, u.a 69), pe terenuri cu eroziune puternică însuprafată, dar stabilizată, sub arboretul de pin silvestru (compoziţia 10 Pi, consistenţa 0,7,vârsta 75 ani), a apărut regenerare viabilă de fag şi molid, de aproxiamtiv 1-1,5 m înălţime,cu aproximativ 2-3 exemplare/m2. În goluri, rezultate în urma extragerii arborilor vătamaţi s-a regenerat pinul silvestru, cu înălţimi ce variază de la 0,1 la 1,5 m. Pe ansamblul suprafeţei,regenerarea naturală înregistrează următoarele caracteristici: compoziţia seminţişului este 49 Fa38 Pi 13 Mo; înălţimea medie a puieţilor variază de la 1,13 m (molid), la 1,24 m (pin silvestru) şi1,28 m (fag).

Discutii

Arboretele de pe terenurile degradate constituite în general din pin silvestru/negru, pure sau înamestec cu diverse specii foioase plantate sau regenerate natural, îndeplinesc prioritar rolul de

protecţie. În majoritatea cazurilor, în pinetele pure cu vârsta cuprinsa între 30-50 de ani, distribuţianumărului de arbori pe categorii de diametre a evidenţiat existenţa unor arborete echiene, cunumărul maxim de arbori în categoriile centrale de diametre (14-18 cm); distribuţia înălţimilor

pe categorii de diametre prezintă o variabilitate scăzută iar coeficientul de corelaţie este ridicat.Analizând valoarea coeficientului de variaţie, în cele mai multe situaţii acesta evidenţiază o

Fig. 15 Pin negru (43 ani) vătămat de zapadă (u.a. 105A Vl Sării

Fig. 16 Arboret de pin de 30 de ani afectat deuscare (U.P. III Cavacula, u.a 3, O.S. Casimcea)

,



76

variabilitate scăzută în arborete pure (omogene) în timp ce arborete amestecate variabilitateaeste accentuată, fiind explicată de neomogenitatea arboretului. În anumite situaţii (arborete pure de pini, neparcurse la timp cu lucr ări de îngrijire, pe terenuricu condiţii mai bune), pinul silvestru sau/şi pinul negru au suferit din cauza vătămărilor produsede vânt şi ză padă (perimetrul Andreiaşu, O.S. Focşani, perimetrul Livada O.S. Rm. Sarat,

perimetrul Valea Sării – O.S. Exp Vidra) sau uscare (O.S. Casimcea, O.S. Basarabi) (fi

g. 15-16).În vederea prevenirii unor dezechilibre ecologice ample în aceste arborete sunt necesare

lucr ări de extragerea arborilor afectaţi şi refacere a arboretelor. Conducerea arboretelor de pin în aceste condiţii, până la vârsta exploatabilităţii fiziologice (100-120 ani) nu este posibilă deoarece în unele situaţii la vârste mult mai mici (40-55 ani) au structura necorespunzătoare şisunt predispuse în continuare la vătămări. Pinetele apropiate de vârsta exploatabilităţii sau ajunse la vârsta exploatabilităţii sunt afectatede acţiunea negativă a unor factori biotici şi abiotici vătămători (uscare datorită atacului de

Blastophagus piniperda - O.S. Dumitreşti; rupturi-doborâturi izolate cauzate de ză padă şi vânt)şi s-au r ărit ca urmare a extragerii în timp a exemplarelor afectate, având consistenţa redusă saugoluri de diferite mărimi.

În cele mai multe situaţii, în arboretele de pin r ărite, cu goluri, în condiţii de terenuri degradatestabilizate/ameliorate, s-a instalat seminţiş din diferite specii, reflectând atât stadiul amelior ăriiterenurilor în cauză cât şi tendinţa de succesiune a vegetaţiei.

Cercetările efectuate au condus la constatarea că instalarea naturală a seminţişului unor speciivaloroase în arborete de pin pe terenuri degradate s-a realizat, în special, în urmatoarele situaţii:

pe terenuri stabilizate, moderat la puternic erodate sau alunecătoare cu masa de pământ moderatfragmentată; în treimea inferioar ă şi mijlocie a versanţilor; spre treimea superioar ă, seminţişulare densitatea şi creşterea mai redusă; în arborete de pin în amestec cu foioase sau în condiţiileexistenţei unor arborete sau arbori de foioase în apropiere. O situaţie caracteristică pinetelor din

subzona gorunului şi fagului o reprezintă arborete de pin în amestec cu foioase care fructifică sau în pinete pure (r ărite sau afectate de vătămări) în care s-au menţinut arbori preexistenţi (fag,

paltin, cireş ş.a.), r ămaşi de pe fostele păşuni degradate. În astfel de situaţii (perimetrul ValeaSării, Andreiaşu, Vizantea ş.a.) prin fructificaţia acestor exemplare s-a instalat seminţiş (fag,cireş, paltin) la cca. 20-25 de ani de la instalarea culturilor de pin (după ce s-au r ărit ca urmarea rupturilor produse la pin), astfel încât, în prezent (la cca. 45 de ani), speciile regenerate aurealizat un etaj inferior (de până la 10 m înălţime) ceea ce contribuie la realizarea unei structuridintre cele mai eficiente.

Concluzii

Arboretele de pin cu stare de vegetaţie corespunzătoare şi consistenţa peste 0,7 pot fi conduse prin lucr ări corespunzătoare (igienă, cur ăţiri, r ărituri), astfel încât să se realizeze o structur ă optimă; una din cauzele uscării sau a rupturilor este şi desimea prea mare a acestora. În arboretele în care s-a declanşat regenerarea naturală se recomandă: (i) scăderea treptată a consistenţei sau lărgirea ochiurilor prin extagerea exemplarelor r ău conformate, uscate saucu defecte, pentru instalarea şi dezvoltarea speciilor instalate prin regenerare naturală; (ii) îngolurile rezultate prin extragerea arborilor afectaţi de uscare sau cu defecte, în care există speciiregenerate cu o stare de vegetaţie activă şi creştere viguroasă, se impune promovarea/ajutorareaacestora prin efectuarea lucr ărilor specifice (mobilizarea solului în jurul puieţilor proveniţi dinregenerare naturală, descopleşiri, degajări). În arboretele cu goluri f ăr ă regenerare sunt necesare completări cu specii corespunzătoarestaţiunii, prin plantaţii sau semănături directe în teren pregătit în vetre, tă blii.



77

În arboretele de pin afectate de uscare sunt necesare refaceri/substituiri în benzi cu speciicorespunzătoare staţiunii. Sunt obligatorii lucr ările de pregătire a solului pentru instalareaculturilor şi lucr ările de îngrijire a culturilor instalate. Prin aplicarea metodelor de regenerare sub masiv (promovarea şi valorificarea regener ăriinaturale) şi/sau introducere la adă postul masivului a unor specii forestiere adecvate condiţiilor

staţionale, constând de regulă în plantaţii şi însămânţări directe, se urmăreşte valorifi

carea optimă a potenţialului staţiunilor de terenuri degradate ameliorate, dar şi asigurarea continuităţii pădurii,evitându-se descoperirea şi expunerea solului la eroziune sau alte procese de degradare.

Bibliografie

Constandache, C. 2003. Ameliorareaşi refacerea pinetelor necorespunzătoare sub raport productiv şi protectivinstalate pe terenurile degradate din bazinul hidrografic al râului Putna. Teză de doctorat. UniversitateaTransilvania Braşov, 298 p.Constandache, C. 2004. Cercetări privind regenerarea sub masiv şi introducerea la adă postul masivului aunor specii autohtone valoroase, în arborete apropiate de exploatabilitate, pe terenuri degradate. Analele

ICAS, 47: 63-81Constandache, C. 2003-2007. Cercetări/Asistenţă tehnică privind regenerarea sub masiv şi introducereasub masiv a unor specii autohtone valoroase în arborete situate pe terenuri degradate. Referate ştiinţifice latemele 8RA/2003; 53RC/2004; 66RC/2005, 6.3/2006-2007, ICAS Bucureşti.



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79


Bucharest, Romania

Cercetari privind reconstructia ecologica a padurilor în

declin din incintele îndiguite, aflate în Lunca şi Delta

Dunarii.

M. Greavu

Greavu M. 2009. Cercetări privind reconstrucţia ecologică a pădurilor în declin dinincintele îndiguite, aflate în Lunca şi Delta Dunării. [Researches on ecological re-construction of the declining forests in embanked areas located in the Danube flood plain and Delta]. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of theconference “Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008,Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 79-88.

Abstract. The research purpose was to determine the causes of tree stand decline inthe Danube flood plain and delta, and to find technologies for ecological reconstruc-tion by the cultivation of species or clones resistant to the harsh natural conditions ofthe area. In the flood plain of Danube, the growth regulator used for locust seedlingswhich were planted 1.5-2 m deep has led after 2-3 growing seasons to contradictory

results regarding the survival rate and the average height. The plantation depth oflocust seedlings leads to differences regarding the plant growth, the ones planted1.5-2.0 m deep having a higher survival rate and a better height growth than those planted in normal cavities. The white poplar seedlings had similar low performanceslike the root-suckers. The low percentage of seedling survival and their slow growthwere the results of the drought, grazing and damages of cockchafer grubs. Japanesesophora, planted in normal cavities, has quite unsatisfactory results at the end ofthe second growing season. In the Danube’s delta, 5 years after being planted onlow hillocks and depressions (former marsh bottoms), hybrid black poplar planted2.0 m and 2.5 m deep, white poplar, European black poplar, Grayish oak, Siberianelm, privet and red dogwood, have a normal vegetation state and dimensions cor-responding to this state. In depressions (former marsh bottoms), Siberian elm, honeylocust and Tartarian maple have much better survival rates than other species after

4 growing seasons. After 2 years, Siberian elm, locust and honey locust have the best survival rates on middle hillocks, while in depressions (former marsh bottoms)Siberian elm and locust have the best rates.Key words: Danube’s delta, Danube’s food plain, tree stand decline, ecological re-construction

Author. Manole Greavu - Forest Research and Management Institute, Research Sta-tion Tulcea, Isaccei st. 25, 820166 - Tulcea, Romania.

Introducere

Cercetările din comunicarea de faţă au fost determinate de apariţia în perioada anterioar ă a unoruscări anormale în plantaţiile forestiere instalate în incintele îndiguite din Lunca şi Delta Dunării.Aceste cercetări s-au desf ăşurat în perioada 1997-2002 în Lunca Dunării şi 2003-2008 în Delta

^ ^ ^

^

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80

Dunării. Scopul cercetărilor a fost de a determina cauzele care au contribuit la declinul arboretelordin Lunca şi Delta Dunării şi de a găsi tehnologii perfecţionate de reconstrucţie forestier ă cu

promovarea în cultur ă a unor specii sau clone rezistente la adversităţi. Cercetările s-au desf ăşuratîn incintele îndiguite: Vraţa, Maglavit, Cioace, Rast, Bistreţ-Nedeea, Trup-Incinta, Viişoara, Puini,Jirlău-Chiciu, Modelu, Cernavoda Pod, Borcea de Jos, Cotul Baciului, Grindu, Preoteasa-Lata şi

Rachelu – din Lunca Dunării şi în incintele: Pardina, Sireasa, Pătlăgeanca, Pă pădia, Partizani,Rusca, Pojarnic, Carasuhat, Bălteni, Km 18 Litcov, Pestriţele din Delta Dunării. Aceste cercetăriau cuprins atât condiţiile staţionale din incinte, cât şi studiul vegetaţiei forestiere. Prezentacomunicare abordează doar aspectul comportării plantaţiilor din suprafeţele experimentale.

Materiale şi metode

În incintele îndiguite din Lunca Dunării unde predomină psamosolurile, în scopul valorificării pentru plantaţii a orizonturilor cu humus ori a nivelului apei freatice aflate la adâncime, s-auexecutat experimental plantaţii cu puieţi şi sade îngropate la 1,5-2,0 m utilizându-se, manual

burghiile din setul instalaţiei Eijelkamp. Diametrul rezultat al gropii a fost de 10-12 cm. Înaintede plantare r ădăcina a fost mocirlită într-o compoziţie de consistenţa smântânii constituită din o

parte pământ vegetal, o parte bălegar de grajd proaspăt şi o parte apă. Pentru stimularea înr ădăcinării s-a utilizat stimulatorul RADI-STIM sub formă de praf ce s-aaplicat la capătul gros al sadei, iar la puieţi a fost utilizat regulatorul de creştere TRANSVITAL,dizolvat în materialul utilizat la mocirlirea r ădăcinilor. R ădăcinile puieţilor au fost toaletate scurt (4-5 cm) pentru a putea pătrunde în groapa cuadâncimea de 1,5-2,0 m şi diametrul de 10-12 cm. Totodată s-au îndepărtat toate ramurilelaterale. Atât în gropile adânci cât şi în cele normale (30 x 30 x 30 cm), executate cu cazmaua s-auadministrat câte 4-5 kg pământ vegetal.

În incintele îndiguite din Delta Dunării, unde predomină aluvisolurile, s-au utilizat tehnicilecunoscute de plantare.

Rezultate

a. Lunca Dunării Observaţiile şi măsur ătorile efectuate în octombrie 2002 au constatat modul cum s-au comportatdiversele specii, după cum urmează:- În incinta Vrata, pe un teren caracterizat ca duna joasă spre medie înălţimea medie atinsă după 2 ani se prezintă în tabelul 1.

- În incinta Cioace, pe un teren caracterizat ca o interdună, după 2 ani măsur ătorile se prezintă întabelul 1.- În incinta Rast, pe un teren caracterizat ca o duna joasă, după 3 ani înălţimea medie atinsă se

prezintă în tabelul 2.- În tabelul 3 se prezintă rezultatele măsur ătorilor după 2 ani în incinta Nisipuri, pe un terencaracterizat ca o interdună (Nisipuri I) şi o dună medie (Nisipuri II).

b. Delta DunăriiÎn urma măsur ătorilor efectuate în luna septembrie 2008, modul cum s-au comportat diversele

specii, se prezintă astfel :- În incinta Rachelu, pe un teren caracterizat ca fost fund de baltă, dimensiunile atinse după 5 anise prezintă în tabelul 4.- În incinta Sireasa, pe un teren caracterizat ca fost fund de baltă, înălţimea puieţilor atinsă după 4 ani se prezintă în tabelul 5.



81 T a b e l u l

1 R a t a d e s u p r a v i e ţ u i r e l a d i f e r i t e m o m e n t e ş i î n ă l ţ i m e a m e d i e a p u i e

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82 T a b e l u l

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3 2

7 3 , 0

1 1

S a l c â m

P u i e ţ i

2 x 2

2 , 0

T r a n s v i t a l

6 5

1 0 5 , 5

1 2

S a l c â m

P u i e ţ i

2 x 2

2 , 0


6 2

5 9 , 6



83 T a b e l u l 3

R a t a d e s u p r a v i e ţ u i r e l a d i f e r i t e m

o m e n t e ş i î n ă l ţ i m e a m e d i e a p u i e ţ

i l o r d e d o i a n i î n s u p r a f e ţ e l e e x p e r i m e n t a l e N i s i p u r i I ş i N i s i p u r i I I , O

. S . C o r a b i a

V a r i -

a n t a n r .

S p e c i i


p l a n t a r e

( m x m )

A d â n c i m e a

g r o p i l o r

( m )


c r e ş t e

r e


l a 2 1 . 0 6 . 2 0 0 2

( % )

R a t a d e

s u p r a v i e ţ u i r e l a

3 . 1 0 . 2 0 0 2

( % )


m e d i e

( c m )

O b s e r -

v a ţ i i

S u p r a f a ţ a e x p e r i m e n t a l ă N

i s i p u r i - I - O c o l u l S i l v i c C o r a b i a

1

S a l c â m

2 x 2

2 , 0 0

T r a n s v

i t a l

8 5

4 0

3 5

2

S a l c â m

2 x 2

2 , 0 0


7 4

3 3

4 0

3

S a l c â m

2 x 2

1 , 5 0

T r a n s v

i t a l

8 8

4 0

3 5

4

S a l c â m

2 x 2

1 , 5 0


7 8

3 0

8 0

5

S a l c â m

2 x 1

0 , 3 0


7 3

2 8

2 5

6

P l o p a l b

2 x 2

2 , 0 0

T r a n s v

i t a l

6 0

2 0

2 0

7

P l o p a l b

2 x 2

2 , 0 0


6 5

2 0

2 0

8

P l o p a l b

2 x 2

1 , 5 0

T r a n s v

i t a l

4 3

0

-

9

P l o p a l b

2 x 2

1 , 5 0


5 5

0

-

1 0

P l o p a l b

2 x 1

0 , 3 0


5 0

0

-

S u p r a f a ţ a e x p e r i m e n t a l ă N

i s i p u r i - I I - O c o l u l S i l v i c C o r a b i a

1 1

S a l c â m

2 x 2

2 , 0 0

8 5

5 0

8 0

1 2

S a l c â m

2 x 2

1 , 5 0

8 5

4 6

7 0

1 3

S a l c â m

2 x 1

0 , 3 0

8 6

3 0

6 5

1 4

S o f o r a

2 x 1

0 , 3 0

6 0

5

1 5



84

T a b e l u l 4 D

i a m e t r u l m e d i u ş i î n ă l ţ i m e

a p u i e ţ i l o r d e c i n c i a n i ş i a s a d e l o r

î n s u p r a f a ţ a e x p e r i m e n t a l ă R a c h e l u , O . s . M î c i n

S e

c -

ţ i u n e a

V a r i a n t a

S p e c i i

N r . p u i e ţ i

p l a n t a ţ i

D i a m e t r u l m e d i u

( c m )

Î n ă l ţ i m e a m e d i e

( m

)

O b s e r v a ţ i i

A

1

P l o p I 2 1 4

6 3

9 , 6

8 , 4 0

S - a u p l a n t a t s a d e l a

a d â n c i m e a

d e 1 m

2

P l o p I 2 1 4

6 3

1 1 , 3

9 , 3 6


a d â n c i m e a

d e 1 , 5 m

3

P l o p I 2 1 4

6 3

1 3 , 3

1 0

, 4 5


a d â n c i m e a

d e 2 , 0 m

4

P l o p I 2 1 4

6 3

1 3 , 8

1 0

, 2 6


a d â n c i m e a

d e 2 , 5 m

5

P l o p I 2 1 4

6 3

1 0 , 3

8 , 2 1

P u i e ţ i i n g r o p i n o r m a l

e

B

1

P l o

p S a c r a u

1 8 0

1 0 , 7

7 , 5 0


e

S a l c â m

1 8 0

5 , 9

6 , 1 0


e

C

1

P

l o p a l b

2 5 0

8 , 5

7 , 1 8


e

2

P l o p n e g r u

1 5 0

9 , 9

6 , 4 5


e

3

P l o

p c e n u ş i u

2 0 0

7 , 6

6 , 3 0


e

D

1

S t e j a

r b r u m ă r i u

4 0 0

-

2 , 4 0


e

U l m

3 0 0

6 , 9

6 , 1 0


e

L e m

n c â i n e s c

2 0 0

-

2 , 8 5


e

S â n g e r

2 0 0

-

1 , 8 5


e



85

- În incinta Partizani, comportarea speciilor forestiere după 2 ani (pe un teren caracterizat ca unfost grind mijlociu) respectiv după un an (pe un teren caracterizat ca fiind o întinsur ă de grind)înălţimile medii se prezintă în tabelul 6.

Discutii

a. Lunca Dunării Din analiza rezultatelor măsur ătorilor efectuate în luna octombrie 2002 în incintele îndiguiteVrata, Cioace, Rast şi Nisipuri (tabelele 1, 2, 3) se constată următoarele:- Regulatorul de creştere utilizat la puieţii de salcâm plantaţi la adâncimea de 1,5-2,0 m după 2-3 ani de vegetaţie a condus la rezultate contradictorii sub aspectul procentului de menţinere şi aînălţimii medii realizate. Înălţimea medie atinsă a fost cuprinsă între 48,8-181,4 cm (Vrata); 35,0-70,0 cm (Cioace); 5,96-105,5 cm (Rast) şi 25,0-80,0 cm (Nisipuri).- Puieţii de salcâm plantaţi la adâncimea de 1,5-2,0 m prezintă înălţimi medii de 59,5-181,4

cm (Vrata); 40,8-70,0 cm (Cioace), 5,96-105,5 cm (Rast) şi 35,0-80,0 cm (Nisipuri), în timp ce puieţii de salcâm plantaţi la 0,30 cm au înălţimi medii de 48,8 cm (Vrata), 35,0 cm (Cioace); 25,0cm (Nisipuri I) şi 65 cm (Nisipuri II). Procentele de menţinere la puieţii plantaţi la adâncimea de

Tabelul 5 Rata de supravieţuire şi înălţimea medie a puieţilor în suprafeţele experimentale Sireasa şi Par-dina, O.S. Tulcea

,

Sec-ţiunea

Varianta Vârtsa(ani)

Rata de supra-vieţuire (%)

Înălţimeamedie (m)

Observaţii

Plantaţia experimentală Sireasa – Ocolul Silvic Tulcea

ASalcâm 4 77,4 435,0Glădiţă 4 91,5 162,5

B Plop alb 4 91,2 125,0

C

Frasin comun 4 73,0 85,0Păr 4 43,7 91,0Ulm 4 98,5 280,7

Ar ţar tătăresc 4 61,0 105,0Tei 4 22,5 25,0

Mojdrean 4 - -

D

Stejar brumăriu 4 41,7 46,0

Ar ţar american 4 83,0 120,0Frasin comun 4 54,0 110,0

Ulm 4 75,3 122,5Ar ţar tătăresc 4 73,2 121,6

Măceş 4 61,5 141,3

Plantaţia experimentală Pardina – Ocolul Silvic Tulcea

A Plop alb 2 11 32

B 1Salcâm 2 84 69

Frasin pufos 2 31 47

B 2Frasin pufos 2 19 69,6

Ulm de Turkestan 2 91 63,3

C

Stejar brumăriu 2 15,0 20,3Frasin pufos 2 55,0 51,8

Ulm de Turkestan 2 83,0 38,5Măceş 2 37,0 25,6



86

1,5-2,0 m au fost între 47-83% (Vrata), 20-43% (Cioace), 30-40 % (Nisipuri I), 46-50% (NisipuriII), în vreme ce la puieţii plantaţi la adâncimea de 30 cm au fost de 27 % (Vrata), 10% (Cioace),28% (Nisipuri I), 30% (Nisipuri II).- În blocul Nisipuri II, sofora prezintă după 2 ani un procent de menţinere de doar 5%, iarînălţimea medie este de doar 15,0 cm.

b. Delta DunăriiDin analiza rezultatelor măsur ătorilor efectuate în luna septembrie 2008 în incinta Rachelu(tabelul 4) se constată că după 5 ani de la plantare pe grinduri joase şi lăsături (foste funduri de

baltă), prezintă o stare normală de vegetaţie şi au dimensiuni corespunzătoare, sadele de plopeuramerican plantate la adâncimea de 2,0 m si 2,5 m, plopul alb, plopul negru, stejarul brumăriu,ulmul de Turkestan, lemnul câinesc şi sângerul. Analizând măsur ătorile efectuate în luna septembrie 2008 în incintele Sireasa şi Pardina (tabelul5) se constată următoarele că după 4 ani de vegetaţie pe lăsături (foste funduri de baltă), prezintă

procente de menţinere mai bune ulmul de Turkestan, glădiţa şi ar ţarul tătăr ăsc.- Măsur ătorile efectuate în luna septembrie 2008 în incinta Partizani (tabelul 6) au dus la constatăridiferite în cele două suprafeţe experimentale. După 2 ani de vegetaţie prezintă procente mai bunede menţinere pe grinduri mijlocii ulmul de Turkestan, salcâmul şi glădiţă, iar pe lăsături (fostefunduri de baltă) ulmul de Turkestan şi salcâmul, iar după un an de vegetaţie prezintă procente

mai bune de menţinere pe grinduri joase şi pe întinsuri de grind, ulmul, frasinul de baltă, glădiţa, plopul alb şi plopul negru.

Tabelul 6 Rata de supravieţuire la diferite momente şi înălţimea medie a puieţilor în suprafeţele experimentale Partizani I şi Partizani II, O.S. Rusca

Sec-ţiu-nea

Specii Nr.

puieţi plantaţi

Vârsta(ani)

Rata desupravie-ţuire la

01.06.2008

(% )

Rata desupravie-ţuire la

24.09.2008

(%)

Înălţimeamedie(m)

Plantaţia experimentală Partizani IA Plop alb 175 2 86,1 75,0

B 1SalcâmGlădiţă

252189

22

91,370,3

210,098,3

B 2Frasin pufosUlm de Turkestan

189189

22

54,389,0

65,0111,7

C

Stejar br Frasin pufosUlm de TurkestanMăceş

378252192186

2222

29,555,797,034,4

18,086,7102,065,0

Plantaţia experimentala Partizani II

APlop alb prov. StăncuţaPlop alb prov. Letea IVPlop negru prov. Lacu SăratPlop negru prov. Vadu Oii

63156513

1111

82,565,984,373,4

76,1946,6778,4669,23

160130210200

B 1SalcâmGlădiţă

189189

11

95,597,7

86,388,7

153,0118,3

B 2Frasin pufosFrasin viridis

189189

11

60,583,7

29,771,7

76,780,0

C

Stejar br Frasin pufosFrasin viridisUlm de Turkestan

Măceş

37832157189

189

1111

1

72,449,588,593,5

95,7

54,36,0

76,481,3

81,1

20,020,084,063,8

85,3



87

Concluzii

Cercetările efectuate în Lunca Dunării au ar ătat că:• Regulatorul de creştere utilizat la puieţii de salcâm plantaţi la adâncimea de 1,5-2,0 m după 2-3 ani de vegetaţie a condus la rezultate contradictorii sub aspectul procentului de menţinere şi a

înălţimii medii realizate.• Adâncimea la plantare a puieţilor de salcâm conduce la diferenţieri în favoarea celor plantaţi la1,5-2,0 m faţă de cei plantaţi în gropi normale. Puieţii plantaţi la adâncimea de 1,5-2,0 m prezintă atât procente de menţinere cât şi înălţimi mai mari decât cei plantaţi în gropi normale.• După completările efectuate în primăvara 2002, utilizând puieţi de plop alb numai din sămânţă (renişuri naturale), comportarea plopului alb a fost la fel de modestă ca şi în anul 2001 atunci cânds-a încercat explicarea slabei comportări pe seama provenienţei puieţilor din drajoni.• Procentele de menţinere reduse şi înălţimile mici înregistrate de puieţi la controlul din toamna2002 se pot pune pe seama secetei din prima parte a sezonului de vegetaţie, dar şi a distrugerii decătre păşunat (suprafeţele Cioace, Rast) sau de către larvele de căr ă buşi (suprafaţa Nisipuri I).• Rezultatele experimentării, în blocul Rast, a diferite clone de plop e.a. cu sade şi puieţi plantaţila adâncimi de 1,5-2,0 m sunt total influenţate de păşunatul din zonă. Procentele de menţinereşi înălţimea nu reflectă potenţialul staţiunii valorificabil prin plantare la adâncimea de 1,5-2,0m. O dovadă o constituie un exemplar de plop din clona I 214 provenit din sada care a scă patde la distrugere prin păşunare şi a atins, după 3 ani de vegetaţie, înălţimea de 5,20 m. Restulexemplarelor sunt ţinute sub formă de tuf ă prin păşunare repetată.• Sofora plantată în gropi normale, după completarea golurilor în primăvara 2002, prezintă rezultate slabe la finele celui de al doilea an de vegetaţie. În Delta Dunării, după 5 ani de la plantare pe grinduri joase şi lăsături (foste funduri de

baltă), prezintă o stare normala de vegetaţie şi au dimensiuni corespunzătoare: sadele de plopeuramerican plantate la adâncimea de 2,0 m şi 2,5 m, plopul alb, plopul negru, stejarul brumăriu,

ulmul de Turkestan, lemnul câinesc şi sângerul. După 4 ani de vegetaţie pe lăsături (foste funduri de baltă) prezintă procente de menţinere mai

bune ulmul de Turkestan, glădiţa şi ar ţarul tătăr ăsc. După 2 ani de vegetaţie prezintă procente mai bune de menţinere pe grinduri mijlocii ulmulde Turkestan, salcâmul şi glădiţă, iar pe lăsături (foste funduri de baltă), ulmul de Turkestan şisalcâmul. După un an de vegetaţie prezintă procente mai bune de menţinere pe grinduri joase şi peîntinsuri de grind ulmul, frasinul de baltă, glădiţa, plopul alb şi plopul negru.



88



89


Bucharest, Romania

Aerodynamic study of forest shelter belts (wind

breaks)

T. T. Oradean

Or ădean T.T. 2009. Aerodynamic study of forest shelter belts (wind breaks). In: Ole-

nici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustain-able forestry in a changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest

Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 89-90.

Abstract. The paper represents a very succinct restrospective on the aerodynamic

study of forest shelter belts that was initiated in 1949 by the Romanian Academy of

Science. There are mentioned the scientists involved in that project and their main

activities. Their work is regarded as “of unquestionably high priority”.

Key words:

Author. Titus-Traian Or ădean - EUROTEC Development & Traiding, Conteşti St.

6B, 051711 - Bucharest, Romania.

Among the specific objectives of this conference is the presentation of the most recent achievements

of forest scientific research. These are directed especially towards the priorities required by

sustainable management in a changing environment and altered socio-economic contexts.

I intend, however, to recall little-known research which was carried out nearly sixty years ago,

ignored in the turmoil of the fifties, but now making a timely comeback in the present crucial

state of the natural environment. This research was concerned with the aerodynamic study of

forest shelter belts and was initiated in 1949 by the Romanian Academy of Science, which had

just been re-organised in line with the political constraints of that period. Rigid government

policy uncompromisingly required that applicative research must take precedence over basic pure

research. In order to save from outside interference some valuable basic research that was under way,

including that of aerodynamics, academician Traian Săvulescu, the acting president of the

Academy, introduced a clever initiative which relied on the trend to plant forest shelter belts

nearly everywhere, following the Soviet example. He set up a joint team of scientists and

researchers in forestry and aerodynamics which was circumstantially called the Collective for

Applied Mechanics.

This joint team was led by the famous scientist and academician Elie Carafoli and Dr. Ion

Lupe, an enthusiastic researcher in dry climate forestry and shelter belts. Hierarchically the team

belonged to the Institute for Applied Mechanics.

The already existing context for justifying starting the work was that in Romania forestresearch had a notable tradition of achievement going back to the mid- nineteenth century

and many well-grown plantations of shelter belts protecting croplands existed. Windbreaks

^



90

along railway lines were also available. In the field of aerodynamics the theory of hyper-lift of

permeable wing surfaces, elaborated by academician Elie Carafoli was recognised worldwide,

and had been successfully applied in the field of supersonic aviation. This theory found a most

suitable application in the advanced research regarding the increase of the protecting ef ficiency

of penetrable and semi-penetrable shelter belts and wind breaks.

The joint team included some of Carafoli’s close co-workers such as Prof. Nicolae Tipei andIon Stroescu, while from the forestry side came Dr. Ion Lupe, Dr. Atanasie Haralamb and Dr.

Teodor Bălănică. I myself was junior assistant, and I am probably the last surviving member of

that team.

The planning of the work had two stages: a general field survey together with dendrological,

anemometrical and auxological measurements, followed by a simulation in the wind tunnel of

the Polytechnical School of Bucharest (nowadays the Technical University of Bucharest). The

fieldwork was performed at the Stud of Mangalia, southward of Constanza which possessed a

large area for fodder crop covered by a grid of 400 x 400m precincts.

These were protected by a mature vegetation of trees and shrubs which were well-adapted to

the local climate and appropriate for shaping a suitable profile of the belt.

The anemometric measurements established the wind speed at varying distances from the belt

itself, enabling the construction of accurate diagrams. The time of year for the field work was

deliberately chosen to coincide with the highest intensity and frequency of local spring winds.

In order to make the air flow visible smoke-producing candles, made by the ingenious Ion

Stroescu, were successfully used. Concomitantly, an inventory of the xerophytic trees and shrubs

of the nearby forest of Comarova was also made.

Back in Bucharest the foresters started an evaluation of the collected data and the physicists

manufactured models for the wind tunnel simulation. The culmination of all this work on

developing the ef ficiency of shelter belts was Ion Stroescu’s ingenious solution of a proposed

multi-layer network consisting of copper wire and textile tufts.

Unfortunately the records of this experiment are not yet recovered, but the search for themis continuing because they can testify that the comprehensive research performed by this team

constituted work of unquestionably high priority. It is obvious that considerable progress has

subsequently been made, especially since the sixties and seventies, not only in Europe but also

in Asia and Australia, as well as in both the Americas. The global changes and their impact on

forests and agriculture will give a boost to large-scale afforestation projects and the planting of

forest shelter belts, grounded on hi-tech methods and up-to-date approaches.

Remembering the pioneering work done sixty years ago, however, serves to recognise and

prize these forerunners for their tenacity and ingenuity, working as they did under stern political

conditions. Their achievements surely serve to stimulate the new generation to attain the highest

level in their own praiseworthy and valuable work in afforestation.



91


Bucharest, Romania

Local networks of forest shelterbelts – solution to

achieve a national plan

M. M. Vasilescu, C. C. Tereşneu

Vasilescu M. M., Tereşneu C. C. 2009. Local networks of forest shelterbelts – solu-

tion to achieve a national plan. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.),Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“,

October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS,

pp. 91-98.

Abstract. The establishment of a forest shelterbelts national network seems to be

one of the most indicated solution for Romanian agriculture in a changing envi-

ronment. Political support (law of forest shelterbelts 289/2002), a few projects

regarding the achievement of national network of forest shelterbelts elaborated

by ICAS and an academic meeting regarding this topic are such a proof. The pa-

per presents a proposal to achieve using the local networks of forest shelterbelts

that will be afterwards integrated in a national system. This thing may happen

through standard farms based on special agro-technique including forest shel-

terbelts. Using FRISCO formula, the authors try tofi

nd out the most importantcriteria that could convince the managers and landowners to adopt the system

of model farms. The study is based on the experience and results regarding the

influence of a few forest shelterbelts on protected areas during the last seven

years.

Key words: local networks of forest shelterbelts, multi-criteria analysis.

Authors. Maria Magdalena Vasilescu, Cornel Cristian Tereşneu - Transylvania Uni-

versity of Braşov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering, Şirul Beethoven

St. 1, 500123 - Braşov, Romania.

Introduction

The plan of the forest shelterbelts national network becomes more and more visible in a changing

environment. The achievement of this plan involves at least two important factors: the legislative

support and the presence of specialists (Figure 1).

An operational political background exists today in Romania, as the law on forest shelterbelts

(289/2002) and a few legal paragraphs of the new law on forestry (46/2008) – IV Sustainable

development of the national forests, chapter I, articles 90, 91 and 101 especially (Anonymous

2008) corroborate it. Thanks to that, the financement of the forest shelterbelts national network

is of ficially approved, supported by a better management of the finances related to land resources

and forest conservation, by government budget allocations and other resources. Landowners are

besides the persons who consent to the change of the land use and who approve the establishment

of forest shelterbelts; they receive an annual compensation whose amount is close to the equivalent

of the crop expected from these lands.



92

At the same time, ICAS specialists made significant research work on the scientific background

and elaborated feasibility studies, in order to support the establishment of a forest shelterbeltsnational network. Both a favorable political background and a scientific support ever exist

today.

The success of the forest shelterbelts national network might be reached through the promotion

of a model of farm organized according to specific principles. This notion includes forest

shelterbelts in the agro-technique. A model farm pilot implementation would be the best way

to popularize forest shelterbelts and could generate new forest shelterbelts local networks after

Fig. 1 Diagram of the solution to achieve a national forest shelterbelts plan

Photo 1 Local network of forest shelterbelts – proposal for Romanian fields



93

requirement expressed by landowners and legal representatives of agricultural exploitations.

The aim of this research paper is to mark the role of different criteria contributing to the

establishment of forest shelterbelts local networks.


The study used the existent data regarding the political background that supports the establishment

of forest shelterbelts, data regarding the situation of arable surfaces in Teleorman County,

information regarding the influence of forest shelterbelts on climatic elements and agricultural

crops in Boian and Burnaz fields (Vasilescu 2007, Vasilescu et al. 2007). The research paper also

outlines the impact of knowledge in three process cases (the implicated persons being specialists

in silviculture, agricultural exploitations representatives, landowners). This application is based

on field real situations (pictures 2, 3 and 4) and on agronomists concerns too.

Trying to apply the FRISCO formula (created by a research group from San Francisco – SUA),

the most used and performing in the world (Bobancu & Cioc 2003, Bobancu 2008),iγ (a weight

factor) was computed for different criteria.

2'

5.0

crt

i N p

m p p

+Δ−

++Δ+=γ

in where:

p is the sum of the points (on a row) scored by the element to be analysed; pΔ is the difference

between the score of this element and the score of the element on the last level; if the element

to be analysed is on the last level, pΔ will have the value 0; m is a number of criteria outranked(standpoint of the score) by the criterion to be studied;

crt N is a number of criteria; ' pΔ is the

difference between the score of the criteria studied and the score of the first criteria (resulting in

a negative value); if the criteria to be evaluated is the one place on the first level, the result will

be 0.

This mathematic solution gives a realistic characterization, without ambiguities. Seven criteria

were analyzed in three variants: 1 - influence of forest shelterbelts on climatic elements; 2 - effects

of forest shelterbelts on agricultural crops; 3 - legislative background; 4 - financial support; 5 -

feasibility studies and research on scientific background; 6 - model farm; 7 - popularization.


The table 1 is illustrating a case of study in one county where shelterbelts are necessary, comparing

the situation regarding the arable surface and the surface owned by agricultural exploitations

(land managed in individual farms) between 2000 and 2004. The differences between the two

categories of surface are 306,545 ha in 2000, 271,216 ha in 2001, 244,578 ha in 2002, 233,415

ha in 2003 and 221,244 ha in 2004. The new situation makes possible the establishment of forest

shelterbelts in large areas.

The agricultural exploitations can be either commercial enterprises (according to the law

31/1990) or joint stock and family partnership (according to the law 36/1991). The situation of

agricultural exploitations in 2000-2004 emphasizes the increase of their number in comparisonwith 2000 (Table 2).

The weight factor of the multi-criteria analysis is assessed by calculating iγ in a Latin grid.



94

The criterion on a row is compared with the criterion on a column; when the first one is the most

important, the value 1 is assigned; when the first one is equally important as the second one,

the value 0.5 is assigned; when the first one is less important than the second one, the value 0 is

assigned. Each variant is analysed in turn, through each criterion, until all variants are assessed.

At the end, the sum of these products is calculated; the sums (usually unique values, associated to

each variant) will determine the final classification (Bobancu & Cioc 2003, Bobancu 2008).

We propose brainstorming meetings to choose the best criterion to take into account and to find

out the importance of every criterion for each variant. We present below an example (tables 3

and 4) with three variants: 1 – specialists in silviculture, 2 – legal representatives of agriculturalexploitations and 3 – landowners.

The importance of criteria from each variant,i N , can be modified in a brainstorming meeting

with all implicated categories. The study outlines the actual situation (reflected in pictures 2-4)

regarding the knowledge about criteria. This situation could be improved for the variants 2 and

3.

There are two other actions the requestors need: pilot implementation and popularization. The

establishment of a model farm contributes with 18.53% ( ),%i

γ to the calculation of final top of

Year Arable surface Arable surface in agricultural exploitations

ha % from 2000 ha % from 20002000 449,855 - 143,310 -2001 449,574 99.9 178,358 124.4

2002 450,693 100.1 206,115 143.82003 451,653 100.4 218,238 152.2

2004 455,487 101.2 234,243 163.8

Table 2 Evolution of agricultural exploitations in Teleorman, 2000-2004

Year

Number of exploitations Managed surface Mean surface of

exploitations, haValues % from 2000 ha % from 2000

2000 185 - 143,310 - 774.6

2001 279 150.8 178,358 124.4 639.3

2002 394 212.9 206,115 143.8 523.1

2003 526 284.3 218,238 152.2 414.92004 531 287 234,243 163.8 441.1

Table 3 Calculation of the weight factors

Cri-

teria1 2 3 4 5 6 7 p rank ∆ p m ∆ p’

iγ ( )%i

γ

1 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0 0.5 2 7 0 0 -2.5 0.416 2.93

2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 3.5 4.5 1.5 2 -1.5 1.5 10.59

3 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 4.5 1.5 2.5 5 0 3.571 25.21

4 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 4.5 1.5 2.5 5 0 3.571 25.21

5 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 0.5 2.5 6 0.5 1 -2 0.818 5.77

6 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 4.0 3 2 4 -0,5 2.625 18.53

7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 3.5 4.5 1.5 2 -1 1.666 11.56

Table 1 Arable surface and surface in agricultural exploitations in Teleorman County



95

Table 4 Top of the variants

Criteria iγ

Variant 1 Variant 2 Variant 3

i N

ii N γ ×

i N

ii N γ × i

N ii

N γ ×

1 0.416 8 3.328 7 2.912 6 2.496

2 1.5 8 12 8 12 7 10.53 3.571 10 37.71 8 28.568 6 21.4264 3.571 9 32.139 7 24.997 6 21.4265 0.818 9 7.362 7 5.726 6 4.9086 2.625 5 13.125 5 13.125 5 13.1257 1.666 6 9.996 6 9.996 6 9.996

Final top 113.66 97.324 83.877

Photo 2 Wheat crop protected by a shelterbelt in the Boian field

Photo 3 Field without shelterbelt in Teleorman County



96

the analysed variants ( )ii

N γ × . The higher values ofi

γ are met in the case of political background

including financial support (25.21%). The next criterion ( )%i

γ is the popularization at two levels.

We called this : “target” and “en masse”. First one is advertisement to legal representatives of

agricultural exploitations. They have the quality to require political support, feasibility studies,

research on scientific background to solve landowners problems. Popularizing shelterbelts by

sending data to landowners encourages the representatives of agricultural exploitations too.

Prof. dr. eng. Marian Ianculescu is the initiator of the shelterbelt law and one protagonist of

the shelterbelt popularization. This emphasizes the importance of specific information and theobligation of the other specialists also.

Conclusion

The example of multi-criteria analysis in the problem of forest shelterbelts emphasizes the fact

that establishing a classification at the same time quantitative and qualitative is useful. Following

seven criteria (the influence of forest shelterbelts on climatic elements, effects of forest shelterbelts

on agricultural crops, legislative background,financial support, feasibility studies and research on

scientific background, model farm and popularization) the method involves an increased degree

of objectivity by calculating the weight factor of each criterion. Political background and financial support to forest shelterbelts are uncertain information for

landowners and legal representatives of agricultural exploitations, even if that the effect on crops

in protected fields is well known.

The application of this method shows that a better popularization aiming at encouraging the

building of a forest shelterbelts national network and pilot implementations through a model farm

(a forest shelterbelts local network) are actions contributing to the achievement of the national

plan.

References

Anonymous 2008. Codul silvic (Legislation in silviculture). Monitorul oficial, 27 March 2008, Bucharest,

pp. 2-19.

Bobancu, Ş., Cioc V. 2003. Inovare inginerească în design (Engineering innovation in design). University

Photo 4 Unused irrigation channel in the Boian field



97

Transilvania of Braşov, Braşov, 274 p.

Bobancu, Ş. 2008. Using the multi-criteria analysis (MCA) in the drafting of doctorate papers. Annals of the

Oradea University, Fascicle of Management and Technological Engineering, volume VII (XVII), Oradea,

pp.1933-1936.

Vasilescu, M. M. 2007. Cercetări privind fundamentarea ştiinţifică a instalării unei reţele optime de perdele

forestiere de protecţie a câmpului şi a căilor de comunicaţie din Câmpiile Boianului şi Burnazului (Research

on the scientific background for the optimal establishment of forest shelterbelts network to protect the plainand communication ways in the Boian and Burnaz fields). PhD thesis, University Transilvania of Braşov,

Braşov, 257 p.

Vasilescu, M. M., Tereşneu, C.C., Candrea, B. 2007. Research on the effects of forest shelterbelts on

agricultural crops. In Proceedings IUFRO Conference on Forest Landscape Restoration, 7-19 May 2007,

Seoul, pp. 257-258.



98



99


Bucharest, Romania

Evolutia conceptului european de gestionare a padu-

rii şi incidenta asupra silviculturii româneşti

P. Bradosche

Bradosche P. 2009. Evoluţia conceptului european de gestionare a pădurii şi incidenţa

asupra silviculturii româneşti. [Evolution of the European concept of forest manage-

ment and the incidence on the Romanian silviculture] In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M.,Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a chang-ing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Manage-ment Institute ICAS, pp. 99-116.

Abstract. It is presented a short overview of the evolution of the forest managementconcept since the beginning of forestry until now, at the European level, and how itaffected the evolution of the Romanian forests in different periods. Highlighted aresome phenomena that have negatively affected the forests and marked signicantchanges in how to deal with forestry, namely: overexploitation, acid rain and globalclimate change. Finally it is emphasizes the need, also in Romania, for the develop-ment of research programs able to give coherent answers to questions put in the front

of forestry in a increasingly uncertain future.Key words: forest management, evolution, Romanian silviculture

Author. Petre Bradosche - Fr. Manoir de Lurcy, France.

,

1. Ştiinţa forestieră s-a născut în secolul al XVIII-lea în ţările de limba germană şi s-a dezvoltat,cu un puternic caracter naturalist, în secolul următor în Franţa. Ea a apărut din teama că lemnul vaEa a apărut din teama că lemnul valipsi generaţiilor viitoare, după ce, în secolul al XVI-lea se produsese prima mare criză de lemndin Europa. Această criză, provocată de creşterea demogracă, a fost amplicată de dezordinelesociale produse în Franţa de războiul de 100 de ani, iar în ţările germanice de dezvoltarea

impetuoasă a industriei, care folosea lemnul drept combustibil.Mai prevăzători şi mai organizaţi, germanii s-au preocupat de timpuriu de prevenirea previ-zibilă a lipsei de lemn şi, pe lângă numeroase tratate publicate încă din secolul al XVI-lea, auîninţat un număr impresionant de şcoli forestiere, multe efemere, din care unele mai dăinuie şiîşi păstrează renumele până în zilele noastre. Ca un altoi pe ştiinţa forestieră germană, s-a dezvoltat şcoala franceză, aducând propria sacontribuţie, constituită din cunoştinţe aprofundate de ştiinţe naturale, în special de botanică şi deziologia vegetală, ajungând ca la nele secolului al XIX-lea să-şi concureze tutorele.2. Din cele mai vechi timpuri pădurea a fost exploatată în crâng, lemnul ind folosit mai ales dreptcombustibil; odată cu cererea de lemn de dimensiuni mari (în special pentru marină) tratamentula evoluat de la crângul compus spre codru şi în acest fel s-a generalizat, pentru aproape douăsecole, tratamentul zis «tire et aire» (tăieri cu rezerve sau seminceri). Încă din această perioadă, se puteau distinge păduri cultivate, în care omul intervenea potrivit

,

^



100

unor reguli (în general prescrise pentru exploatare) şi păduri virgine sau quaşi-virgine, în careintervenţia omului era aproape nulă. În Europa, păduri virgine mai existau încă în secolul al XIX-lea în ţările din sud-estul Europei, datorându-şi existenţa lipsei căilor de acces. Pentru a cultiva pădurea, condiţia necesară este să se realizeze în prealabil lucrările de pune-re în valoare a ei, fără care intervenţia calicată a omului în pădure nu este posibilă. Acestea

constau în principal din: delimitarea şi materializarea conturului pădurii, elaborarea studiuluide organizare şi planicare a lucrărilor în pădure pentru ca să se amelioreze productivitatea,(amenajamentul), precum şi construcţia căilor de transport, fără care accesul în pădure şirespectiv executarea lucrărilor silviculturale nu sunt posibile. Primele rudimente de amenajamentse regăsesc în rapoartele făcute cu ocazia inspecţiilor din pădurile landurilor germane.3. Începând cu a doua jumatate a secolului al XIX-lea, marele capital a fost atras de pieţele curentabilitate ridicată pe care le oferea exploatarea masivelor forestiere virgine, intacte, care semai găseau în ţările din această parte a Europei. În Slovacia, Galiţia, Bucovina, Bosnia şi ŢărileRomâne se mai găseau asemenea păduri, cu arborete îmbătrânite, inaccesibile; numai câteva căiuviale permiteau evacuarea de cantităţi relativ reduse, de buşteni de răşinoase. Este util de ştiut cum au fost puse în valoare şi administrate pădurile din Vechiul Regat

al României şi din Bucovina, începând cu a doua jumatate a secolului al XIX-lea şi până lareîntregirea României Mari.

În Bucovina, smulsă ţării prin hotărârea imperiilor vecine dominante, pădurile aparţinând bisericii au rămas în proprietatea acesteia şi, ind puse sub administraţie autonomă, erau tute-late de autoritatea imperială. Suprafaţa pădurilor Fondului bisericesc bucovinean era apreciabilă;ea reprezenta aproape o treime din suprafaţa pădurilor proprietatea Statului din Vechiul Regat. În Vechiul Regat domnitorul Cuza a adus statului, prin secularizarea averilor mânăstireşti, unimportant patrimoniu funciar, evaluat la ceva mai puţin de un million de ha de pădure. Acestaau fost încredinţate direct Administraţiei de stat, la început Ministerului de Finanţe, ulteriorMinisterului Agriculturii, Industriei, Comerţului şi Domeniilor, fără să se stabilească politica

economică a gestionarii lor. Pădurile din Bucovina au fost supuse unui rudiment de regim silvic (Orândueala lui Iosif alII-lea din 1785), cu 50 de ani mai devreme decât cele din Vechiul Regat (Legiuirea domnitoruluiMihai Sturza din 1843/1847).

Agenţii forestieri (silvicultori sau cu grad superior) din Vechiul Regat au fost formaţi în Franţasau în şcolile naţionale, cei din Bucovina în şcolile din cadrul imperiului austriac. Amenajarea pădurile Fondului bisericesc (mai mult sau mai puţin detaliată) a fost completteminată înainte de sfârşitul secolului al XIX-lea, cele din Vechiul Regat 50 de ani mai târziu. Politica forestieră urmată în cele două ţări a fost complet diferită, începând de la punerea învaloare a pădurii, a modului de valoricare a produselor şi sfârşind cu regenerarea ei. ObiectivulAdministraţiei de Stat în Vechiul Regat a fost realizarea de venituri imediate, fără investiţii şi cuminimum de efort nanciar (în parte şi din cauza lipsei de personal).

Este de remarcat că recomandările făcute de forestieri francezi (chemaţi pentru organizareaactivităţii forestiere), privind punerea în valoare (delimitarea şi materializarea fondului forestier,întocmirea de amenajamente provizorii pentru valoricarea pădurile îmbatrânite, construcţia dedrumuri de acces, vânzarea lemnului prin licitaţie publică, pe număr de arbori şi nu pe suprafaţade pădure ş.a.) nu au fost urmate şi practica dezastruoasă a concesiunilor pe suprafeţe mari şi petermene lungi s-a continuat, timp de aproape 40 de ani, până în primul deceniu al secolului XX.Timp de zeci de ani, administraţia rigidă a Statului s-a cantonat într-un centralism şi birocratism

O situaţie deosebită prezentau pădurile din Vechiul Regat al României, situate în apropierea satelor, din care locuitoriiextrăgeau, pe alese, lemnul, de care aveau nevoie, potrivit unor drepturi ancestrale. În acest fel, din numeroase păduri decâmpie şi de deal au fost eliminate exemplarele cele mai frumoase, din speciile cele mai valoroase, stejarul şi bradul.



101

excesiv. În Bucovina, politica Fondului bisericesc, cu prevederi pe termen lung, s-a adaptat succesivcondiţiilor pieţii adoptând o administraţie suplă, având ca preocupare punerea în valoare a

pădurilor. Astfel, după o scurtă perioadă, în timpul căreia pădurile au fost puse în exploatare subformă de concesiuni pe durate limitate la 10 ani, în scopul de a-şi asigura mijloacele nanciare

necesare, administraţia Fondului constatând că instalaţiile de transport construite de antreprenorinu erau satisfăcătoare şi nici durabile, a trecut la execuţia lor în regie. S-au elaborat două pro-grame de investiţii de câte 10 ani, pe baza cărora s-a obţinut nanţarea lucrărilor prin contractareade credite pe termen lung, pe durate de 40 de ani.

Instalaţiile de transport, concepute unitar pe mari unităţi forestiere, au fost realizate cuo competenţă, într-un ritm şi de o calitate care au constituit un exemplu la timpul respectiv.Executarea ansamblului lucrărilor care compun ciclul de producţie a unui arboret şi care îi asigură

perenitatea: exploatarea, regenerarea şi operaţiile de cultură pe toată durata existenţii lui, au fosturmărite în Bucovina ca un tot unitar, în toată succesiunea lor, consecvent şi cu regularitate,conservând compoziţia de origine a arboretului şi perpetuarea pădurii prin specii pe care naturaînsăşi le selecţionase.

Este necesar să se facă lectura integrală a documentelor din vremea respectivă, inclusiv a re-latărilor celor care au asistat la adunarea din 20 iunie 1897 de la Cernăuţi, pentru a se spulberaideile greşite care sunt încă vehiculate în România. Rezultatul aplicării exemplarea a silviculturii clasice, (atât cea germană cât şi cea franceză

prescriau punerea în valoare în acelaşi fel), este ilustrat prin cele trei hărţi, care arată cum s-audispersat tăierile în cadrul ocolului silvic Suha în mai puţin de 30 de ani, ca urmare a realizării

programului de construcţie a drumurilor (Fig. 1). După o perioadă în care s-au încercat diferite tratamente, cu rezultate mai mult sau mai puţinreuşite, soarta pădurilor lumii a fost marcată, începând cu cea de-a doua jumătate a secoluluial XX-lea de două fenomene importante, care au perturbat substanţial ecosistemul forestier şi

anume: (i) ploile acide care au afectat o parte din pădurile Europei centrale, şi (ii) deteriorareadeteriorareageneralizată a climatului la nivel planetar. Perturbări datorate factorilor abiotici (vântul, furtunile, grindina, zăpada, îngheţul ş.a.) s-au

produs întotdeauna (după cum rezultă din cronica lui Hamm -1976) şi fac parte din condiţiilenaturale de formare a ecosistemului forestier; o creştere a frecvenţei lor din ultima sută de anise explică prin înregistrarea lor mai riguroasă. Este adevărat că intervenţia factorului antropic afavorizat adeseori acest lucru. Dacă silvicultura clasică s-a născut din teama ca va lipsi lemnul, silvicultura modernă senaşte din teama ca pădurea temperată1 va dispare, după cum a dispărut pădurea din Africade nord.4. Ploile acide, produse acum vreo 40 de ani, cu efecte dezastroase asupra pădurii temperate dinEuropa centrală au sensibilizat opinia europeană asupra internaţionalizării pericolului poluăriiatmosferei.2

În urma convenţiei de la Geneva din 1979 s-a adoptat “Programul internaţional de evaluare

1 Pădurea temperată, ocupă cea mai mare parte a fondului forestier al Europei şi se împarte în două mari zone: a. pădurea temperată rece, formată din conifere şi foioase, situată în nord-estul Europei şi pădurea de foioase şirăşinoase din centrul şi estul Europei (în care se cuprind şi pădurile României); b. Pădurea temperată de munte mijlociu şi înalt, din centrul şi apusul Europei, inclusiv pădurea din Balcani. Pădurea temperată se caracterizează printr-o structură verticală şi compoziţie foarte variabilă, este alcătuită dintr-unnumăr apreciabil de specii, cu o faună şi oră diversicată, cu o adaptare strictă la variaţiile sezoniere, cu numeroase

perturbaţii şi stabilitate ecologică variabilă, dar cu o dinamică forestieră de succesiune intensă. Pădurea boreală din nordul Norvegiei şi al Finlandei, ca şi pădurea subtropicală, mediteraneană, prezentă în Spania, sudul Italiei şi Grecia, cu caracteristici diferite, au o pondere redusă în raport cu pădurea temperată.



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103

şi supraveghere a efectelor poluării atmosferice asupra pădurilor”. S-a creat o reţea de pieţe deobservare, în mai multe ţări din Europa de nord şi de vest şi prin organizarea conferinţelor mi-nisteriale intereuropeene, consacrate protecţiei şi gestionării durabile a pădurilor, s-a ajuns lageneralizarea integrată a supravegherii intensive a ecosistemelor forestiere europene. Rezultatele sunt încurajatoare, precipitaţiile rămân acide dar frecvenţa lor a scăzut, sulfaţii

(principala cauză a ploilor acide) au diminuat, dar depunerile de azotaţi (nitraţii produşi decirculaţia autovehiculelor şi azotaţii amoniacali produşi de agricultură) rămân la acelaşi nivel. Eutroerea pădurilor este în progres (ceea ce contribuie la accelerarea creşterii), durata devegetaţie se prelungeşte, climatul se încălzeşte datorită efectului de seră, compoziţia orei semodică şi echilibrul nutriţional în solurile sărace se modică, creşte riscul de îngheţ şi de poluarea apelor.

Este evident că ecosistemele forestiere sunt în curs de modicare, ca urmare a schimbărilor produse în mediul exterior pădurii. În aceste condiţii conservarea pădurii şi gestionarea eidurabilă nu poate să neglijeze modicarea ecosistemului forestier în timp. Nu se mai poate vorbide conservarea ecosistemului existent, nici de regenerarea pădurii păstrând modelele pe carenatura le-a creat de-a lungul timpului în condiţii de relativă stabilitate, ci de prevederea evoluţiei

lui în viitor.5. În acelaşi timp s-a constatat un nou pericol, mult mai grav, datorat intensicării încălziriiclimatului ca urmare a efectului de seră. Opinia mondială s-a sesizat şi a urmat seria de conferinţela nivel mondial, bine cunoscute. Mă voi opri asupra aceleia de la Helsinki (1993), care a abordatîn mod concret problema gestionării durabile a pădurii, în funcţie de riscul previzibil. La Helsinki s-a convenit asupra următorului concept: «Gestionarea durabilă înseamnăadministrarea şi utilizarea pădurilor, astfel încât să li se menţină şi amelioreze biodiversitatea,

productivitatea, capacitatea de regenerare, vitalitatea, sănatatea şi să li se asigure pentru prezent şi viitor capacitatea de a exercita funcţiile multiple ecologice, economice şi sociale pertinente, lanivel local, regional şi mondial, fără a se genera prejudicii altor ecosisteme ».

În lucrarea D-lui V. Giurgiu, Gestionarea durabilă a pădurilor României (Ed. Acad. Române,Buc., 2004) am avut surpriza să găsesc o modicare originală a conţinutului acestei deniţii.Autorul respectiv înlocuieşte termenul de productivitate prin stabilitate.3 Scoţând din deniţieconţinutul economic al gestionării, se elimină principala bază de existenţă a pădurii, doveditind ca numai pe suportul ei economic pădurea îşi poate fundamenta durabilitatea (economic, însensul cel mai larg posibil şi nu numai producţia de lemn). În aceste condiţii, se pune întrebareadacă deniţia modicată mai este compatibilă cu noţiunea de gestionare.6. Silvicultura modernă, care se doreşte durabilă, a căpătat în ultimile decenii noi dimensiuni,în special ca urmare a schimbărilor fundamentale şi rapide ale factorilor abiotici. În afară dedimensiunea economică, care-şi păstrează ponderea, se adaugă cea ecologică şi cea socială.

Silvicultura a inclus dintotdeauna dimensiunea timp şi implicit nu poate să ignore nici acumviitorul, respectiv modicările previzibile ale mediului economic, social şi natural în care vaexista.

3 Stabilitatea este aptitudinea ecosistemului forestier de a se menţine în ciuda modicărilor intervenite din cauza unor factori exteriori obişnuiţi (doborâturi, incendii, s.a.); elasticitatea este capacitatea lui de a reveni la starea de echlibru

anterior, deteriorat de o perturbare ordinară. Atât stabilitatea, cât şi elasticitatea fac parte din procesul natural deconstituire şi conservare a ecosistemului forestier. Efectul de seră însă este un fenomen extraordinar, comparabil caamploare şi consecinţe cu o interglaciatie, cu deosebirea că se produce într-un timp extrem de scurt.

2 Una dintre concluziile Congresului de la Viena din 1907 sună astfel: Dat ind creşterea considerabilă a acizilorvătămatori răspândiţi în aer de cărbuni şi de alte materii, este de temut ca pădurile vecine să nu sufere din ce în ce maimult; prin urmare Congresul al VIII-lea Internaţional de Agricultură de la Viena, roagă guvernele de a veghea, în modulce vor crede de cuviinţă spre a se limita şi a se face să dispară stricăciunile cauzate pădurilor din cauza fumului şi îi supune, spre luare la cunoştinţă, deliberările congresului în această privinţă.



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Fig. 2 Conceptul de ecosistem forestier (Sursa H.J.Otto “Ecologie forestieră”,1998, g.1.02)



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Fig. 3a Schema ciclului global al carbonului (în GtC) (Sursa: B.Sangier “Rolul biosferei în ciclulcarbonului”; C.R. Acad. Agric. FR. 1999, 85, nr. 6)

Fig. 3b Evoluţia tipului de stocuri de carbon ale ecosistemelor forestiere în funcţie de vârstă(cazul unei păduri necultivate cu 100 tc/ha) (Sursa: C.Nys - Stocarea carbonului în biosfera

continentală, CR-AAF, vol.88/5, 2002).



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ansamblul duratei ciclului de producţie, în regim permanent, variază mult în funcţie de specie, declasa de fertilitate a solului, de consistenţa arboretului (de la 20% la 70% între stejar şi fag, între4% şi 14% în funcţie de clasa de fertilitate a solului) şi de vârsta arboretului. În cazul pădurilorvirgine, îmbătrânite, creşterea stocării de carbon este nulă, de unde interesul pentru generalizarea

pădurii cultivate (Fig. 3b).

În cazul pădurii temperate europeene, al cărei ciclu de viaţă a ecosistemelor este teoreticcontrolat prin practicarea silviculturii, omul intervine în ecare stadiu al ciclului de sechestrarea carbonului: (i) prin schimbarea utilizării solului, recuperând suprafeţele abandonate de alteactivităţi sau improprii pentru alte culturi şi extinzând suprafaţa împădurită; (ii) prin orientareaspre codru gradinărit (fr. futaie irrégulière), în care vârstele la care sechestrarea carbonului esteactivă se regăsesc într-o proporţie mai mare şi prin operaţii culturale, de regenerare, întreţinere şirecoltare practicate corect şi la timp în toate pădurile cultivate; (iii) modicând probabilitatea de

perturbaţie sau reducând impactul lor (atacuri de insecte, poluările locale, prevenirea incendiilor,interzicerea păşunatului, combaterea defrişărilor abuzive).7. În Franţa temperatura a crescut în ultimii 55 de ani cu 1,2°C ; în ultimile decenii s-au în-registrat cei mai călduroşi 10 ani din secolul trecut, iar precipitaţiile au o distribuţie neregulată;

ele au crescut în timpul iernii şi au scăzut în timpul verii. Se pune întrebarea cu ce aproximaţie se poate prevedea schimbarea climatului şi în ce măsură această schimbare va antrena modicareaecosistemului forestier. Grupul de experţi interguvernamental însărcinat cu evoluţia climatului (GIEC) a elaborat ipotezeasupra emisiei de gaze cu efect de seră, dar nici o probabilitate de realizare nu este asociată laaceste scenarii. Din proiectul CARBOFOR a fost totuşi reţinut scenariul B2 care se bazează peipoteze moderate şi ia în considerare şi evoluţia din ultimii 50 de ani. Acest scenariu prevede

pentru secolul XXI o creştere generală a temperaturii şi schimbarea regimului de precipitaţii cu odiminuare în perioadele de vegetaţie şi o creştere în perioda de repaos vegetativ, ceea ce va aveaca efect un puternic stres hidric. Simulările făcute indică deplasarea zonelor de vegetaţie spre

nord (cu câteva sute de km) şi în altitudine cu câteva sute de metri. Aceste schimbări vor avea efecte contrastante, pe de o parte creşterea mai rapidă în volum aarborilor datorată procentului mai ridicat de carbon şi de azot din aer, a prelungirii sezonului devegetaţie, concomitent cu o scădere a calităţii lemnului. În aceste condiţii sunt de reconsideratunele norme ale silviculturii, ca de exemplu, durata ciclului de producţie, care în cazul faguluirealizează diametrul de 60 cm la vârsta de 85-90 de ani, în loc de 150 ani acum un secol. Din păcate, consecinţele negative sunt numeroase şi în special restrângerea arealului a nume-roase specii (Fig. 4a, 4b, 4c).8. Faţă de schimbările climatice, sunt de aşteptat schimbări în comportamentul speciilor, oaclimatizare a primei generaţii, adaptarea celei de-a doua (ca o etapă intermediară) şi in nemodicarea arealului. Ca urmare, silvicultura trebuie să-şi modice şi ea metodele şi normele degestionare în funcţie de previzibilele adaptări şi diversicarea genetică, ca un proces dinamic înfuncţie de modicarea ecosistemului forestier. Dacă până în prezent diagnosticul unei păduri era complicat, dar abil, în special în ceea ce

priveşte datele staţionale, în viitor problema se complică mult deoarece ecosistemul evoluează,mai ales sub efectul factorilor abiotici. La incertitudinile produse de factorii abiotici, se adaugă schimbările posibile ale comporta-mentului speciilor (care vor noile echilibre între plante, între organismele simbiotice sau

patogene, insecte ş.a.). Studiul evoluţiei ecosistemelor devine o ecuaţie cu numeroase necu-noscute, cu atât mai greu de previzionat. Diagnosticul staţional nu mai este cert, el devine prospectiv şi luând în considerare factorii

limitativi (ca de exemplu rezerva de apă, rezerva minerală ş.a.) sunt de făcut ipoteze asupraevoluţiei spre a se delimita zonele de risc. Arboretele cele mai vulnerabile sunt cele constituitedin specii care s-au extins în afara sta- ţiunilor proprii.



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Fig. 4c Evoluţia arealului potenţial al fagului (2005-2100). Sursa: Carbofor, Badeau et. al.,2005

Fig. 4b Evoluţia arealului potenţial al molidului (2005-2100)

Fig. 4a Evoluţia ariilor potenţiale a grupelor de specii biogeograce



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Consecinţele pentru silvicultură se vor reecta în reconsiderarea condiţiior staţionale, înalegerea speciilor (cu o netă preferinţă pentru arboretele de amestec), dozarea suprafeţei foliacee

pentru a atenua stresul hidric (trebuie poate regândit regimul, ca de exemplu promovând codrulîntr-o formulă adaptată noilor condiţii, ca densitate, amestec de specii, structură, ciclu de

producţie), adoptarea de noi referinţe în funcţie de creştere, instalarea unei reţele de supraveghere

şi observaţie ş.a. Este aproape unanim acceptat, că schimbarea climatului va modica structural amesteculspeciilor şi că printr-o gestionare adecvată a acestor amestecuri s-ar putea atenua efectele nedoriteale acestui fenomen. Se deschide în acest domeniu un larg câmp de cercetare. Compoziţia specicăa unui arboret este rezultatul istoriei sale şi al mediului în care s-a desvoltat (sol, climat).

Redistribuirea geogracă a tipurilor de compoziţie previzionate de studiile INRA, este în realitateo mutaţie mult mai complexă (Legay, Cordonnier, Dhôte – 2007), dacă se ia în considerare căîntre dinamica substituirii speciilor şi evoluţia efectelor climatului s-ar putea să apară decalaje.Caracteristicile migrării speciilor (diseminarea, instalarea seminţişului ş.a.) sunt de natură diferităde cele care determină limita speciilor care se retrag (scăderea vitalităţii, mortalitatea sau eşeculregenerării), la care se adaugă schimbările probabile în comportamentul speciilor.

Amestecul speciilor, condus cu prudenţă, ar putea totuşi să e folosit ca un instrument de palierea efectelor schimbării climatului, pentru care: (i) este necesar să se denească compoziţia luând înconsiderare, pentru ca acesta să e reală, cel puţin două specii, alese ca obiectiv, să e promovateastfel pentru ca la maturitate să ocupe, în etajul principal proporţii corespunzatoare; (ii) diferitelespecii care constituie arboretul expuse la un stres să nu e afectate în acelaşi fel. Stresul bioticeste diferenţiat după specie (bioagresorii sunt, în general, adaptaţi unui număr limitat de specii,de asemenea pragul de vulnerabilitate este diferit de la o specie la alta); (iii) se apreciază cadiversitatea compoziţiei prezintă o garanţie de stabilitate prin efectul de complementaritate, oferă

posibilitatea de gestionare mai suplă în timp şi în spaţiu şi poate să se realizeze o tranziţie maiuşoară introducând în arboretele vulnerabile specii adaptate condiţiilor de viitor.

Silvicultura modernă trece printr-o perioadă de schimbări profunde, în care protecţia solului,alegerea speciilor, a tratamentului şi a lucrărilor de îngrijire a arboretelor, regenerarea naturală,reconsiderarea criteriilor de exploatabilitate, asigurarea biodiversităţii şi supravegherea

sănătaţii pădurilor nu pot să scape cercetătorului de astăzi.9. Se simţea nevoia să se denească un nou cadru pentru studii şi cercetare, coerent şi capabilsă dea raspuns la problemele pe care viitorul îl pune pădurii. Eu nu pot exprima decât modestesugestii:9.1. Este necesar un program naţional de urmărire şi raportare a indicatorilor gestionăriidurabile a pădurilor, de dorit compatibil cu cel internaţional, care să orienteze cercetările în viitor,fără de care gestiunea durabilă ramâne o vorbă goală, ca multe altele.9.2. Este de dorit cel puţin un inventar al informaţiilor necesare creării acestui program, ca deexemplu: datele cadru ale fondului forestier, informaţiile necesare despre starea de sănătateşi vitalitate a ecosistemului forestier, produsele şi serviciile pe care pădurea le poate furniza,

biodiversitatea şi evoluţia ei, funcţiile de protecţie care revin gestiunii forestiere şi funcţiilesocio-economice proprii păduri. Inventarierea, a făcut progrese enorme graţie informaticii şi estecapabilă să furnizeze în timp record informaţii punctuale sau sintetice asupra pădurii, pe suprafeţerestrânse, de câteva ha sau pentru masive de mii de ha. Se poate cunoaşte situaţia unei păduri lanivelul ecărui arbore prin teledetectarea aeriană sau prin satelit, sau se poate face inventarulintegral, mai mult sau mai puţin detaliat, limitat la câteva date sau complet, prin diverse sistemede eşantionaj. Este evident că urmărirea indicatorilor stabiliţi la nivel european, nu se poate facedecât prin inventarieri periodice orientate, în funcţie de obiectivele xate în ecare perioadă.

9.3. Este nevoie să se adapteze instrumentul de organizare şi planificare a lucrărilor silvice(e el amenajament sau plan de gestiune) la noile condiţii : economice, ecologice şi sociale. Calat

pe acest model trebuie modernizate mijloacele de culegere a datelor şi de prelucrare periodică a



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informaţiilor. Cu titlul de exemplu se poate cita Elveţia, ţara reputată pentru calitatea gestionării pădurilor sale. Prin Legea forestieră din 1993, s-a modicat sistemul de gestionare a pădurilor prin adoptarea unui model de planicare, care înglobează toate lucrările aferente acestei activităţi:determinarea obiectivelor, elaborarea planurilor, adoptarea deciziilor, controlul lucrărilor, precumşi colectarea informaţiilor.

Spre deosebire de amenajamentul tradiţional care avea ca scop planicarea şi controlul producţieide lemn, planicarea actuală urmăreşte să garanteze că pădurile vor putea să îndeplinească, înmod durabil toate funcţiile care se cer în prezent de la ea, fără ca volumul exploatat să depăşeascăcreşterea anuală. Manualul de planicare forestieră (1996), reglementează, în detaliu, sistemulde planicare, lasând libertatea de realizare factorilor care au sarcina să-l realizeze. El nu arecaracterul unei instrucţiuni rigide, dimpotrivă presupune capacitatea de înţelegere şi de analiză acelor care o vor aplica şi mai ales un înalt spirit civic. Prin el se deneşte conceptul de planicareşi se precizează cadrul pentru realizarea planicării şi controlului în trei părţi : sistematica, metodaşi organizarea planicării. Planicarea constitue baza pentru gestiunea durabilă, iar parametrii de control denesc ţelurileşi conciliază conictele de interese. Se consideră că gestionarea şi conservarea pădurii, nu pot

abordate separat şi că trebuie să ţină seama de constrângerile politice, economice, culturaleşi juridice. Planicarea este descentralizată la nivelul cantoanelor şi se realizează prin Planuldirector la nivelul Serviciului forestier cantonal şi prin Planul de gestiune la nivelul proprietarilorde pădure. Producţia de lemn (prin caracterul ei regenerabil) rămâne o cerinţă importantă, dar accentulse deplasează spre ameliorarea condiţiilor de exploatare pentru ca să se asigure conservareaecosistemului. În acest fel, clasarea în păduri de producţie şi de protecţie pierde din importantă,oricare pădure are în acelaşi timp funcţie de producţie şi de protecţie, importantă ind conservareaecosistemului şi pe această cale funcţia ei de protecţie este asigurată.9.4. Silvicultura durabilă. Mi-am pus întrebarea dacă expresia nu este un pleoanasm. Răspunsul

mi-a venit din două exemple contradictorii: (i) primul, din istoria silviculturii româneşti, când s-aaplicat timp de câteva decenii, în secolul al XIX-lea, un tratament (tire et aire), deja abandonatîn apusul Europei ca dăunator şi pe această cale, s-a degradat o parte din codrii de stejar de altădată; (ii) al doilea este recent, din Franţa, şi îl constitue refacerea masivului păduros din Parcul

Natural Regional Morvan. Până în secolul al XIX-lea, această suprafaţă imensă era ocupată de uncrâng neproductiv, de calitate mediocră, care servea la aprovizionarea cu lemn de foc a Parisului.După război, depopularea accentuată a regiunii şi schimbarea condiţiilor economice au condus laschimbarea folosirii solului; crângul a fost înlocuit prin importante plantaţii de răşinoase. Acestease prezintă astăzi sub forma unui impresionant codru regulat în curs de realizare (Fig.5).

Masivul Parcului Natural Regional Morvan, în suprafaţă de 125.000 ha este proprietate privatăîn proporţie de 85% (peste 25 000 de proprietari). El este situat într-o regiune de munte, de joasăaltitudine (902 m), cu un climat umed şi soluri acide. În plantaţiile făcute acum 50 de ani, s-aefectuat prima răritură acum două decenii şi în prezent se pregăteşte cea de-a doua, cu o producţiede cca. 300.000 m3/an; se prevede că, după ce arboretele vor ajunge la maturitate, în urmatoareletrei decenii, ca producţia să se tripleze. Masivul forestier este străbătut de o reţea densă de drumuri publice, dintre care, numeroase suntdrumuri comunale; dimpotrivă, reţeaua de drumuri forestiere împietruite, în interiorul pădurii estecu totul insucientă şi se prevede desvoltarea ei. Creşterea apreciabilă a producţiei în următoriiani necesită un important efort nanciar pentru construcţia noilor drumuri forestiere, care în maremajoritate vor ramicaţii racordate direct la reţeaua de drumuri publice (Fig. 6). Această perspectivă, care aduce o intensicare considerabilă a tracului pe drumurile comunale

(în general de calitate mediocră), a incitat organele administrative şi forestiere, să analizezeîmpreună problema transportului de lemn, identicându-se 211 km drumuri comunale prioritare

pentru transportul lemnului. Se ia în considerare că, dezvoltarea activităţii forestiere, poate şi



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trebuie să contribuie la desvoltarea regiunii, din punct de vedere economic şi social, şi pentruacest motiv Parcul Natural Regional Morvan este inclus în planurile de desvoltare regională aFranţei şi va stimulat şi subvenţionat de Stat şi de Uniunea Europeană.

Analiza şi sinteza tuturor observaţiilor privind drumurile comunale, permit să se stabilească punctele dicile (poduri cu portanţă insucientă, traversări de sate cu străzi înguste ş.a.) şiîmbunătaţirile ce vor trebui făcute. În acest scop s-a întocmit «Carta transportului lemnului», prin

Fig. 5 Plantaţie de răşinoase din anii 1950, 29,4 ha aparţinând unui singur proprietar.Prima răritură realizată în anii 1980-90; a doua răritură prevăzută pentru 2009.Drum lung de 320 m, împietruire 3,5 m, 50 cm gros. Cost total 13216 euro(41297 E/km). Subvenţie 40%; cheltuială proprietar 271 E/ha)



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integrarea reţelei de transport forestier în ansamblul căilor de transport regional având ca obiectivelaborarea strategiei de ameliorare a condiţiilor de transport în condiţii de securitate, coordonareaîn acest scop a obiectivelor şi mijloacelor ecărui partener, precizarea obiectivelor comune şiobligaţiilor ecărui participant.

În cadrul schemei directoare a drumurilor strategice sunt determinate zonele de producţie

forestieră şi identicate axele de transport, este vericată starea drumurilor comunale pe carese prevede transportul lemnului, se identică locurile de depozitare şi se stabilesc îmbunătăţirilenecesare.9.5. Închei comunicarea mea cu ceea ce cred că reprezintă mai nobil din munca unui forestier şianume cultura pădurii. În ţările europene, în care se face totuşi silvicultură chiar şi în pădurile

particulare, orientarea este spre tratamente ne. Se urmăreşte realizarea de arborete de codrugrădinărit, compus dintr-un amestec de specii corespunzătoare staţiunii (Fig.7).

În crângul compus se practică «silvicultura pe arbore» folosind rezervele şi se caută în acest fel, prin cicluri scurte de 8 la 12 ani să se tindă spre codru grădinărit. Această conversiune este cu atâtmai atractivă în crângurile în care rezervele, mai ales de stejar, au deja diametre variate. În codru regulat se recomandă conducerea spre codru grădinărit, prin rărituri periodice şi în

cantităţi moderate, recoltând arborii maturi şi asigurând spaţiul sucient pentru exemplarelede viitor. Un arbore nu este recoltat decât dacă este ajuns la maturitate şi dacă eliminarea lui

permite ameliorarea creşterii unui alt arbore mai bun decât el, sau dacă este bolnav sau contagios.Respectarea acestor intervenţii grădinărite modică în mod progresiv acoperirea arboretuluişi permite desvoltarea unei regenerări naturale în subetaj. În arborete de răşinoase plantate,conversiunea spre codru grădinărit, poate să înceapă odată cu primele rărituri. Toate acesteintervenţii, de tip grădinărit, necesită o reţea de acces densă şi judicios alcătui- tă, amplasatăastfel, ca deteriorarea solului, seminţişului, arborilor şi a cursurilor de apă să e minimă. S-ar putea spune că silvicultura modernă este orientată spre calitate, urmărindu-se realiza-rea de arbori cât mai valoroşi, valoricarea restului de lemn din pădure ind asigurată, prin

prelucrările industriale şi prin folosirea lui drept combustibil. În acest sens au apărut asociaţiilede forestieri care promovează silvicultura apropiată de natură, dintre care cea mai cunoscută în

Fig. 7 Codru grădinărit (amestec de duglas molid şi fag)



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Europa, este « Pro Silva ». Obiectivele de bază ale silviculturii promovată de această asociaţiesunt două: (i) producţia rentabilă şi continuă la nivel de parcelă, de lemn de dimensiuni mari, decalitate, din specii variate şi produse din seminţiş natural cu cele mai mici costuri şi cu cele mai

puţine riscuri; (ii) protecţia ecosistemului forestier natural şi a productivităţii sale (respectiv a biodiversităţii forestiere naturale a staţiunii, protecţia apei şi a solului).

Se practică sistemul «QD » (Qualication-Dimesionnement ), care pleacă de la principiul că în pădure focalizarea investiţiilor şi a beneciilor este rentabilă dacă se aplică asupra unui numărredus de arbori de calitate excepţională, producând lemn de calitate cu cel mai redus cost. Principalele căi pentru atingerea acestor obiective se pot rezuma astfel:- să aplice codrul grădinărit şi să atingă sau să menţină un amestec, cu predominarea speciilorautohtone;- să atingă şi/sau să menţină un capital pe picior optim posibil, care să permită o bună funcţionarea ecosistemului, favorabil regenerării, recoltându-se numai creşterea care permite realizareaacestui obiectiv;- recoltarea individuală a arborilor groşi de calitate ajunşi la dimensiunea de exploatabilitate (şinu în funcţie de vârstă), făcând rărituri energice de la vârste tinere;

- să conserve spaţiul necesar şi poziţionarea arborilor de viitor pentru a se obţine o bună dezvoltarea lor;- să regenereze arboretele pe cale naturală, utilizând seminţişul natural în toată diversitatea lui şiadmiţând plantaţiile numai local, în cazuri speciale;- să formeze semintişul sub acoperire şi să folosească procesul natural de elagaj şi de calicare aarborilor;- să lase să se dezvolte procesul de succesiune natural al speciilor, (pioniere - semiumbră –umbră) privilegiind speciile autohtone şi diversitatea lor genetică;giind speciile autohtone şi diversitatea lor genetică;- se axeze producţia pe lemnul gros de calitate;- să menţină în pădure arborii remarcabili, de mare valoare ecologică, incluzând proporţii

suciente de lemn mort şi de lemn scorburos (locuit de păsări, lilieci ş.a);- să vegheze în mod deosebit la protecţia solului (în special argilo-nisipos) şi a arborilor şi asistemului lor de rădăcini superciale, în timpul exploatărilor, prin stabilirea judicioasă a reţeleide colectare;- în caz de schimbare a regimului sau a tratamentului să se exploateze prin tăieri în benzi îngustesau prin tăieri rase pe suprafeţe cât mai mici. Pentru realizarea acestei silviculturi « Pro Silva » foloseşte două nivele de gestiune:a. documentaţia adaptată pentru a răspunde scopului (corespunzător amenajamentului) prin carese denesc obiectivele, se estimează capitalul pe picior şi creşterea, precum şi prevederile deîncasări şi de cheltuieli;

b. gestiunea cotidiană la nivelul parcelelor (sau grupuri de parcele dacă sunt mici), urmărindu-sedu-se

şi controlând menţinerea capitalul optim prin regenerare naturală, amestecul speciilor şi gestiuneacalităţii arborilor de dimensiuni mari.

***

Doresc să-mi exprim convingerea că silvicultura pentru a durabilă, trebuie să se sprijine peo cercetare orientată spre viitor, care să o pregătească pentru a înfrunta modicările profunde pecare le vor suferi ecosistemele forestiere.

Previziunea este primordială pentru o activitate ale cărei rezultate se văd după zeci de ani;tratarea cu atenţie şi discernamânt a ecărui element nou care apare este esenţială. Să nu ui-

tăm că pericolul ploilor acide a fost semnalat încă din 1907, catastrofa producându-se 60 de animai târziu; de asemenea efectul de seră pe care îl trăim astăzi a fost întrevăzut acum un secol şi

jumătate.



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Nutresc speranţa că Institutul de cercetări se va ridica la nivelul cerinţelor actuale şi va crea bazele unei silviculturi moderne, completând opera ilustrului său întemeietor, prof. M. Drăcea,care a creat baza de dezvoltare a cercetării ştiinţice forestiere românesti.

Bibliografie

Academie d’Agriculture de France 2002. Comptes rendus – Stockage du carbone dans les forêts tempérées,Vol. 88, 5.Bradosche, P. 2008. Contribuţia şcolii franceze la formarea silviculturii româneşti, 234 p.CRPF 2008. Guide du sylviculteur en Morvan, Journée de Formation, 08.06.2008.Legay, M., Mortier, Fr. 2006. La forêt face au changement climatique, ONF – INRA, Dossiers forestiers16Otto, H.J. 1998. Ecologie forestière, IDF, 397 p.Anonim 2002. Forêt, Economie et Environnement, Raport de la Commission des Comptes et de l’Economieet de l’Environnement, IFEN, 206 p.



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Bucharest, Romania

Resursele de biomasa lemnoasa din România - sursa

alternativa de energie

G. Budau, M. Ispas, M. Câmpean

Budău G., Ispas M., Câmpean M. 2009. Resursele de biomasă lemnoasă din Româ -

nia - sursă alternativă de energie. [Wood biomass resources of Romania – an alterna-tive source of energy]. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedingsof the conference “Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“, October 23-25,2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 117-122.

Abstract. Wood biomass supplied from the forests of Romania can and should beused also in the future as a source of renewable and less polluting energy. The papershows the main additional resources of wood biomass, other than those for primaryand nal processing of wood: resources from forest exploitation (still unused slashoriginating from the tree crown and root), but also the remains of the primary pro-

cessing (cutting logs into lumber) etc. There are highlighted the global trends andthe possibilities of wood waste recovery by pelletizing and briquetting as well as the possibilities to use this wood biomass for the production of renewable and less pol-luting energy. Furthermore, Romania’s strategy concerning the energy for the next period must be aligned to the European standards, including the production of atleast 12% of the total energy consumption from renewable sources by 2010.Key words: energy, alternative sources, wood biomass

Authors. Gavril Budău, Mihai Ispas, Mihaela Câmpean - Transilvania University ofBraşov, Faculty of Wood Industry, 29 Eroilor Avenue, 500036 - Braşov, Romania.

Introducere

Primul deceniu al Mileniului III a debutat cu o serie de probleme globale legate de resursele

de energie şi, mai ales, creşterea spectaculoasă a preţului produselor petroliere şi a gazuluimetan. Nu mai puţin importante s-au dovedit a problemele de mediu, poluarea şi efectele ei petermen mediu şi lung devenind o problemă strategică globală. În acest context, orice iniţiativăreferitoare la găsirea de resurse energetice puţin poluante şi accesibile ca preţ devine necesară şiinteresantă. Dacă în urmă cu un deceniu (1990-2000), cercetările pe plan european în domeniul valoricăriimasei lemnoase erau orientate spre industria materialelor compozite şi a prelucrării chimicea lemnului (Olărescu 2007), în ultimii ani, la nivel global, se pune accentul pe “gestionareadurabilă a pădurilor”, respectiv pe valoricarea potenţialului real al resurselor lemnoasesecundare. Regulamentul Consiliului European referitor la Măsurile de Promovare a Conservării

şi Gestionării Pădurilor evidenţiază că resursele secundare cu potenţial de valoricare alternativă(exclusiv mobilier, materiale compozite, celuloză etc.) reprezintă aproximativ 10% din totalulrezervelor de masă lemnoasă şi recomandă extinderea cercetărilor în domeniu (Olărescu 2007).

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În România, Ministerul Agriculturii, Pădurilor şi Dezvoltării Rurale a elaborat un ProgramForestier Naţional (http://www.mapam.ro 2005) care prevede, între altele, şi “iniţierea unoracţiuni susţinute de valorificare a deşeurilor din lemn”, inclusiv a rumeguşului. Aceste măsurivizează atât limitarea poluării cât şi diminuarea tăierilor din păduri. În concluzie, abordarea

problematicii resurselor de biomasă lemnoasă ca resursă alternativă de energie implică studierea

caracteristicilor şi potenţialului de resurse secundare de masă lemnoasă.O resursă energetică ideală ar aceea care să e regenerabilă şi nepoluantă sau cu un grad de poluare mic. O astfel de resursă poate biomasa lemnoasă.Utilizată din cele mai vechi timpuri ca sursă de căldură, biomasa lemnoasă poate şi trebuie să e,şi în viitor, reconsiderată ca importantă sursă de energie (de căldură) pentru că este regenerabilăşi, în procesul de combustie, puţin poluantă. Pădurea este o veritabilă “uzină vie” producătoare de biomasă lemnoasă – în principal – şi

biomasă vegetală, în general. Arborii, arbuştii şi ceilalţi constituienţi ai tocenozelor forestiereau însuşirea de a transforma energia solară, în procesul fotosintezei, în energie chimică acumulatăîndeosebi sub formă de lemn, dar şi sub forma altor constituienţi: coajă, frunze, ori, fructe etc. Lemnul este denit, conform STAS 5125-89, ca ind “totalitatea ţesuturilor secundare de

rezistenţă, conducere şi depozitare, situate între coajă şi măduvă, care constituie partea principală a trunchiului, ramurilor şi rădăcinii plantelor lemnoase”. În terminologia forestieră,lemnul este denit şi ca “material organic natural, de origine vegetală, constituit din celule cumembrane lignicate” (Beldeanu 1999). Dacă în ultimul secol al mileniului trecut, în perioada dezvoltării industriilor prelucrătoare,folosirea lemnului pentru foc, pentru producere de energie a fost considerată “cea mai primitivăutilizare a lemnului”, astăzi, se conştientizează tot mai mult avantajele utilizării deşeurilor de la

prelucrarea lemnului – rumeguşul şi resturile de prelucrare. Aceste avantaje nu se rezumă numaila aspectul economic, ci vizează, în principal, aspecte ecologice. Prin arderea rezidurilor de lemnce apar în procesele de prelucrare mecanică (rumeguş, talaş, aşchii, resturi de fabricaţie etc.) se

elimină în atmosferă dioxidul de carbon care, prin procesul de fotosinteză al plantelor verzi, poatereintra în circuitul biologic natural. Cenuşa rezultată (mai puţin de 2% din masa iniţială!) estenepoluantă pentru sol, putând reintra în circuitul biologic al solului. Prin urmare, dioxidul de carbon emis în atmosferă pe durata combustiei unei cantităţi de

biomasă lemnoasă a fost anterior absorbit de către arbore, pe dutata ciclului său de viaţă (circuitulînchis al carbonului)! Având în vedere faptul că numai o parte din arbore este utilizat pentrucombustie (< 20%) şi că, logic, nu este posibil să “arzi” mai mulţi arbori decât cei existenţi, princircuitul carbonului în natură ar trebui să se reducă concentraţia de CO

2din atmosferă datorită

fotosintezei. În cazul utilizării de combustibili fosili (petrol sau cărbune) aceştia emit în atmosferă CO

2care

s-a stocat pe durata a milioane de ani iar emisia acestuia în atmosferă reprezintă principala cauzăa “efectului de seră”. Cercetări recente au stabilit că, dacă o casă familială îşi schimbă sistemul deîncălzire de la motorină (sau combustibil lichid) la sistem de încălzire pe bază de granule de lemn(pellets), de exemplu, emisia de CO

2 în atmosferă s-ar reduce cu 4,8 t/an, iar dacă s-ar trece de la

gaz natural la încălzirea cu granule de lemn, emisia de CO2 s-ar reduce cu ≈ 2,5 t/an (Budău &

Cismaru 2004).

Resursele secundare de biomasa lemnoasa din România

După cum este binecunoscut, resursa principală de biomasă lemnoasă din România o reprezintăfondul forestier. Fondul forestier al României cuprinde toate suprafeţele de teren acoperite cu

păduri, terenurile destinate împăduririi şi cele care deservesc activităţi de gospodărire a pădurilor: pepiniere silvice, drumuri forestiere, rezervaţii etc. Suprafaţa fondului forestier al României, la nivelul anului 2003, era de 6,4 milioane hectare,

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respectiv 27% din suprafaţa totală a ţării (Sbera 2003). De menţionat că ponderea fonduluiforestier în România este mai mică decât media europeană, 32% din suprafaţa Europei indocupată cu păduri, şi decât cea mondială, suprafaţa globului pământesc ind acoperită cu păduriîn proporţie de aproximativ 29%. Deşi ca pondere a suprafaţei fondului forestier România sesituează sub media europeană şi mondială, este de menţionat că masa lemnoasă totală, estimată,

a pădurilor din România atinge aproximativ 1,3 miliarde m3

, adică o medie de 206 m3/ha pădure,faţă de media europeană de 105 m3/ha şi cea mondială, de numai 65 m3/ha (Budău & Cismaru2004). Acest lucru se datoreşte, în principal, creşterii medii anuale pe hectar, care atinge valori mediide 5,6 m3, faţă de media europeană care este sub 3 m3. Creşterea medie anuală de 5,6 m3/haînseamnă creştere totală anuală, pentru cele 6,4 milioane ha de pădure, de 34,7 milioane m3 masălemnoasă (Sbera 2003). Dacă din punctul de vedere al suprafaţei fondului forestier România seaă pe locul 17 în Europa, din punct de vedere al volumului de masă lemnoasă pe picior – saufondul de rezervă de masă lemnoasă pe picior – România se situează pe locul 3 în Europa, dupăSuedia şi Finlanda! Referitor la productivitatea pădurilor din România, pe baza căreia se calculează cota anuală de

tăiere, aceasta este, la nivelul anului 2003, de numai 18,5 milioane m3/an, cu tendinţă de creştereîn următorii ani la 20-21 milioane m3 (Sbera 2003). Principalele specii lemnose existente în fondul forestier al României şi ponderile acestoraîn totalul fondului forestier sunt prezentate în tabelul 1 (Sbera, 2003). Arborii ca principaliconstituienţi ai tocenozelor forestiere, reprezintă şi principala sursă de biomasă lemnoasă. La un arbore se remarcă două părţi componente, purtătoare de biomasă lemnoasă: rădăcina şitulpina. La rândul ei, tulpina este alcătuită din trunchi şi coroană (Beldean 1999). Rădăcina – reprezintă partea subterană a arborelui, serveşte la xarea acestuia în sol, precumşi la extragerea apei şi sărurilor minerale din sol. Proporţional cu volumul arborelui, rădăcinareprezintă între 3-21% din acesta.

Tulpina – partea aeriană a arborelui, este alcătuită din trunchi şi coroană. Trunchiul reprezintă porţiunea care se dezvoltă de la nivelul solului până la coroană şi constituie principala sursă de biomasă lemnoasă. Raportat la volumul de biomasă lemnoasă al unui arbore,trunchiul reprezintă între 60-90% din acesta.

Este de menţionat că, în literatura de specialitate (Beldeanu 1999), porţiunea din tulpinaarborelui care la doborârea acestuia rămâne la suprafaţa solului poartă denumirea de cioată şiîmpreună cu rădăcina care rămâne în sol formează buturuga. Aceasta, adică buturuga, reprezintăca pondere în volumul total al arborelui, 5-21% şi este puţin valoricată la ora actuală (în cazulnucului, lemnul de buturugă este valoricat pentru obţinerea furnirului de rădăcină). Coroana reprezintă partea superioară a tulpinii arborelui şi este alcătuită din ramurile de diferiteordine, frunze, ori şi fructe. Proporţia de lemn ce revine coroanei din volumul total al arboreluivariază în funcţie de specie şi reprezintă între 5-20% din volumul total de biomasă lemnoasă alunui arbore. În tabelul 2 este prezentată proporţia de biomasă lemnoasă în trunchi, coroană şi

Specicaţia U.M.Ponderea în total

fond forestier Principalele specii lemnoase

Răşinoase % 30,5 Brad, Molid, Larice, PinFag % 32,0 FagStejar % 19,0 Stejar, Gorun, Cer, GârniţăAlte specii de

foioase % 18,5

Plop, Salcâm, Carpen, Cireş, Paltin, Frasin,

Nuc, Anin, Tei, Ulm etc.TOTAL % 100 Răşinoase şi foioase

Tabel 1 Principalele specii lemnoase existente în fondul forestier al României şi ponderile acestora întotalul fondului forestier



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rădăcină pentru câteva din speciile lemnoase de importanţă industrială din România (Beldean1999). Cunoaşterea părţilor componente producătoare de lemn ale unui arbore şi, mai ales, pondereaacestora în volumul total de biomasă lemnoasă reprezintă o importanţă deosebită pentruinvestigarea unor noi domenii de utilizare a biomasei lemnoase şi a disponibilului de biomasă

lemnoasă la un moment dat. Analizând datele din tabelul 2 se poate înţelege de ce, din totalul de rezervă de masă lemnoasădată de creşterea anuală a pădurilor României şi estimată la 34,7 milioane m3, numai o cantitate de18,5 milioane m3 este introdusă în circuitul industrial, adică o pondere de circa 53-60%! Iată, deci,o rezervă de masă lemnoasă de circa 40-47% din disponibilul anual asigurat de fondul forestieral României care poate – şi, în viitorul apropiat va trebui – să e utilizată în regim industrial şi

pentru producerea de energie. Aceste procente reprezintă cantităţi de biomasă lemnoasă foartemari, de 16-17 milioane m3 anual ! Din tabelul 2 rezultă că ponderea de biomasă lemnoasă din corona arborilor (între 5-20%!) constituie, un element de interes pentru valoricarea acesteia, ind mai uşor de realizat ladoborârea arborilor şi extragerea trunchiului din parcela de exploatare. În ceea ce priveşte

biomasa lemnoasă din rădăcină, deşi importantă cantitativ, datorită dicultăţilor de extragere dinsol, posibilităţile de valoricare sunt limitate.Interesul pentru valoricarea crengilor, ca parte componentă a coroanei, deşi mai mare în ultimultimp, nu s-a dezvoltat sucient şi datorită unor factori obiectivi, cum ar tehnicile de măsurare maicomplicate şi variaţia procentuală a volumului de crengi, pentru arborii cu aceleaşi dimensiuni,funcţie de poziţia în arboret. Cercetări recente privind evaluarea volumului crengilor pentru diferite specii lemnoase (Olărescu2007) au evidenţiat că: din punct de vedere al valoricării industriale, prezintă interes numaicrengile cu diametru mai mare de 2cm; pentru toate speciile lemnoase studiate, volumul crengilorvariază în raport cu diametrul arborelui, în sensul creşterii volumului de crengi proporţional cu

creşterea diametrului; la acelaşi diametru de bază, procentul crengilor scade cu creşterea înălţimiiarborelui. Pentru stabilirea potenţialului de biomasă lemnoasă din crengi, raportat la volumul total demasă lemnoasă exploatată anual, s-a elaborat un model matematic (Olărescu 2007) pentru:calcularea diametrului mediu la vârsta exploatabilităţii; a înălţimii medii a arborilor ajunşi laexploatabilitate, funcţie de diametrul mediu şi a volumului crengilor în funcţie de procentul decrengi şi de volumul arborelui. Utilizând şi tabelele de cubaj pentru crengi, procentul ecărui sortiment dimensional al crengilorîn funcţie de specie şi diametrul mediu la exploatabilitate, pe baza modelelor matematice s-a pututstabili (Olărescu 2007) posibilitatea anuală a cantităţilor de crengi din principalele specii dinRomânia: fag, brad şi molid. Rezultatele sunt prezentate sistematic în tabelul 3, în care semnicaţia

SpeciaProporţia de lemn [%] conţinută în:

Trunchi Coroană RădăcinăMolid 73-83 8-11 9-16Brad 74-86 7-10 7-16Pin 69-80 8-10 12-21Larice 78-88 6-8 6-14Stejar 64-78 10-20 12-16Fag 62-76 10-20 14-18Plop 80-90 5-10 5-10

Salcâm 76-88 7-14 5-10Mesteacăn 78-90 5-10 5-12Frasin 61-75 12-18 13-21

Tabel 2 Proporţia biomasei lemnoase în trunchi, coroană şi rădăcină (Beldeanu 1999)



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notaţiei indicatorilor este următoarea: Dm.expl. – diametrul mediu la vârsta exploatabilităţii;hm.expl. – înălţimea medie a arborilor la vârsta exploatabilităţii; V

arbore – volumul arborelui la

vârsta exploatabilităţii; Pcrengi

– procentul de crengi raportat la volumul arborelui; Vcrengi

– volumulcrengilor; Pos

specie – posibilitatea anuală a speciei; Pos

crengi – posibilitatea anuală a crengilor.

De asemenea, pe baza algoritmului elaborat (Olărescu 2007), s-a putut determina posibilitatea

anuală a celor trei specii (fag, brad, molid) cu pondere de peste 59% din fondul naţional, pentrudiferite sortimente dimensionale de crengi: pentru răşinoase – diametre medii între 1-5 cm; pentrufag – diametre medii de 2-14 cm. Rezultatele estimărilor sunt prezentate în tabelele 4-6.

Concluzii

Resursele secundare de biomasă lemnoasă din România sunt semnicative ca volum (numaicrengile din principalele specii reprezintă peste 3 milioane m3/an !) şi importanţa lor economicănu mai poate ignorată. Evident că, potenţialul fondului forestier din România este mult mai mare, luând în considerare

şi restul speciilor lemnoase ( 41%) precum şi biomasa lemnoasă rezultată anual din activităţiculturale, de întreţinere a pădurilor. Găsirea soluţiilor tehnice de recuperare a biomasei din rădăcini poate contribui cu o suplimentarede 15-18% din volumul de masă lemnoasă exploatată. Cercetările privind găsirea de noi metode de determinare a cantităţilor de masă lemnoasăsecundară disponibilă precum şi prezentarea unor modele matematice de calcul reprezintă unimportant demers în sensul valoricării masei lemnoase secundare.

Indicatorul U.M.Specia

Fag Molid BradD

m,expl,cm 36 40 36

hm.expl.

m 26 36 26V

arborem3 1,36 1,993 1,247

Pcrengi

% 16 4,2 5,8

Vcrengi

m3 0,21056 0,0837 0,0723

Posspecie

mil.m3/an 5,797 4,301 0,935

Poscrengi mil.m3/an 0,2975 0,180642 0,05423

Tabel 3 Posibilitatea anuală a cantităţilor de crengi din principalele specii din România (Olărescu 2007)

Indicatorul U.M. Specia: FAGDiametrulsortimentului

cm 2…3 3…5 5,,,8 8…10 10…12 12…14 > 14

Psort,crengi

% 20 24 17 13 14 8 4

Vsort,crengi

m3 0,0421 0,0505 0,0358 0,0274 0,0295 0,0168 0,0084

Possort.crengi

mii.m3/an 598,4 718,08 508,64 388,96 418,88 239,36 119,68

Tabel 4 Posibilitatea anuală a sortimentelor dimensionale ale crengilor de fag (Olărescu 2007)

Indicatorul U.M. Specia: MOLIDDiametrul sortimentului cm 1 2 3 4 5

Psort,crengi % 8 42 36 11 3Vsort,crengi

m3 0,0067 0,0352 0,0301 0,0092 0,0025Pos

sort.crengimii.m3/an 14,451 75,870 65,031 19,871 5,419

Tabel 5 Posibilitatea anuală a sortimentelor dimensionale ale crengilor de molid (Olărescu 2007)

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Cercetările privind biometria crengilor, deşi au evidenţiat că precizia determinărilor este relativredusă, au demonstrat utilitatea tabelelor de cubaj al crengilor, funcţie de specie, diametrul şiînălţimea arborilor. Valoricarea biomasei lemnoase din crengi şi rădăcini se poate întâlni atât la fabricareamaterialelor compozite pe bază de lemn, pentru fabricarea pastei de bre de lemn etc., cât şi pentru

producţia de energie termică, prin combustie, e sub formă brută e procesate prin brichetare sau peletizate (realizare de microbrichete sau peleţi).

Bibliografie

Beldeanu, E. 1999. Produse Forestiere şi Studiul Lemnului. Editura Universităţii “Transilvania” dinBraşov.Budău, G., Cismaru, I. 2004. Biomasa lemnoasă, sursă complementară de energie regenerabilă şi puţin poluantă. În Buletinul Simpozionului “Cadru organizatoric, probleme şi metode de soluţionare pentruaplicaţii energetice eciente în diferite tipuri de clădiri din România”. Editura Universităţii Transilvania dinRomânia, pp 153-161.Olărescu, A. 2007. Lemnul din crengi. Structură, proprietăţi şi mod de valoricare. Editura UniversităţiiTransilvania din Braşov.Sbera, I. 2003. Perspectivele de dezvoltare a industriei de exploatarea şi prelucrarea lemnului în România.

În Buletinul Conferinţei Naţionale “Ştiinţa şi Ingineria Lemnului în Mileniul III”. Braşov 20 – 21 Noiembrie2003.Anonim 2005. Program Forestier Naţional, Ministerul Agriculturii, Pădurii şi Dezvoltării Rurale, http://www.mapam.ro.

Indicatorul U.M. Specia: BRAD

Diametrulsortimentului

cm 1 2 3 4 5

Psort,crengi % 7 46 37 8 2

Vsort,crengi m3 0,0051 0,0333 0,0268 0,0058 0,0014Pos

sort.crengimii.m3/an 3,796 24,946 20,065 4,338 1,085

Tabel 6 Posibilitatea anuală a sortimentelor dimensionale ale crengilor de brad (Olărescu, 2007)



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Bucharest, Romania

Current structure and growth in diameter of horn-

beam stands in northeast Bulgaria

H. Tsakov, A. Delkov

Tsakov H., Delkov A. 2009. Current structure and growth in diameter of hornbeamstands in northeast Bulgaria. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Pro-

ceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“, Octo-

ber 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp.

123-130.

Abstract. Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) stands in Razgrad region are part of

deciduous xerothermic forests in Northeastern Bulgaria. They have secondary

origin and form pure and mixed stands with Quercus petraea Liebl., Tilia tomen-

tosa Moench., Acer campestre L., Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz, Populus tremu-

la L., Prunus avium L., Betula pendula Roth. Object of study are 50-60-year-old

hornbeam stands, managed as recreational forests in the past (with insignificant

interference) with specific structure and growth in diameter. As a result it was

established, that there is a difference in the position of the average tree accordingto diameter, determined through Weisse’s rule. For a better precision and a quick

determination of the average diameter of hornbeam stands, a new percentage was

applied (50%), which refers to the condition of stands in the moment. The per-

centage suggested by Weisse (60%) shifts the avereage diameter with one degree

higher, what brings to systematic errors.

Key words: hornbeam stands, natural thickness degrees, rank of average thick tree

Authors. Hristo Tsakov, Alexander Delkov – Forest Research Institute, BAS; St.

Kliment Ohridski Blvd., 132; BG-1756 Sofia, Bulgaria.

Introduction

Razgrad region (Northeast Bulgaria) covers the plain and hilly territory of Ludogorie geobotanical

district of the Illyrian (Balkan) province (Georgiev 1977).

Grey Luvisols have been formed on carbonate marl basis, which determine the distribution of

mixed coniferous forests with ediphicator Carpinus betulus L.

Climate is typical continental, the air contains low humidity, with summer maximum (June) and

winter minimum (February) and annual mean precipitation 450–550 mm. Average temperature in

January is about 20С, and mean month temperature in July reaches up to 240С (Dimitrov, 1994).

Razgrad forests are formed by small forest complexes, managed as recreational periurban zones

with insignificant silvicultural interference in the past.

Investigation will give the answer about the current structure and growth of hornbeam

dendrocoenoses in the region, about their thickness structure, the position of the average thick

tree in the stand.



124

Objects and methods

Peculiarities in growth and structure of pre-mature hornbeam dendrocoenoses were analysed with

the help of sample plots (SP) in Moesian forest vegetation area, growing on Grey Luvisols at

altitude 350–450 m a.s.l. In spite of the monopodial character of trees, biogroups with 2 or more

stems have been determined, what forms the differentiation character of the stand.To study the structure in diameter, variation curves have been applied, as well as percentage

share of trees according to natural diameter degrees, what gives the possibility to determine the

rank of tree average thick in the stand and the degree of approximation of Weisse’s rule (1880)

for a fast determination of average diameter.


Sample plot 1 (SP1) is representative for coppice hornbeam stands with solitary participation of

Acer campestre L., Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz , Quercus petraea Liebl., Quercus cerris L., with

even structure (partially with cluster character), average age of 60 years and total area 0.1 ha.

126 trees have been investigated, from which 106 hornbeam (83.5%), 13 Acer campestre L.

(10.2%), 6 Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz. (4.7%), 1 Quercus petraea Liebl. (0.8%), 1 Q. cerris

L. (0.8%) – not included in the statistical processing due to its high age and average diameter 53

cm.

Some of hornbeam trees grow in 11 biogroups (with 2 stems) and the others in 8 biogroups with

3 stems each (table1).

The distribution of hornbeam stands in biogroups with 2 stems according to diameter degree

shows that they have together a basal area of 0.6049 m2, with average diameter 18.7 cm within

the range from 10 to 26 cm.

Average diameters in biogroups with 3 stems vary from 13.1 to 22.0 cm, and trees are grouped

in diameter degrees from 14-th to 22-nd. Accompanying tree species have 26.4 cm average diameter (Quercus petraea Liebl.), 16.2 cm

[Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz.] and 15.6 cm ( Acer campestre L.). In spite of the bigger average

diameter with 0.6 cm of Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz. trees, these trees show lower growth in

height and development compared to Acer campestre L.

Table 2 shows the generalised participation of solitarily growing (as well as their participation

in groups) hornbeam trees and accompanying species, of basal areas, which form, as well as

thickness structure, expressed by natural diameter degrees. Rank of an average thick tree is 54.3%

(48.2+6.1).

On the basis of this structure, a variation curve of tree distribution was drawn, according to

Table 1 Distribution of hornbeam stands in biogroups with 2 and 3 stems

D1.30

Biogroups with 2 stems Biogroups with 3 stems

N Basal area (m2) Dav. N Basal area (m2) Dav.

10 1. 18 0.0076 9.8 - - -12 - - - - - -14 14. 9 0.0170 14.7 13 0.0135 13.116 7 0.0216 16.6 15 0.0197 15.818 11. 17 0.0276 18.7 2. 3. 10 0.0256 18.120 8 0.0331 20.5 4 0.0336 20.722 5 0.0381 22.0 12. 16 0.0380 22.0

24 9 0.0488 24.9 - - -26 19 0.0563 26.8 - - -

G - 0.6049 18.7 - 0.6594 18.7



125 T a b l e

2 S

t r u c t u r e i n d i a m e t e r o f t r e e s a n d t h

i c k n e s s s t r u c t u r e o f t h e w h o l e s t a n

d i n s a m p l e p l o t 1

H o r n b e a m t r e e s

O t h e r s

W

h o l e s t a n d s

D 1 . 3 0

N u m b e r

o f t r e e s

N

S i n g l e

b a s a l

a r e a s G

T o t a l

n u m b e r

N

T o t a l

b a s a l

a r e a ,

G

n r . o f

t r e e s

T o t a l

n u m b e r

N

T o t a l

b a s a l

a r e a G

N a t u r a l

t h i c k n e s s

d e g r e e

R

e l a t i v e

t h i c k n e s s

d e g r e e

A b s o l u t e

n u m b e r

o f t r e e s

% f r o m

t h e t o t a l

n u m b e r

d i s t r i b u -

t i o n i n %

6

1

0 . 0 0 2 8

0 . 3 3

0 . 3

1

0 . 7

0 . 7

8

2

0 . 0 1 0 0

2

0 . 0 1 0 0

1

3

0 . 0 1 5 0

0 . 4 4

0 . 4

2

1 . 4

2 . 1

1 0

2

0 . 0 1 5 6

6

0 . 0 4 6 8

1

7

0 . 0 5 4 6

0 . 5 5

0 . 5

5

3 . 6

5 . 7

1 2

7

0 . 0 7 9 1

1 0

0 . 1 1 3 0

3

1 3

0 . 1 4 6 9

0 . 6 6

0 . 6

9

6 . 5

1 2 . 2

1 4

9

0 . 1 3 8 6

1 6

0 . 2 4 6 4

4

2 0

0 . 3 0 8 0

0 . 7 7

0 . 7

1 5

1 0 . 8

2 3 . 0

1 6

8

0 . 1 6 0 8

1 2

0 . 2 4 1 2

4

1 6

0 . 3 2 1 6

0 . 8 8

0 . 8

1 9

1 3 . 7

3 6 . 7

1 8

1 1

0 . 2 7 9 4

1 6

0 . 4 0 6 4

1

1 7

0 . 4 3 1 8

0 . 9 9

0 . 9

1 6

1 1 . 5

4 8 . 2

2 0

5

0 . 1 5 7 0

1 6

0 . 5 0 2 4

1

1 7

0 . 5 3 3 8

1 . 1 0

1 . 0

1 7

1 2 . 2

6 0 . 4

2 2

7

0 . 2 6 6 0

1 3

0 . 4 9 4 0

1

1 4

0 . 5 3 2 0

1 . 2 1

1 . 1

1 6

1 1 . 5

7 1 . 9

2 4

8

0 . 3 6 1 6

1 0

0 . 4 5 2 0

2

1 2

0 . 5 4 2 4

1 . 3 2

1 . 2

1 4

1 0 . 1

8 2 . 0

2 6

1

0 . 0 5 3 1

3

0 . 1 5 9 3

1

4

0 . 2 1 2 4

1 . 4 3

1 . 3

1 3

9 . 4

9 1 . 4

2 8

1

0 . 0 6 1 6

1

0 . 0 6 1 6

1 . 5 4

1 . 4

7

5 . 0

9 6 . 4

3 0

1 . 6 6

1 . 5

3

2 . 2

9 8 . 6

3 2

1

0 . 0 8 0 4

1

0 . 0 8 0 4

1 . 7 7

1 . 6

1

0 . 7

9 9 . 3

G

1 . 5 2 1 2

2 . 8 1 3 5

3 . 2 4 3 3

1 . 7

1

0 . 7

1 0 0 . 0

N

6 0

1 0 6

2 0

1 2 6

1 3 9

G a v .

0 . 0 2 5 4

0 . 0 2 6 5

0 . 0 2 5 7

D a v .

1 8 . 0

1 8 . 4

1 8 . 1

R a n k o f a n

a v e r a g e t h i c k t r e e 5 4 . 3

% ( 4

8 , 2

+ 6 , 1

)



126

natural degrees of thickness and in connection with the average diameter of investigated stand

(Figure 1).

The curve is of the bimodal distribution type. Two peaks occur – the first one is at natural

degree 0.7, and the second one is rounded within the interval 1.0–1.1. This form of distribution

shows that the total combination of the stand consists of two separate parts, each of them having

its own peculiarities. Thin trees predominate in the middle-aged stands because of delayed or

not carried out tending fellings. As a result of this delay, the curve has left excess (concentration

of trees whose diameter is below the average diameter), because more than 45% of all trees are

concentrated within the range of thickness degree 10–16. Bigger saturation of stems is observed

not only in central degrees but also in the next ones, which confirms the thesis about delayed

silvicultural activities.

The average thick tree has the rank 54.3 ≈ 55%. For a quick determination of the stand average

diameter, the Weisse rule could be applied (60% of the number of thin trees).

For better precision, the new percentage should be applied (determined through the rank of

average thick tree – 50%) from the number of thin (or thick) trees, so as to avoid statistic errors

and to avoid increasing the volume during calculation.

Sample plot 2 (SP2) is situated in a mixed coppice hornbeam stand with participation of Tilia

tomentosa Moench., Populus tremula L. and solitary occurrence of Prunus avium L., Quercus

petraea Liebl. and Betula pendula Roth., with average age 50 and area of 0,1 ha.

125 trees have been investigated – from them 91 (72.8%) hornbeam, 14.4% Tilia tomentosa

Moench. with 2 or 3 stems cluster structure, Populus tremula L. are 8 (6.4%), Prunus avium L. – 3 (2.4%), Quercus petraea Liebl. – 4 (3.2%) and one Betula pendula Roth. (0.8%).

Table 3 shows the distribution of these trees according to numbers and thickness degree.

Quercus petraea Liebl (30.6 cm diameter), Prunus avium L. (20.8 cm diameter), Populus tremula

L. – (20.6 cm diameter) have the biggest diameters. Hornbeam trees average diameter is 17.5 cm,

and Betula pendula Roth. hardly reaches 14.2 cm. According to the thickness degree, trees are

distributed from 10 to 34.

Table 4 represents Tilia tomentosa Moench. trees participation in biogroups with 2 and 3 stems,

as well as total.

The average diameter of Tilia tomentosa Moench. in 2 stems biogroups is 18.6 cm, while the

one in 3 stems biogroups is 18.3 cm. Total average diameter is 18.5 cm. Rank of an average thick tree 51.0% (42.3+8.7)

Table 5 generalizes data about hornbeam, Tilia tomentosa Moench. and accompanying tree

Fig. 1 Variation curve of tree distribution in SP1

0

5

10

15

20

25

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Natural degrees of thickness

N u m b e r

o f t r e e s



127

species according to their basal areas and the number of trees. On the basis of total average

diameter (18.5 cm), the natural thickness degrees are calculated and variation curve of 125 treesis drawn (Figure 2). It is also bimodal (even with 3 peaks), what shows the heterogeneity of the

community. The peculiarity of this hornbeam trees cluster, is that the trees form one community

whose trees have very close diameters and high saturation in thickness degrees from 14 to 18.

The maximum of trees is drawn after the average diameter, showing occurrence of quite a lot

of trees, which slightly move the curve to the right. After natural thickness degree 1.1, we can

observe a sharp decline of the number of trees, then an even increasing and normal course to

natural thickness degree 1.8.

The average thick tree (18.5 cm) has rank 51.0%. This is why 50% value is recommended,

when applying the Weisse’s rule, to determine as right as possible the average diameter both for

thin and thick stems in the stand. If the Weisse percentage would be applied, the average diameterwould be set too high with one thickness degree.

Table 3 Distribution of trees according thickness degree and basal area in Sample plot 2

D1.30

Carpinus

betulus L.

Populus

tremula L.

Prunus

avium L.

Quercus

petraea

Liebl.

Betula

pendula

Roth.

Total of

sample plots

N G N G N G N G N G N G

10 3 0.234 3 0.023412 11 0.1243 11 0.124314 16 0.2464 1 0.0158 17 0.262216 15 0.3015 15 0.301518 17 0.4318 2 0.0508 19 0.482620 19 0.5966 4 0.1256 1 0.0320 24 0.754222 3 0.1140 1 0.0380 2 0.0698 6 0.221824 3 0.1356 1 0.0471 4 0.182726 4 0.2124 1 0.0531 1 0.555 6 0.321028303234 2 0.1913 2 0.1913

2.1860 0.2675 0.1018 0.2939 0.0158 2.8650 N 91 8 3 4 1 107Gav. 0.0240 0.0334 0.0339 0.0734 0.0158 0.0268Dav. 17.5 20.6 20.8 30.6 14.2 18.5

Table 4 Distribution of lime stems according thickness degree in Sample plot 2

Tilia tomentosa Moench.D

1.302 stems 3 stems Total

N G N G N G

14 4 0.0690 4 0.0690

16 3 0.0602 3 0.0602

18 6 0.1476 6 0.0147

20 3 0.0978 3 0.097822

24

26 2 0.1114 2 0.1114

0.3280 0.1580 0.4860

N 12 6 18

Gav. 0.0273 0.0263 0.0270

Dav. 18.6 18.3 18.5



128

Conclusions

As a result of the investigations and analyses carried out with regards to the current structure

and growth in diameter of hornbeam stands in Razgrad region, the following conclusions can be

drawn:

• Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) stands are coppice premature, with single or cluster

composition with two or more stems, mixed with Tilia tomentosa Moench., Quercus petraea

Liebl., Acer campestre L., Populus tremula L. and Prunus avium L.;

• Because of their specific status (periurban recreational forests), silvicultural activities in thesestands have been less intensive, what has reflected on structure and width growth;

• Distribution curves of trees in hornbeam stands are bimodal, what shows that the stand

Table 5 Thickness structure of the whole stand in sample plot 2

D1.30

Carpinus

betulus L. +

other trees

Tilia

tomentosa

Moench.

Whole stand

N G N G N

Natural

thicknessdegree

Relative

thicknessdegree

Absolute

number of trees

% from

the

total

number

∑

distribu-

tion in

%

10 3 0.0234 3 0.54 0.5 1 0.7 0.712 11 0.1243 11 0.64 06 7 4.7 5.414 17 0.2622 4 0.0690 21 0.75 0.7 16 10.7 16.1

16 15 0.3015 3 0.0602 18 0.86 0.8 19 12.8 28.9

18 19 0.4826 6 0.1476 25 0.97 0.9 20 13.4 42.3

20 24 0.7542 3 0.0978 27 1.08 1.0 26 17.4 59.722 6 0.2218 6 1.19 1.1 24 16.1 75.824 4 0.1827 4 1.30 1.2 7 4.7 80.526 6 0.3210 2 0.1114 8 1.40 1.3 4 2.7 83.228 1.51 1.4 8 5.4 88.630 1.62 1.5 7 4.7 9393

32 1.73 1.6 5 3.4 96.7

34 2 0.1913 2 1.83 1.7 3 2.0 98.7

∑ G 2.8650 0.4860 1.8 2 1.3 100.0

N 107 18 125 149

Gav. 0.0268 0.0270

Dav. 18.5

Fig. 2 Variation curve of tree distribution in SP2

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0 0 .1 0 .2 0. 3 0 .4 0 . 5 0. 6 0 .7 0. 8 0 .9 1 1 .1 1 . 2 1 .3 1 .4 1 . 5 1 .6 1 . 7 1 .8 1 . 9 2

Natural degree s of thickne ss

N u m b e r o f t r e e s



129

composition consists of two separate parts, each one with its own peculiarities;

• In middle-aged stands, thin trees predominate because of delayed or not carried out tending

fellings;

• To avoid systematic errors when quickly and practically determining the average diameter,

50% value is recommended instead Weisse’s value 57.5% for mixed hornbeam stands. Otherwise,

average diameter is one degree higher and the obtained volumes are not real.

References

Dimitrov, D. 1994. Climate resources in Bulgaria. Nauka i izkustvo, Sofia (in Bulgarian).

Georgiev, G. 1977. Structure and Dynamics of the Landscapes in Bulgaria. St. Kl. Ohridski University

Press, Sofia (in Bulgarian).

Weisse, W. 1880. Vetragstafel fuer die Kiefer, Berlin.



130



131


Bucharest, Romania

Consideratii privind unele probleme actuale ale ma-

nagementului silvic din România

I. Machedon

Machedon I. 2009. Consideraţii privind unele probleme actuale ale managementului

silvic din România [Considerations on some current problems of management in Ro-mania’s silviculture]. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedingsof the conference “Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“, October 23-25,2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 131-138.

Abstract. Research and studies at international level and also in our country in thelast period have reconfirmed that the management is the most important factor inachieving economic performance, and increasing the competitiveness of Romaniancompanies in the competition they are engaged with firms from other EU countriesand beyond. In the context mentioned above, and of previous concerns about thisarea, we address some problems of the current forest management in Romania. Afirst issue is regarding the implications for the National Forest Agency (NFA) of theconcrete type of relationship “under authority” in relation to the ministry. To date,

nor by previous decisions of the Government, nor by the decision into effect govern-ing the organization and functioning of the ministry or by a secondary legislation(Order of the Minister), there is no explicit indication aiming to explain what typeof relationship is “under authority” in terms of typical managerial act, the relation-ship between NFA as a whole, and its specialized sections on the one hand, and theministry and its departments (in this case forest department), on the other hand. Asecond problem is related to deviations from normality of relations between the NFAand the ministry during the periods when - from different reasons - the general man-ager of NFA was in the first plan, in relation to minister or the secretary of state forforests. One of the most important problem of the current management at the NFAis linked to fluctuations that have characterized the composition of the managementteam, especially at the highest level, during the past four years. The consequencesin the normal conduct of business, both at central and in the territory, can be easily

predicted. Another facet of the management in the NFA during this period refers tothe system and criteria for manager promotion at the direction’s level. An issue ofcurrent forest management in the NFA, which applies equally to the central authorityresponsible for the forestry, is related to the defective manner in which it conductshuman resource management. For seven years, human resource has not been found practically in any form of advanced training. Finally we emphasize the necessity offoundation and adoption of a coherent and realistic strategy for middle and long-term, anchored in similar strategies of the EU countries with advanced forestry.Key words: management, forest management, “under authority” relationship, hu-man resource management, development strategy of forestry

Author. Ion Machedon - National Forest Agency - ROMSILVA, 31 Magheru Av-enue, 010325 - Bucharest, Romania.

,



132

Introducere

Astăzi, la aproape 18 ani de la reorientarea economiei româneşti către economia de piaţă şi lacirca doi ani de la aderarea ţării noastre la Uniunea Europeană, se poate afirma că, managementulreprezintă pentru societate în general, iar cu deosebire, pentru firmele româneşti, un domeniu de

importanţă vitală, faţă de care se aşteaptă, în continuare, progrese palpabile, de natur ă să susţină modificările în plan economic, tehnic, tehnologic etc., produse în ultimii ani. Cercetările şi studiile desf ăşurate la nivel internaţional şi, în egală măsur ă, în ţara noastr ă auconfirmat, în ultima perioadă (fiind vorba, în fapt, de o reconfirmare), faptul că managementul este

poate cel mai important factor al obţinerii de performanţe economice, de creştere a competitivităţiifirmelor româneşti, în competiţia în care sunt angajate cu firmele din celelalte ţări membre aleUniunii Europene şi nu numai. Conştientizarea acestor adevăruri de către tot mai mulţi conducători, precum şi la nivelul forurilordecizionale, se regăseşte, în primul rând, în încercarea acestora de a înţelege, în adevăratele saledimensiuni, semnificaţia conceptului şi practicii managementului modern, în ipostaza în care,legăturile dintre agenţii economici se diversifică şi se multiplică, iar influenţele mediului ambiantdevin, pe zi ce trece, tot mai evidente. În contextul principiilor şi consideraţiilor de ordin general evidenţiate mai sus, precum şial preocupărilor anterioare referitor la acest domeniu, vom aborda în cele ce urmează, unele

probleme actuale ale managementului silvic din România.

Consideratii privind unele probleme actuale ale managementului silvic, la nivelul autoritatii

publice centrale care raspunde de silvicultura

Aşa cum se cunoaşte de către toţi cei avizaţi, de circa un an şi jumătate, titulatura ministeruluide resort s-a modificat, din MINISTERUL AGRICULTURII, PĂDURILOR ŞI DEZVOLTĂRII

RURALE, în Ministerul Agriculturii şi Dezvoltării Rurale. Transformarea a fost, aşa cum se poate lesne constata, „benefică” pentru sectorul silvic, PĂDURILE dispărând din titulaturaministerului, f ăr ă o explicaţie plauzibilă din partea celor responsabili. Singura justificare încropită de ministrul de la vremea respectivă a fost aceea că, în procesul de reorganizare a Guvernului, pefondul discuţiilor aprinse privind revenirea pădurilor în acelaşi minister cu apele şi cu protecţiamediului, decizia a întârziat să fie adoptată, f ăr ă ca cineva dintre cei care aveau responsabilitatea,să sesizeze că între timp, titulatura Ministerului Agriculturii se modificase, PĂDURILE fiindscoase de pe generic.În realitate, nu există nici o scuză şi desigur, nici o justificare obiectivă,faţă de Corpul silvic şi nu numai, pentru un asemenea gest, iar faptul că după mai bine de un an şi

jumătate, factorii de decizie persistă în această gravă eroare, trebuie să ne dea de gândit.

Cu atât mai mult, cu cât argumentele care justifi

că pe deplin recunoaşterea silviculturii ca ramur ă importantă a economiei naţionale, reliefate atât de noi, cât şi de alţi specialişti şi în alte lucr ărianterioare (Silvicultura şi dezvoltarea rural ă , 2003, pp. 101-104), nu numai că nu şi-au pierdutnimic din actualitate ci, dimpotrivă, s-au consolidat. Şi în condiţiile în care, pe fondul efectelorgrave ale schimbărilor climatice la care asistăm, mass – media naţională şi cea internaţională,opinia publică în general conştientizează tot mai mult, pe zi ce trece, rolul determinant al pădurilorîn combaterea secetei, a inundaţiilor şi în diminuarea celorlalte efecte negative care însoţescschimbarea climei, la nivel local, regional şi planetar. Reluăm în cele ce urmează, succint, principalele argumente care confer ă silviculturii,statutul de ramur ă a economiei naţionale, în speranţa că, odată auzite şi înţelese de către factoriidecidenţi îi vor determina pe aceştia, ca în cel mai scurt timp posibil, să redea PĂDURILOR,locul pe care îl merită cu prisosinţă, dacă nu într-un minister de sine stătător, măcar într-unul încare să-şi găsească armonia şi demnitatea alături de alte sectoare compatibile. În primul rând este vorba de mărimea fondului forestier al României, care aşa cum s-a

^, ,

^

^



133

menţionat, prin cele cca. 6,3 mil. hectare, reprezentând circa 27% din teritoriul ţării (deci,aproape 1/3 din suprafaţa totală), situează silvicultura pe locul al doilea, după criteriul utilizăriiterenurilor, având înaintea sa doar ramura agriculturii. Dacă la aceasta vom adăuga şi cele peste două milioane de hectare terenuri puternic degradate,inapte folosinţelor agricole a căror repunere în circuitul economic se poate face numai prin

împădurire, credem că orice alt comentariu este de prisos. În al doilea rând, pădurile se individualizează în structura diverselor tipuri de procese de producţie din ansamblul economiei naţionale, prin unicitatea caracterului şi mărimii cicluluide producţie, care în cazul pădurilor conduse în regimul codrului (cu o pondere de peste 93%în totalul fondului forestier na ţ ional ), are valori nemaiîntâlnite în alte sectoare de activitate,înregistrând, de regulă, peste 100 de ani (putând merge până la 180-200 de ani, în cazul unorspecii). O asemenea particularitate se completează cu o alta, la fel de specifică sectorului silvic,respectiv cea legată de caracterul seriat al procesului de producţie în silvicultur ă, concretizat

prin existenţa mai multor procese par ţiale, care se pot realiza concomitent şi independent unul dealtul, chiar dacă obiectivul fundamental al fiecăruia este unul şi acelaşi: PĂDUREA. În al treilea rând, prin serviciile utile şi efectele benefice pe care pădurile le furnizează societăţii,

prin funcţiile de protecţie exercitate ( func ţ ia de protec ţ ie a terenurilor şi solurilor; func ţ ia de protec ţ ie a apelor; func ţ ia de protec ţ ie contra factorilor climatici şi industriali d ăunători; func ţ iarecreativă; func ţ ia de interes ştiin ţ i fic şi de conservare a fondului genetic forestier ), acesteacontribuie în mod inegalabil la sănătatea, recrearea şi confortul psihic al oamenilor, realizând,totodată, prin însăşi existenţa lor, influenţe favorabile asupra multor altor sectoare şi activităţieconomice (sectorul energetic, transporturi, agricultur ă, turism, sănătate, comer ţ etc.), influenţecare se concretizează în final, pentru aceşti „beneficiari”, în economii sau chiar în veniturisuplimentare, deosebit de consistente. În al patrulea rând, se impune a fi subliniat faptul, de loc neglijabil, că în toţi cei 18 ani pe

care România i-a parcurs în drumul său spre economia de piaţă, în condiţiile în care numeroasesectoare şi ramuri ale economiei naţionale au suferit transformări radicale, cu consecinţe grave în

primul rând sub aspectul aportului acestora la visteria naţiunii, iar altele au dispărut practic, chiardacă în evidenţe şi pe unele raportări statistice au r ămas, silvicultura s-a situat între puţinelesectoare care au contribuit cu continuitate, în mod substanţial, atât în moneda naţională, câtşi în valută, la bugetul statului. În fine, dar nu în ultimul rând, un foarte puternic argument, îl reprezintă importanţa deosebită,recunoscută din ce în ce mai mult, pe plan mondial, pe care o au pădurile, în atenuareaschimbărilor climatice, prin reducerea emisiilor de carbon, prin stocarea carbonului şi fixareaacestuia, din acest punct de vedere pădurile situându-se pe primul loc, în raport cu celelalte tipuri

de ecosisteme terestre.

Concretizarea tipului de relatie „sub autoritate”, cu ministerul de resort, şi implicatiile acesteia

în organizarea şi functionarea Regiei Nationale a Padurilor

Aşa cum sunt identificate şi clasificate în cadrul ştiinţelor şi disciplinelor de specialitate(managementul general şi managementul firmei, disciplinele economice de ramur ă etc.) şi

preluate ca atare în legislaţia naţională şi internaţională, relaţiile existente între diversele autorităţi publice centrale şi unităţile/instituţiile pendinte de acestea se regăsesc în una dintre următoareletrei categorii: (i) de subordonare; (ii) în coordonare; (iii) sub autoritate. În timp ce primele două tipuri de relaţii (de subordonare, respectiv în coordonare) suntcaracterizate printr-o dependenţă foarte pronunţată a unităţilor în cauză, faţă de autoritatea

publică centrală (buget alocat din bugetul general al autorit ăţ ii; exerci ţ iu bugetar condi ţ ionat şi dirijat strict de autoritatea publică central ă; număr de posturi şi încadrarea pe posturi sub

^,

,

,

,



134

aprobarea strict ă a autorit ăţ ii etc.), tipul de relaţie „sub autoritate” este caracterizat printr-ungrad de autonomie mult mai mare, concretizată prin: buget de venituri şi cheltuieli propriu;organigramă şi număr de posturi stabilite independent; autonomie economico – financiar ă;autonomie managerială. Conform legii, autoritatea publică centrală îşi exercită direct dreptul de numire a managerului

(directorului general) al unităţii afl

ate în acest tip de relaţie, precum şi a Consiliului deadministraţie al acesteia şi (lucru foarte important) aceeaşi autoritate, în calitate de reprezentantal statului, îşi exercită dreptul de control asupra modului în care unitatea respectivă (în cazul defaţă, regia) îşi îndeplineşte atribuiţiile prevăzute de lege. În cele ce urmează, vom încerca să abordăm unele aspecte şi implicaţii concrete ale tipului derelaţie „sub autoritate” pentru Regia Naţională a Pădurilor, evidenţiind, totodată, unele realităţi(pozitive sau negative) ale acestui tip relaţional în organizarea şi, mai ales, în funcţionarearegiei.a) O primă problemă care se ridică este aceea că, până la această dată, nici prin hotărârilede guvern anterioare, nici prin hotărârea în vigoare (HG nr. 385/2007), care reglementează organizarea şi funcţionarea ministerului de resort, şi nici printr-un alt act normativ derivat (ordinal ministrului), nu se face nici o precizare care să expliciteze în ce constă acest tip de relaţie, subaspectul tipic al actului managerial, al raporturilor relaţionale între regie, în ansamblul său, şicompartimentele sale specializate, pe de o parte, şi minister, respectiv departamentele acestuia (înspeţă Departamentul pădurilor), pe de altă parte. Aşa cum precizam într-un alt context, singurul lucru clarificat prin lege este cel legat de raportulîntre directorul general al regiei, respectiv consiliul de administraţie al acesteia şi ministru, ambeleinstituţii manageriale fiind numite de către acesta, prin ordin al ministrului. O asemenea lacună a condus, în decursul timpului, la situaţii nefireşti, când spre exemplu,Secretarul de Stat pentru păduri (în calitate de şef al departamentului de resort) solicita anumiteinformaţii de la conducerea regiei, iar aceste informaţii ori nu veneau de loc, ori veneau adresate

direct ministrului (mai ales când aspectele solicitate erau deranjante pentru regie), speculându-se faptul că directorul general nu avea precizate nici un fel de obligaţii (sau alt gen de relaţii) înraport cu secretarul de stat şi cu atât mai puţin cu departamentul. Într-o astfel de situaţie, ca aceea exemplificată mai sus, cel puţin două dintre funcţiilemanagementului (comunicarea şi controlul) sunt afectate în mod evident. În opinia noastr ă, soluţia este strict la îndemâna autorităţii publice centrale, fiind vorba, înmod concret, de un ordin al ministrului care să reglementeze modalităţile de manifestare în

practică a acestui tip de relaţie (sub autoritate), pe întreaga structur ă organizatorică, pornind de laatribuţiile specifice ale ministerului, în domeniul pădurilor şi, desigur, ţinând cont de propunerileşi argumentele pertinente ale regiei, f ăr ă a se încălca cu nimic, legislaţia în vigoare.

b) O a doua problemă, de data aceasta de sorginte eminamente subiectivă, aflată în conexiunedirectă cu deficienţa semnalată la pct. a), este legată de abaterile de la normalitate a relaţiilorregie – minister, în perioadele când, fie pe fondul politicului, fie pe cel al altor factori deinfluenţă, directorul general al regiei s-a aflat în prim-plan, în relaţia cu ministrul de resort şicu atât mai mult, cu secretarul de stat pentru păduri. Se impune să facem precizarea că o asemenea abordare nu se rezumă nicidecum la sferateoretizării şi că ea pleacă tocmai de la realităţi tr ăite cel puţin în câteva perioade, din intervalulcelor 17 ani de funcţionare a Regiei Naţionale a Pădurilor (2001-2003; 2003-2004 şi, într-oanumită măsur ă, intervalul 1998-2000). În intervalele caracterizate prin „raportul de for ţe” menţionat mai sus, s-a putut constata că influenţa dominantă a managerului regiei a avut drept consecinţă imediată (aproape simultană),o dominare (uneori netă) a autorităţii publice centrale, de către regie, în ansamblul său (centrală

plus structuri teritoriale), practic în toate componentele sistemului relaţional. Această dominare a îmbr ăcat, adesea, „haina” superiorităţii salariaţilor din regie, faţă de



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funcţionarii publici din minister (superioritate ce avea la bază, inclusiv un sistem de salarizare netavantajos celor din regie), însoţită, nu în puţine cazuri, de realizarea sau de tratarea super ficială asolicitărilor diverselor compartimente din minister. O asemenea stare de lucruri avea să se soldeze, în mod firesc, cu o acumulare surdă, dar continuă,de adversitate în rândul funcţionarilor din minister, însoţită la anumite momente de r ă bufniri, mai

ales din partea celor cu funcţii de conducere, „soluţiile” găsite în atari situaţiifi

ind, ori eliminareadin sistem a „rebelilor”, ori aducerea lor la tăcere, prin transferul în structurile regiei. Deşi, în asemenea perioade, salariaţii din regie (mai ales din centrala acesteia) au avut maimultă linişte şi mai puţină bătaie de cap, în ceea ce priveşte relaţiile cu ministerul, realitateaa dovedit, cu vârf şi îndesat, că această linişte a fost doar una aparentă şi că, imediat ce s-aurestabilit relaţiile normale, reacţiile structurilor din minister au devenit mult mai dure (uneoriviolente), presiunea mult mai mare, iar atitudinea ministerului faţă de solicitările regiei şifaţă de regie în ansamblul său, mult mai dur ă, mai lipsită de disponibilitate, aşa cum din

păcate s-a întâmplat şi în ultimii patru ani.c) O a treia problemă este legată de evoluţia în timp a relaţiilor între regie, respectiv direcţiilesilvice teritoriale ale acesteia, şi structurile teritoriale ale autorităţii publice centrale care r ăspundede silvicultur ă (Garda Forestier ă, I.T.R.S.C.- urile, respectiv I.T.R.S.V.- urile de astăzi).Sub acest aspect, trebuie precizat, încă de la început, faptul că, în general, relaţiile întredirecţiile silvice şi structurile teritoriale ale ministerului de resort au purtat amprenta relaţiilorde la nivel central, între conducerea regiei şi conducerea ministerului. Astfel, în perioadele de normalitate, când au funcţionat prevederile legii, direcţiile silvice s-ausubordonat, din punctul de vedere al respectării regimului silvic, controlului exercitat de cătrestructurile teritoriale ale ministerului. Însă, atunci când regia, prin conducerea acesteia, şi-a impus punctul de vedere în relaţia cuconducerea ministerului, această atitudine a fost copiată la indigo şi în ceea ce priveşte relaţiile în

plan teritorial. Consecinţele unei asemenea stări de lucruri au fost, în aparenţă, favorabile regiei

(în sensul că, aceasta a scă pat de grija controalelor ministerului), dar pe fond, ele au adus marideservicii, în primul rând prin scăderea exigenţei la nivelul echipelor manageriale (transmisă apoi spre structurile de bază), prin amplificarea cazurilor de indisciplină şi, nu în ultimul rând,a fenomenului corupţiei, toate aceste aspecte fiind, din păcate, speculate de unii reprezentanţi aiclasei politice şi de alţi neprieteni ai Corpului silvic şi prezentate în mass-media cu vădită reaintenţie şi mai ales, cu tendinţa de generalizare.

Consideratii privind unele probleme actuale ale managementului la nivelul R.N.P.-

Romsilva

Una dintre problemele cele mai actuale ale managementului la nivelul R.N.P.- Romsilva este cealegată de fl uctua ţ iile care au caracterizat în ultimii ani, componen ţ a echipei manageriale, maiales la nivelul directorului general, consecinţele în planul desf ăşur ării normale a activităţii, atâtla nivel central, cât şi în teritoriu, fiind uşor de anticipat. Astfel, într-un interval de trei ani şi jumătate, au fost schimbaţi trei directori generali (înianuarie 2005, în martie 2007, respectiv august 2008) situaţie f ăr ă precedent în cei 18 ani dela înfiinţarea regiei. În acest context, lipsa de continuitate în actul managerial la vârf a reprezentat principalacauză a unor disfunc ţ ionalit ăţ i, atât în rela ţ ia regiei cu autoritatea publică central ă , cât şi în ceeace prive şte sistemul rela ţ ional cu unit ăţ ile din teritoriu, care nu au ezitat, în anumite situa ţ ii, să „speculeze” aceast ă realitate, în favoarea intereselor locale, de moment. O altă faţetă a actului managerial, care şi-a pus amprenta în această perioadă, se refer ă lasistemul şi criteriile de promovare a managerilor la nivelul direcţiilor silvice. Şi în legătur ă cu această componentă a managementului aplicat la R.N.P. - Romsilva s-au manifestat în ultimii

,



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ani atât instabilitate, cât şi o anumită lipsă de consecvenţă, în ambele situaţii, consecinţelefiind negative în desf ăşurarea actului managerial. Astfel, în perioada 2005 – iulie 2007, toateconducerile direcţiilor au fost numite „cu delegaţie, până la organizarea concursului”, concurscare s-a tot amânat, din diverse motive (cele mai multe, subiective), aproape doi ani şi jumătate. Stare de instabilitate, extinsă pe o perioadă atât de lungă, a determinat la o bună parte dintre

directorii direcţiilor silvice o atitudine de espectativă, cu consecinţe de asemenea negative în procesul de management la nivelele respective. Organizarea, în cursul lunii iunie 2007, a concursului pentru definitivarea pe post a directorilor,directorilor tehnici şi directorilor comerciali – fapt pozitiv în sine – a reprezentat, în realitate, unveritabil şi regretabil eşec, pentru conducerea regiei. Şi aceasta, deoarece, deşi gândit şi anunţata se desf ăşura în condiţii obiective şi cu luarea în calcul numai a criteriilor profesionaleşi a aptitudinilor manageriale, în fapt, concursul s-a desf ăşurat şi mai ales, s-a finalizat,dominat de criterii politice, mai exact spus, de preferinţele conducerilor de partid de la nivellocal, care şi-au impus clar opţiunile, în relaţia cu directorul general al regiei, altfel, singurulîmputernicit prin lege să semneze decizia de numire a directorilor din teritoriu. Această stare de lucruri a condus la ipostaze plasate în afara oricăror principii ale managementului,mergând până acolo când, un director care nu a promovat iniţial concursul de definitivare, darcare a r ămas pe post ca urmare a intervenţiilor de genul celor menţionate mai sus, nici măcar numai r ăspundea la apelul telefonic al directorului general al regiei. O altă problemă actuală a managementului silvic la nivelul R.N.P.- Romsilva, valabilă în egală măsur ă şi la nivelul autorităţii publice centrale care r ăspunde de silvicultur ă, este cea legată demaniera defectuoasă în care se desf ăşoar ă managementul resursei umane. Referindu-ne strictla arealul resursei umane din structura Romsilva (peste 20 mii de salariaţi, din care 65% alcătuiesc

personalul silvic – ingineri, tehnicieni, pădurari, iar circa 17% este reprezentat de personalul cu pregătire economică), se impune a fi subliniat faptul că, de şapte ani de zile, resursa umană a regiei nu s-a regăsit practic în nici o formă de perfecţionare a pregătirii profesionale, încă

o situaţie f ăr ă precedent în istoria celor 18 ani de existenţă a Regiei Naţionale a Pădurilor.Şi aceasta, în contextul în care, au trecut deja doi ani de când România este membru cu drepturi(şi obligaţii) depline al U.E. şi, tot de doi ani de zile, Romsilva este membru al EUSTAFOR(Asociaţia Administratorilor Pădurilor de Stat din Europa). Aşa cum evidenţiam într-o lucrare publicată în anul 2005, când tr ăgeam încă un semnal dealarmă, consecinţele negative ale lipsei de preocupare pentru formarea profesională continuă a resursei umane din cadrul regiei se manifestă cu atât mai vizibil, cu cât, de câţiva ani buni,

personalul regiei, în mod deosebit cel cu pregătire silvică, se află într-o competiţie extrem de dur ă,în plan profesional, cu cel angajat în structurile silvice private. În fine, o ultimă problemă a managementului silvic, la care am considerat a fi oportun să ne

oprim, deosebit de actuală, este cea care vizează necesitatea fundamentării şi adoptării uneistrategii pe termen mediu şi lung, coerente şi realiste, ancorată în strategiile existente în acestdomeniu în ţările Uniunii Europene cu silvicultur ă avansată. Astăzi este îndeobşte cunoscut, principiul conform căruia, f ăr ă o strategie (fie aceasta pe termenscurt, mediu sau, mai ales, lung), un agent economic, un concern şi, cu atât mai mult, un sectorsau o ramur ă a economiei naţionale nu are şanse de dezvoltare durabilă. Un alt principiu,la fel de valabil, care vine automat în completarea celui enunţat mai sus, este cel referitor lanecesitatea continuităţii strategiei (mai ales în situaţiile în care aceasta s-a dovedit a fi realistă şi

bine fundamentată), indiferent de schimbările care pot să apar ă, la un moment dat, la nivelulechipelor manageriale, din diverse motive. Abordând, în cele ce urmează, cele două principii manageriale, în conexiune, să vedem pescurt ce s-a întâmplat în mod concret, în ultimii 18 ani, în domeniul silviculturii. Înainte de oricecomentariu, se impune însă a fi f ăcută precizarea că, în conformitate cu legislaţia în materieapărută după anul 1990, autoritatea competentă pentru elaborarea şi promovarea strategiei



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de dezvoltare a silviculturii a fost şi este ministerul de resort sau, într-un termen generic,autoritatea publică centrală care r ăspunde de silvicultur ă. Aceeaşi autoritate aprobă, în baza strategiei menţionate mai sus, strategia (pe termen mediuşi lung) a Regiei Naţionale a Pădurilor – Romsilva, în calitatea acesteia de administrator alfondului forestier proprietate de stat.

După anul 1990, o strategie în sensul deplin al cuvântului pentru dezvoltarea silviculturii pe termen mediu şi lung (perioada 2000-2020) a putut fi adoptată, numai după apariţia nouluiCod silvic – Legea nr. 26/1996 care, înlocuindu-l pe cel din anul 1962, depăşit de realităţilespecifice trecerii la economia de piaţă (între care diversificarea formelor de proprietate se regăsea

pe primul plan), a putut asigura un fundament solid şi viabil pentru demersul elabor ării uneiasemenea strategii. Mai trebuie subliniat, în mod absolut necesar, faptul că în procesul de fundamentare şielaborare a acestei strategii, care a presupus o amplă dezbatere la nivelul întregii ramuri (dezbateri zonale, urmate de două sau chiar trei dezbateri la nivel naţional, cu participareaneîngr ădită a tuturor instituţiilor şi organizaţiilor guvernamentale şi neguvernamentale pendintede sectorul silvic), esenţiale au fost raţiunile şi motivaţiile de ordin profesional, economicşi social şi, în niciun caz, cele de ordin politic. Acest lucru se întâmpla într-o perioad ă încare presiunile politicului asupra pădurilor se situau la cote f ăr ă precedent, meritul principalrevenind conducerii ministerului de la vremea respectivă şi, în mod sigur, de loc întâmplător,

pentru că ministrul era de profesie silvicultor, f ăr ă a fi angajat politic. La nici doi ani de aplicare am asistat însă, la o nouă „bătută pe loc”, pritocind o nouă Strategiede dezvoltare a silviculturii. De data aceasta, din fericire, tocmai datorită condiţiilor în carefusese fundamentată şi elaborată strategia anterioar ă, chiar dacă factorul politic şi-a pus oanumită amprentă, venită din Programul de guvernare, îmbr ăcată însă în „uniformă de serviciu”(adică profesională), noua strategie nu a fost caracterizată prin modificări fundamentalefaţă de precedenta, fiind păstrate obiectivul strategic fundamental şi obiectivele strategice

principale, precum şi marea majoritate a acţiunilor şi modalităţilor de punere în aplicare aacestor obiective. Necazul este că, după numai alţi trei ani de punere în aplicare, am asistat la o nouă schimbarea puterii politice şi, pe acest fond, la „descoperirea” necesităţii unei noi strategii de dezvoltare asilviculturii care, din păcate, nu s-a soldat nici astăzi cu ceva concret, palpabil şi coerent, în acestdomeniu. Şi iată-ne, aşadar, ajunşi în anul de graţie 2008, când avem o nouă legislaţie silvică,începând cu Codul silvic (Legea nr. 46/2008) şi, foarte probabil vom avea o nouă schimbarede for ţe politice care, împreună, vor conduce automat în prima parte a anului viitor la o nouă strategie de dezvoltare a silviculturii. Din succinta prezentare a istoriei strategiilor de dezvoltare a silviculturii în ultimii 17-18 ani în

ţara noastr ă credem că, în ceea ce priveşte respectarea celor două principii manageriale enunţatela început, nu mai este loc pentru niciun comentariu.



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139


Bucharest, Romania

Certification schemes - a first step towards sustain-

able management of forestry in Romania

C. I. Dumitrescu, B. Leuştean

Dumitrescu C. I., Leuştean B. 2009. Certifi

cation schemes - afi

rst step towards sus-tainable management of forestry in Romania. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud

O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a changing environ-

ment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute

ICAS, pp. 139-144.

Abstract. The paper focuses on the role of forest certification schemes in clean sus-

tainable development and carbon credit trading mechanisms.The UNCCC Bali con-

ference in December 2007 has emphasized the fact that forestry is one of the tools

towards mitigating the effects of global warming. The PEFC Council (Programme

for the Endorsement of Forest Certification schemes) promotes sustainable forest

management at the international scale through independent third party certification.

The PEFC provides an assurance mechanism to purchasers of wood and paper pro-

ducts, if they are promoting the sustainable management of forests. Romania is nota member of the PEFC Council, what we consider to be an important gap for the

sustainable management of our national forestry fund.

Key words: sustainable management, forestry, certification schemes

Authors. Corina Ionela Dumitrescu, Beatrice Leuştean - Economics Department,

University „Poiltehnică” of Bucharest, Splaiul Independenţei St., 313, 060042 - Bu-

charest, Romania.

Introduction

Global warming, one of the most pressing concerns of the 21st century, is probably the combined

result of CO2 emissions, of intensive deforestation and, generally of human economic activity.

An organic and proved method in slowing and reversing climate change is preserving natural

carbon absorbers (sinks). Among the terrestrial ecosystems, forest is, by far, the most ef ficient

CO2 absorber. In order to stop chaotic and environment damaging deforestation, a rigorous forest

management is required. Therefore, protecting forest becomes a main issue for the climate change

at stake.

The international experience in forestry management proposes many solutions: eco-tourism,

sustainable forest management, substitutes for both extensive agriculture and fire wood; planting

trees. The UNCCC Bali Conference in December 2007 has designated the sustainable forest

management as one of the tools towards mitigating the effects of global warming. The sustainable

forest management through its certification schemes tends to form a valuable alliance for thecarbon credit trading mechanisms in the fight against global climate change (PEFC 2008).

The sustainable forest management is the solution the present paper focuses on as well. This



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means that economic exigency may be combined with production and consumption responsibility

on a pattern determining the periodicity and the intensity of cutting trees and plans for reforesting.

It also means that all the representative elements of the soil ecosystem, as well as hydrological

cycle and other forest elements are preserved (PEFC 2008).

What exactly does sustainable forest management represent?

The sustainable forest management is a couple of guidelines (International Tropical TimberOrganization and Pan European Operational Level Guidelines) which refers to: (i) maintenance

and appropriate enhancement of forest and their contribution to global carbon cycle; (ii)

maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality; (iii) maintenance and encouragement of

productive functions of forests; (iv) maintenance, conservation and appropriate enhancement

of biological diversity in forest ecosystems; (v) maintenance and appropriate enhancement of

protective functions in forest management (notably soil and water); (vi) maintenance of other

socio-economic functions and conditions (PEFC 2006).

A third party evaluates and certifies if the forest management satisfies the ecological, economic

and social standards mentioned above. The forest certification is the method by which this

independent party performs this evaluation and verifies it through a written document (Hansen &

Juslin 1998).

It comes to meet both suppliers and consumers needs (Since Rio Summit and Helsinki Process)

for wood from sustainably managed sources, and has spread rapidly, mainly across Europe and

North America (Rupert 2004).


Forest certification is a way to prove that forests are sustainably managed. Forests must be

socially, environmentally and economically managed for both present and future generations, in

the perspective of sustainable development.

The economic, political, and social context in Africa, in the Asia-Pacific region, in EasternEurope, and Latin America makes the task of sustainable forest management much more

challenging. While some success stories exist, certification progress in these regions has been

slow and uneven, reflecting, in various cases, a lack of resources, poor infrastructure, corrupt

institutions, and environmentally insensitive domestic and foreign markets. An examination

of the amount of certified forest in developed and developing countries (see Figures 1a and b)

underscores the challenge that certification faces in the developing world. (Cashore et al. 2006).

As we can see it in the previous figures, PEFC is the world’s largest forest certification umbrella.

That is why we are going to focus on this system of certification in the following paragraphs.

Forest certification is a new policy mechanism for environmental governance. PEFC has

become the world’s largest forest certification organisation with 35 independent national schemesin membership from all over the world. 24 of these certification schemes have been endorsed by

the PEFC Council, delivering hundreds of millions of tones of wood to the market place from

more than 200 million hectares of certified forests.

PEFC was born in 1998 as a voluntary initiative of private forest owners based on the criteria

and indicators laid down at the Ministerial Conferences of Helsinki (1993) and Lisbon (1998)

for the protection of European forests. PEFC offers a framework on which national certification

systems are based in order to guarantee mutual recognition across Europe of Pan-European

criteria:

1. Forest maintenance and development and their contribution to world carbon cycles;

2. Maintenance of forest farm vitality and health;

3. Maintenance and increased value of forest productive functions;

4. Biodiversity maintenance preservation and development,

5. Maintenance and suitable development of protection functions within the forest sector;



141

6. Maintenance of other socio-economic functions and conditions that the forest affords

society.

The area of PEFC certified forests reached 194 million hectares in 2007 as we can see in Figure

2.

Companies with wood based products chose gradually PEFC chain of custody for their

business, beginning with 108 chains of custody certificates in 2001 and reaching the level of

3545 certificates in 2007. Only between 2006 – 2007 the number increased with 644 companies

(an increase of 22.2%) – see Figure 3.

Source: Cashore, B., Gale, F., Meidinger, E. and Newsom, D., 2006, Confronting Sustainability: For-

est Certification in Developing and Transitioning Countries, Environment, volume 48, no.9, p. 8.

Fig. 2 PEFC certified forests

Source: PEFC council, Annual Review, 2007, p. 4.



142

We consider that there are many reasons for PEFC to be successful:

1. PEFC relies on internationally agreed criteria of certification as the basis of national

certification schemes;

2. PEFC provides a framework for integration of national schemes into the internationally

agreed criteria of certification;

3. the openness and transparency of the decision making of PEFC are the framework for the

active participation of many types of stakeholders at the local, national and regional level;

4. the procedures of PEFC certification and the monitoring of them are independent of one

another;

5. the national certification schemes are independent of PEFC.


Why an internationally agreed certification scheme in Romania?

We consider that it would be appropriate for Romania to adopt an internationally agreed

certification scheme because of its sustainability, credibility, accountability and adaptability.

Sustainability of the international certification scheme refers to the benefits provided for the

biodiversity and environment. It also provides an independent certified proof that forests are

sustainably managed. Credibility is ensured because PEFC certification scheme uses internationally recognized

accreditation and certification processes. It is supported by over 20 independent certification

schemes.

Accountability

refers to the independent certified control. This means that the customers are

ensured that the whole wood is taken from sustainably managed forests, from each tree of the

forest to final wood based products.

Adaptability facilitates the active involvement of all types of forests and companies. It takes

into account the diversity of forest types, cultural heritage and management objectives.

We consider that using an international certification schemes might have multiple positive effects

(Cashore et al. 2003, 2006) at the national level: the creation of a larger, more inclusive forest policy network;

promotion of cross-stakeholder dialogue and deliberation on the meaning of sustainable system

Fig. 3 PEFC certified companies

Source: PEFC council, Annual Review, 2007, p.4.



143

based forestry management;

practices in agriculture, mining and infrastructure development might be far more

environmentally and socially friendly;

positive social effects in terms of community and workers rights (higher wages, development

of collective infrastructure, training);

positive economic effects at both micro and macro level;

microeconomic effects like improved market access, more stable contracts, favourable credit

arrangements, better public image;

macroeconomic effects as improved tax collection, market transparency, employment and

wages, better working conditions, investments.

Of course, not all the economic effects of forest certification schemes are positive. We could

mention that a negative effect of this procedure is the decrease of the forest surface available

for timber production. This might have negative consequences, resulting in fewer jobs, excess

of demand over supply, higher prices of timber. However we consider that is the way in which

forests can be managed in the perspective of sustainable development.

positive environmental effects, divided into four categories: improvement in planning and

inventorying, forestry (improved practices, as for example marking the trees which are to be

protected), biodiversity protection (high conservation values, creating of protection corridors,

etc., monitoring and compliance (internal check lists, employees with environmental expertise).

Conclusions

We consider that certification schemes generate significant attitudinal change, especially for forests

managers. It includes also a considerable potential to improve forest management in transition

and developing countries. To develop this potential certain dif ficulties need to be overcome:

market demand, illegal logging, foresters attitude, community mentality, certification standards

and costs. Certification schemes reveal interrelationships between political, institutional andeconomic factors (Newsom et al. 2006).

Stakeholders ought to take decisions thinking about the future generation. We did not inherit

the Earth from our forefathers, we just borrowed it from our children. Certification has to be

interpreted as part of a bigger ensemble which could improve sustainable forest management and

conserve biodiversity.

References

PEFC Position Paper. 2008. Climate Change and Certification: 3.

PEFC Council. 2006. Compatibility of the ITTO Provisions for the Management of Natural and PlantedForests with the PEOLG: 40.

Hansen, E., Juslin, H. 1998. The Status of Forest Certification in the ECE Region www.forestrycertification.

info. Comparative Matrix of Forest Certification Schemes: 6.

Cashore, B., Gale, F., Meidinger, E., Newsom, D. 2006. Confronting Sustainability: Forest Certification in

Developing and Transitioning Countries. Environment. 48 (9): 6-25.

Newsom, D., Bahn, V., Cashore, B. 2006. Does forest certification matter? An analysis of operation-level

changes required during the SmartWood certification process in the United States. Forest Policy and

Economics. 9: 197-208.

Cashore, B., Auld, G., Newsom, D. 2003. Forest certification (eco-labeling) programs and their policy

making authority: explaining divergence among North American and European case studies. Forest Policy

and Economics. 5: 225-247.

http://www.pefc.org/internet/html/



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145


Bucharest, Romania

Beech timber preservation during storage

O. Zeleniuc

Zeleniuc O. 2009. Beech timber preservation during storage. In: Olenici N., Teo-dosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestryin a changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and

Management Institute ICAS, pp. 145-150.

Abstract. Forests are a vital part of the world ecosystems, and without a propermanagement their loss could have profound economic, social and environmentalimpacts. To support sustainable use of forest resources, a maximal protectionof timber against any external factors during storage and transportation should perform, so as to fulfil the specific quality standards required by timber suppliers.Timber in the yard is susceptible to mould, stain and decay. Protecting timber byantisapstain treatments is an important activity in a saw-mill activity aiming at producing high quality products and avoiding losses. The paper presents the ad-vantages of this treatment, the assessment procedure and the results of field testsregarding the ef ficiency of different products compared to untreated samples.Key words: sustainability, timber, quality, antisapstain, ef ficacy

Author. Octavia Zeleniuc - Transilvania University of Braşov, Faculty of WoodIndustry, 29 Eroilor Avenue, 500036 - Braşov, Romania.

Introduction

Forest Wood is the most important source of wood raw material, providing 2/3 of the total woodsupply compared to woody biomass, recovered wood, or industry by-products. Among wood-

based industry sectors, sawmill industry is the biggest wood consumer of solid roundwood processing 206 million m³ (EU-27) and 214 million m³ (EU/EFTA), corresponding to 26% of thetotal consumption (FAO 2007).

Sustainable forest management depends on sustainable forest products market development.Both forest and market are required short term and long term to be sustainable. These are basedon environmental, social and economic pillars (FAO, 2007), and wood industry needs to respond

positively to demands for sustainable management and development.Primary wood sector in Romania. The configuration of the wood primary sector is quite

different now compared to 1990; medium and small companies were developed, their mainactivity being sawn wood production. The present-day capacity of the primary wood processingsector is estimated at 18 millions m3/year.

Timber production was 4.3 mil. m3 in 2004 with an expected increase of 4.6% for 2010 as it is

shown in Table 1.As presented in Table 1, more than 50% represents timber for export. As a consequence, sawmills

have to enhance the quality of their products and services, to fully satisfy customers requirements



146

and international quality standards. Improper grading, storage in inadequate conditions withoutantisapstain treatment, lead finally to yearly losses of 7.35 million euro only for beech timberfrom total production (Table 2).

Sawmills are the biggest wood consumer of solid roundwood and the source of raw materialfor many wood industry sectors and construction industry. As a consequence they need to

respond positively to demands for sustainable wood products in order to fully satisfy customersrequirements. Sawn timber degradation during storage. It is well known that sawn wood is subjectedto biological degradation under different humidity conditions. During air drying, storage andtransportation, sawn timber with high moisture content is subjected to wood-staining and mouldfungi attack. These fungi do not affect the wood structural properties, but the discoloration ordisfigurement they produce, can be of aesthetic and economic importance. Generally, they are

blue-black or blue-grey but can be brownish or purple, depending on the fungus responsible(Eaton & Hale 1993). The fungi start to sprout rapidly on favourable conditions. Several studieshave shown that the lowest humidity allowing mould growth is “80-85% relative humidity”,

provided that the temperature is above 5°C (Wang 1992, Viitanen 1997, Park 1982, Hocking etal. 1994, Adan 1994).

The objective of this study was to inform about the importance of the antisapstain procedure toobtain advantages by its correct using during beech timber storage.

Experimental methods

More recently, consumers concern about the risk of mould on timber, heightening the interestin developing safer treatments (Shujun 2007). These treatments protect timber against mould fora period of two to three months, depending on the fungicide, on concentration used, on woodspecies and climatic conditions. Out of laboratory test, field tests represent an important procedure

to evaluate the ef ficiency of the antisapstain treatment and the fungicides ef ficiency.Field test. For field testing, steamed and unsteamed beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) was used, as

this species forms a high proportion of the wood processed in the Romanian sawmills. Specimens(100 x 30 mm cross section by 1000 mm length) were cut from freshly sawn and steamed timber,having moisture content higher than 50%. Stacks without stickers were formed with unsteamed

boards (packed timber). For steamed boards both systems of storage were used, with and without

Table 1 Perspective on timber production*

*data obtained from Forestry Association)

Table 2 Yearly average losses due to failure in quality requirements for timber

Products U.M. 2001 2002 2003 2004 2010

Primary wood processing capacity/ year mill. m3

16.0 16.5 17.0 18.0 18.0-Timber mill. m3 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.3 4.5

-Timber - export mill. m3 2.35 2.35 2.37 2.40 2.45

-Timber - import 1000 m3 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.6 5.0

Timber production, [million m3/an] Timber price- total green timberhigh quality class,[million euro/an]

Losses by improper grading, storageand discoloration (stain and mould)

Species Total Green Dried [million m3

/an] [million euro/an]

Beech 0.58 0.233 0.350 70.0 0.035 7.35



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stickers (50 pieces on each stack protected by 5 untreated boards on the top). The following fungicides were tested: P1 - based on IPBC, disodium octaborate tetrahydrate

– solutions of 1% and 2% concentrations (Antiblu Select provided by Arch Timber Protection); P2 - based on trimethylcocoammonium chlorure, sodium tetraborate – solutions of 4% and 6%concentrations; P3 - based on izotiazolone and additional components according to the technical

sheet- solution of 1% concentration. The boards were treated by dipping for 1 minute in the treatment solutions. The stacks werestored for the duration of the trial in the open sawmill yard exposed to climatic conditions. Assessment of mould growth. Development of mould growth on the boards was assessedmonthly using the evaluation scheme described in CEN/TS 15082:2005: “Wood preservatives.Determination of the preventive effectiveness against sapstain fungi on freshly sawn timber fieldtest’’. The assessment is based on the percentage of the surface covered with mould or othercoloured fungi.


The presence of mould and blue stain fungi, on each set of boards according to product andconcentration, was evaluated after 1, 2, and 3 months exposure. The stain activity is verysignificant, when we look on the untreated control boards after 60 days (Figure 1). Attack of mould increased from one month to another if improper treatment solutions andconcentrations are used. The growth of fungi is more prominent on steamed beech boardscompared to unsteamed ones.

Examination of Figure 2 reveals that all the products reduce the sapstain colonisation comparedto untreated timber, but it also shows that there are performance differences depending on speciesand exposure time.

Only the product P1 had a very good performance on unsteamed beech, after 3 months exposure

in open air, rating being under 0.5 compared to the other products rated with 3. The infestation ofthe boards surfaces started after 30 days in different percentages, depending on concentration andon product type (Figure 2). The quality of the antisapstain treatment was improved with about30% for beech boards by increasing the product concentration. Packed steamed beech boards were rapidly covered by mycelium, after 30 days, the ratingreaching 1 for all products (Figure 3). Better performance of products was obtained in case ofsteamed beech, in boards staking on stickers as is illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 b. Slight protection was observed even after 30 days exposure in packed steamed beech boards(without stickers), compared to those stacked on stickers (Fig. 4 a, b). Steaming influenced to agreat extend the fungi development. In figure 5 the differences in fungal growth on steamed beech

boards compared to unsteamed ones are clearly distinguishable. Very limited fungal growth was

Fig. 1 Untreated boards (control): a. steamed beech; b. unsteamed beech

a b



149

observed on unsteamed boards after 60 days for P1 and P2 products (at high concentration). Therating reached after 60 days was under 0.2 for unsteamed beech and more than 2, for the steamed

ones. Specific exposure conditions and climate parameters influenced the started of mould or bluestain growth on wood surfaces. After 1 month only slight infection was observed on the treatedunsteamed boards and steamed on stickers (excepting Product P3 and P2 at low concentration).The differences in performance became more apparent after 2 months. Product P1 has maintainedits good performance (more evident at high concentration), with a rating under 0.1, whilst

products P2 and P3 have allowed more colonization. Studies showed that IPBC alone is aneffective fungicide. However it is susceptible to losing its ef ficacy with time. The combinationof different fungicides even at low concentrations could be more effective than single fungicidesalone (Weissenborn et al. 2003, Viitanen et al. 1997, Gobakken et al. 2007). Some studies have

demonstrated that the use of other anti-sapstain chemicals in conjunction with borates can enhancetheir performance significantly (case of products P1) (Lloyd 1996, ESP 2006).

Conclusions

The primary aim of anti-sapstain treatments is to maintain freshly sawn timber in a clean conditionduring storage such that the value of the timber is maintained when delivered in green state or untilit is dried. The field tests have shown that the problems encountered on treated steamed beechconcerning the mould growth can be avoided by stacking timber on stickers. Higher ef ficiencycan be reached by increasing the products concentration.

Protection of timber by antisapstain treatments should be an important task for each sawmill

interested in producing high quality products. No anti-sapstain treatment can ensure a longlasting protection. However the risk of colonisation can be minimised knowing the required

protection period and end-use of the timber, combined with a careful choice of products andconcentrations.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Arch Timber Protection Ltd for guidance and support to thisresearch.

Fig. 5 Packed beech boards. Influence of steaming on rating evolution, after 60 days exposure in open air



150

References

Adan, O.C.G. 1994. On the fungal defacement of interior finishes. Thesis. Eindenhoven, University ofTechnology, 223 p.Eaton, R A., Hale, M.D.C. 1993. Wood. Decay, pests and protection. Chapman & Hall, pp.130-144.ESP- Environment Sensitive Pest Control. 2006. Fungi Performance with and without Borate http://www.environmentsensitive.com/BoratePerformance.htmlFAO - Food and Agriculture Organization. 2007. Wood resources availability and demands - implicationsof renewable energy policies UNECE /FAO Policy (UNECE-United Nations Economic Commission forEurope/ FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).Gobakken, L.R., Jenssen, K.M. 2007. Growth and succession of mould on commercial paint systems intwo field sites. Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural ResourceManagement.Hocking, I.D., Mixcamble, B.F., Pitt, J.I. 1994. Water relations of Alternaria alternata, Cladosporiumspharospemum, Curvularia lunata and Curvularia pallescens. Mycological Research 98(1): 91-94.Lloyd, J D. 1996. International Status of Borate Preservative Systems. In: Proceeding of the SecondInternational Conference on Wood Protection with Diffusible Preservatives and Pesticides Alabama, Nov.

6-8, pp.45-54.Park, D. 1982. Phylloplane fungi; tolerance of hyphal tips to drying. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc 79(1), 174-179.Shujun, Li. 2007. Preventing fungal attack of freshly sawn lumber using cinnamon extracts. In: Proceedingof the International Research Group on Wood protection, IRG, Jackson Lake Wyoming USA, Doc. No.IRG/WP 07-30432.Viitanen, H., Ahola, P. 1997. Resistance of painted pine sapwood to mould fungi. Part 1. The effect of water- borne paints and fungicides on mould growth. In: Proceedings of the International Research Group on WoodPreservation, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada, Doc. No. IRG/WP 97-10233.Wang, Q. 1992. Wood-based boards-Response to attack mould and stain fungi. Dissertation. Department ofForest Products. Uppsala, the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 25 p.Weissenborn, P., Östberg, G., Bardage, S. 2003. Fungal Growth on Exterior Coatings for Wood. Proceedingsof the 17th SLF Congress: “Future Trends in Coatings Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, pp. 117-125.*** CEN/TS 15082: 2005. Determinarea eficacităţii preventive a produselor de protecţie a lemnuluiîmpotriva ciupercilor de albăstreală la cheresteaua verde, testul în câmp/ Wood preservatives determinationof the preventive effectiveness against sapstain fungi on freshly sawn timber field test.



151


Bucharest, Romania

Assessment of anthropogenic and climatic changes

impacts on forest systems by satellite and biogeo-

physical data

M. Zoran, M. Caian

Zoran M., Caian M. 2009. Assessment of anthropogenic and climatic changes im-

pacts on forest systems by satellite and biogeophysical data. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu

M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a

changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Man-

agement Institute ICAS, pp. 151-158.

Abstract. In the contemporary world, geospatial information gathered by different

sensors and numerous observation missions has become an imperious need for sci-

entific investigation and application fields. Remote sensing technologies are used for

natural resources management, ecosystem change detection, environment preserva-

tion. Forest vegetation monitoring is among the priorities of remote sensing being

associated with environmental pollution and climatic changes impact assessment.The climate system responds in complex ways to changes in forcing that may be

natural or human-induced and climate-induced changes at the forest land surface

may in turn feed back on the climate itself through changes in soil moisture, veg-

etation, radiative characteristics, and surface-atmosphere exchanges of water vapor.

Thresholding based on biogeophysical variables derived from time series satellite

data is a new approach to classifying forest land cover via remote sensing .The input

data are composite values of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI).

Classification accuracies are function of the class, comparison method and season of

the year. The aim of this paper is to investigate the relationship between forest veg-

etation spectral and biogeophysical features with landcover/landuse changes due to

climatic and anthropogenic stressors. By this, the paper is devoted to assess, forecast,

and mitigate the risks of environmental pollution and climatic changes and extreme

climate events on forest ecosystems in Prahova Valley, Romanian Carpathians aswell as in periurban Bucharest forest test areas and to provide early warning strate-

gies on the basis of spectral information derived from multispectral, multiresolution

and multitemporal satellite data over 1990-2007 period as well as numerical simula-

tions by the regional climate model RegCM3.

Key words: climate and anthropogenic changes, forest systems, environmental im-

pact, satellite remote sensing, biogeophysical parameters

Authors. Maria Zoran - National Institute of R&D for Optoelectronics, Satellite

Remote Sensing Department, Bucharest, Măgurele, Romania; Mihaela Caian -

National Meteorological Administration, Bucharest, Romania.



152

Introduction

Environmental pollution and its consequences such as climate change, ozone depletion, land

vegetation cover degradation, provides a framework for future research strategies in the frame

of international cooperation, involving scientists, research agencies and policy-makers on the

necessary measures to be taken at the interface of the Kyoto and the Montreal Protocols. Forest protection represents one of the most important aim involving practical aspects of pest prevention

and control, as well as aspects of fundamental and applicative scientific research to find the best

solutions for maintaining the appropriate fitosanitary condition of the national public forest area

in Romania. Changes in the atmospheric abundance of greenhouse gases and aerosols, in solar

radiation and in land surface properties alter the energy balance of the climate system. These

changes are expressed in terms of radiative forcing, which is used to compare how a range of

human and natural factors drive warming or cooling influences on global climate (IPCC 2007).

Climate changes can be initiated by external factors forcing the climate system. These climate

forcing include natural factors such as changes in energy flux from the sun, variations in the

Earth’s orbit, and volcanic eruptions, as well as human activities, such as production of greenhouse

gases and aerosols and modification of the land surface. Over the next century it is likely that

forcing of the climate system by human activities will greatly exceed changes in forcing caused

by natural events. Processes in the climate system that can either amplify or damp the system’s

response to changed forcing are known as feedbacks. According to estimates generated by current

climate models, more than half of the warming expected in response to human activities will

arise from feedback mechanisms internal to the climate system, and less than half will be a

direct response to external factors that directly force changes in the climate system (NRC 2001).

Moreover, a substantial part of the uncertainty in projections of future climates is attributed to

inadequate understanding of feedback processes internal to the natural climate system (IPCC

2001).Therefore, it is of central importance to understand, model, and monitor climate changes

as well as feedback processes.

Biogeophysical information from satellite data

Quantitative remote sensing involves the forecasting of in situ quantities based on remote

measurements of radiation. This prediction task relies on a model (either statistical or physically

based) relating remote and in situ measurements. In remote sensing data analysis, the estimation

of biophysical parameters is of special relevance in order to understand better the environment

dynamics at local and global scales. So, remotely sensed images can be used to estimate forest

parameters: defoliation, biomass, leaf area index, water content, pollution, and chlorophyll

concentration.In order to relate the image acquired by the satellite sensor to biophysical parameters, model-

based estimation algorithms are commonly used. Two different approaches can be considered. In

physical modeling, predefined direct models of the estimated biophysical parameters are adopted.

These models are designed to account for all parameters affecting the radiometric characteristics

of the remote sensing data, such as atmospheric conditions, sun angle, sensor gain and offset,

and viewing geometry. In empirical modeling, regression techniques are commonly developed.

These techniques relate the remotely sensed data with the investigated biophysical parameter

according to interpolation methods applied over a training set constituted by pairs of in situ

measurements and collected radiances.

Forest vegetation land cover can be mapped directly at

different scales from the apparent brightness measured by satellite imagery in several spectral

bands. The reflectance ( ρ ) from satellite images is:



153

(1)

where: Lsat = spectral radiance at satellite, Ld = upwelling atmospheric radiance , vτ = atmospheric

transmittance along the target–sensor path, z

τ = atmospheric transmittance along the sun–target

path, Eo = exoatmospheric solar spectral irradiance, cos θ = cosine of the solar zenith angle,

and Ed = scattered downwelling spectral irradiance. Some of these variables can be derived

from satellite images themselves or from published data (Moran et al. 1992). A more realistic

interpretation of path transmittances would be to assume a Rayleigh scattering atmosphere, with

zτ andvτ

defined as:

and vvr e θτ τ

cos/−

= (2)

Optical thickness for such an atmosphere is defined as:

(3)

where λ is wavelength, Ed is calculated for a Rayleigh atmosphere from the radiative transfer

code (RTC) 6S (Song et al. 2001). While optical bands of satellite sensors are very useful for

assessment of forest vegetation cover health and seasonal changes, thermal infrared bands are

providing information regarding forest system dynamics.

The assessment of biophysical parameters via the analysis of remote sensing data for forested

areas plays a fundamental role for estimation of: biomass concentration and soil moisture

content, which represents a key parameter in environmental studies characterized by the soil–

vegetation–atmosphere system. Forest cover dynamics is studied by means of vegetation indices

(VIs) developed based on combinations of two or more spectral bands, using radiance, surface

reflectance (r ), or apparent reflectance (measured at the top of the atmosphere) values in the red

(R), and the near infrared ( NIR) spectral bands . This study used NDVI expressed as:

(4)

The ability to translate anthropogenic and climatic changes and projected variations in climatic

conditions into forest ecosystem responses can provide valuable information to natural resource

managers. Synergy use of satellite remote sensing and ground based observations provide

information about the past or at best current conditions. Recent advances in climate forecasting

elicited strong interest in such sectors as forest biomass prediction. One of the key problems inadapting climate forecasts to natural ecosystems is the “memory” that these systems carry from

one season to the next (e.g. soil moisture, etc.). Simulation models are often the best tools to carry

forward the spatio-temporal ‘memory’ information. In order to estimate possible future states of

forest systems we need a system that integrates spectral/climatic models with frequent satellite

observations, which will allow us to determine vulnerabilities of different socio-economic and

forest resource systems, and help in mitigating potential impacts.

Study areas and data used

Prahova Valley test area is located in Southern Carpathian Mountains (45040’N-45038’N, 25065’E-

26031’E) (see Figure 1). Cernica, forest test area is placed in the North-Eastern part of Bucharestcit, Romania (see Figure 2).

The investigations were focused on the analysis of forest biophysical parameters and spatio-



154

temporal changes in relation with climatic and anthropogenic changes extracted from satellite

data: Landsat TM 12/04/1990 and 23/05/2000, and Landsat ETM+ 12/09/2004 as well as MODIS

TERRA and AQUA data for ten years period till September 2007 and IKONOS image 20/09/2004.

Data were digitally processed and classifieds with ENVI 4.5, and IDL 6.3 softwares.The images

were geometrically corrected to fit a topographic map with a scale of 1:50 000, on which vectors

were digitized for the subsequent geocoding of the satellite images.

Fig. 1 a) Prahova Valley forest test area; b) NDVI map on Landsat ETM+ 12/09/2004.

Fig. 2 a) N-E Bucharest forest test area on IKONOS image 20/09/2004 ; b) NDVI map

a b

a b



155

Methodology

The vegetation indices were calculated from Earth Observation satellite taking into account

jointly the features of vegetation responsible for reflection in various bands and combining this

information from several spectral bands. Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is well known and

widely used for vegetation monitoring on a global and local scale (Nackaerts et al. 2005).Weaknessof NDVI is its sensitivity to atmospheric effects. Thresholding based on biophysical variables

derived from time trajectories of satellite data is a new approach to classifying forest land cover

via remote sensing.The input data are composite values of the Normalized Difference Vegetation

Index (NDVI). Associated with these values are radiances in three thermal bands that are used to

estimate surface temperature. The classification algorithm accepts mean growing-season NDVI,

mean growing-season near-infrared radiance, NDVI amplitude and surface temperature as input

parameters for the composite NDVI and surface temperature data. The units recognized are broad

life-form vegetation classes, such as evergreen needle leaf forest, evergreen broadleaf forest,

shrubs etc. Classification accuracies are function of the class, comparison method and season of

the year. Our analysis indicates a potentially application of threshold techniques to land-cover

classification and changes analysis due to climatic effects for selected forest test areas.

Forest system change detection analysis requires: at least two independent data sets acquired

under different conditions; satellite data with different ground resolution; the position of the pixel

array has an important role and changes from image to image; even with high dynamics, land

and forest cover changes only occur in the space and time range of: per km, per year; for greater

periods of observation appear technical changes of sensors which may lead to differences in

image quality; the selection of data require frequently nearly the same seasonal date, which is not

always possible from different technical and economic reasons.

The primary tools to study climate changes are the coupled global (GCMs ), regional nested

models and the transient climate-change simulations obtained when those models are run with

projected anthropogenic forcing. Regional Climate Models (RCMs) offer a better understandingof feedbacks between climate and mountain forest systems for the assessment of climate change

and anthropogenic effects impacts. RegCM3 used in this study offers higher spatial resolution

allowing simulations for greater topographic complexity and finer-scale atmospheric dynamics,

very useful for regional impact studies. The climate quality simulated by regional models depends

on the internal dynamics and physics of the regional model and also on the quality of the driving

data at the lateral boundaries. In spite of the errors in climate models, climate-change signal is

usually evaluated as differences between future and current simulated climates and is based on

the assumption that systematic errors in the underlying model may partially cancel between the

current and future simulations.

Results

To evaluate the impacts of the management practice on biophysical properties of the forest

systems, a set of biophysical variables were estimated from Landsat TM and ETM+ and MODIS

data. The data included vegetation indices, surface broadband albedos. To study climatic and

anthropogenic impacts, several classifications of forest vegetation over tested areas have been

done. Image pairs of the same vegetation index, for subsequent years, were subtracted producing

continuous maps indicating areas of change. Statistical analysis was carried out to see if there

is a correlation between the two sets of output. The analysis of different classifications over

selected test area have shown forest changes due to high levels of atmospheric pollution mainly

close of main road traf fic and some local industries, air masses dynamics at local and regional

level as well as due to deforestation for land-use conversion, insect and disease epidemics. This



157

suggested that due to deforestation in some areas precipitation decreased in the intra-forest areas

and slight increased in the deforested areas (total water soil content increases leading to increased

evaporation). Another analysis referred at climate change impact on micro-climate as well as for

air pollution effects modelling at regional scale in the both forest test areas. Romanian mountain

and periurban forest systems are under continuous influence of characteristic meteorological-

climatic fluctuations of continental climate.

Periodically, are registered dry or excessive dry seasons during summer with serious impact on

existent forests vitality and more over new plantations and forest regeneration process in progress.

For long dry seasons there are several high risks like: forest fire and insects mass multiplication.

For management and decision making is important to be done medium and long term changes

forecasting.

Conclusion

Multifunctional role of forest is revealed by: short and long-term responses and reactions toa fast changing environment. Long-term monitoring systems of ecosystems and landscapes is

developing (as a combination of intensive and in-situ observations and more global techniques,

e.g. remote sensing). Satellite remote sensing represents an important investigation tool of forest

cover monitoring at regional, national, and global scales, based on building spectral databases,

global large datasets, refining validation, calibration procedures in multi-source, multi-temporal

environment. Regional Climate Models (RCMs) offer a better understanding of feedbacks between

climate and mountain forest systems for the assessment of climate change and anthropogenic

effects impacts. The accelerating impact of the available enabling technologies is very important

in Earth’s features extraction, interpretation by digital image processing, pattern recognition and

features identification.

Fig. 4 Difference radiative forcing (Forest–NoForest)

for N-E Bucharest forest, 1-11/07/2006



158

References

IPCC 2001. Climate Change 2001. IPCC [Houghton, J.T.,Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J.van der

Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, and C.A. Johnson (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and NY,

Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 112-116.

IPCC 2007. Climate Change 2007, The Physical Science Basis. Paris, February 2007, pp. 18.

Moran, M.S, Jackson, R.D., Slater, P.N., Teillet, P.M. 1992. Evaluation of simplified procedures for retrieval

of land surface reflectance, factors from satellite sensor output , Remote Sensing of Environment 41: 169-

184.

NRC 2001. Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions. Committee on the Science of

Climate Change, NRC, Academy Press, Washington, pp. 24-25.

Nackaerts, K., Vaesen, K., Muys, B., Coppin, P. 2005. Comparative performance of a modified change

vector analysis in forest change detection. Int. J. Remote Sensing 26(5): 839-852.

Song, Woodcock, C.E., Seto, K.C., Pax-Lenney, M., Macomber, S.A. 2001. Classification and change

detection using Landsat TM data: when and how to correct atmospheric effects. Remote Sensing of

Environment 75: 230-244.



159


Bucharest, Romania

Aspects regarding the use of digital orthophotomaps

in forest cadastre

I. Vorovencii

Vorovencii I. 2009. Aspects regarding the use of digital orthophotomaps in forest

cadastre. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the confer-

ence “Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bu-

charest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 159-168.

Abstract. In this paper are presented aspects regarding the use of digital ortho-

photomaps in forest cadastre, especially for the mountains zones where these

pieces, like product of photogrammetry, are not specific. There were used the

orthophotomaps drown up for Romanian Paying and Intervention Agency for

Agriculture (RPIAA), georeferenced in the “Stereografic 1970” reference system

and which cover the parts of forest found of Braşov district considered to be rep-

resentative from different points of view. In this sense, it was analysed the kind

of acquisition of data for drown up the orthophotomaps, the conditions for docu-

ment obtaining, the indices used for estimation the value of the orthophotomaps

and the factors which infl

uence their quality. For comparison, the researcheszones were measured by topographic survey using the total station Trimble M3,

in the end drown up of the plans. With a view to assure a base of comparison,

the measuring was taken in national geodesic network by the points which was

determined by GPS technique and the points determined by back intersection.

Taken into account the digital format of this, it was established that utilisation

of orthophotomaps in forest cadastre offers both advantages and disadvantages.

Between advantages can be mentioned: the digital format which allows to work

at different scale without another flight, the easiness in exploitation and the uti-

lization in forest found without special problems. Inadition, these can be used in

periodical checkings because there are put in evidence the changing appeared in

time. Between disadvantages can be mentioned: part of these have a poor quality

and in many of cases there are the difference between this and the classic topo-

graphic survey at the borders of property where the shadowing is present andare necessary the topographic survey; the orthophotomaps aren’t a standardised

product four mountain zones, these being a resultant of technique which is at

disposition, and can comply with the requirements of different utilization but

they can be proved unusable for other.

Key words: digital orthophotomaps, photogrammetry, forest cadastre, accuracy,

boundary

Author. Iosif Vorovencii - Transylvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Silvicul-

ture and Forest Engineering, Şirul Beethoven St. 1, 500123 Braşov, Romania.



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Introduction

The orthophotomap is a photogrammetric scale product consisting of a picture or a series of aerial

images in which the displacements caused by the scale, differences in level and orientation of

airphotogrammetric camera have been removed or reduced. Orthophotomaps contain rich visual

information, like an aerial photo and they present the geometric characteristics of a landmark plan. These can be played in an analog form, like photogrammes, sometimes including level

curves and information on the grid or other specific details of plans. They are prepared in a

standardized format (Vorovencii 2005). In a digital form, the ortophotomaps can be used in the

interpretation, metric measurements, checking the quality or combined with a vector data as

backup for geographical information systems or CAD models. Orthophotomaps drawing is done

on the basis of projects that typically consist of blocks of aerial photographs that have been

both corrected and inlaid using the digital photogrammetric stations. Today, orthophotomaps are

generated in a digital context. The image is adjusted on the base of the orthogonal projection by

processing each individual pixel using photogrammetric calculations which are derived from

the identification of land control points, calibration of airphotogrammetric camera and from the

digital terrain model (Vorovencii & Pădure 2005).

Production of digital orthophotomaps proves to have a greater flexibility than the analog

techniques if we take into account the main advantages of the processing techniques of digital

image. Getting these pieces is an automated operation, the flow of technology including the

following steps: making topographic survey, scanning the analog photogrammes, making air

triangulation, obtaining the digital terrain model and inlaying the images. During the performance

of certain steps it may occur some problems related to the automatic inlay, radiometric treatment

or in the way of working with data in the production. The creation of digital orthophotomaps is

not an easy task if we take into account the hundreds or thousands of aerial images as data entry

and the diverse requirements of customers and users (Lillesland & Kiefer 1987, 1994).

The mapping land based on digital orthophotomaps is a relatively new method used in somecountries since 1993. Starting with the 29th of January 2007, in our country The National

Agency for Cadastre and Estate Advertising (N.A.C.E.A.) has introduced mandatory to integrate

topographic measurements in the “Stereographic 1970” projection system which means that any

work done, including those from the forest fund must be placed in the system. In this sense, the

works undertaken are verified using the digital orthophotomaps prepared for The Agency for

Payments and Intervention for Agriculture (A.P.I.A.).

The main purpose of this paper is to analyze digital orthophotomaps (prepared for A.P.I.A.) in

order to determine whether these pieces ensure (in particular) adequate precision for the use in

forestry cadastre. The orthophotomaps are not yet standardized as products that support mountain

area maps. Besides accuracy were analyzed other elements specific for orthophotomaps that mayinfluence the quality of determination of certain data in forest fund cadastre such as setting limits

with other owners, the land area, the establishment of the categories of use, other issues such

as the comparison of digital orthophotomaps with the main plans used as a spatial map in the

forest planning etc. Basically, this is the essence of this article because the digital orthophotomap

is based on a similar technique but using the digital terrain model as a support to highlight the

differences in level. Due to this view, the digital orthophotomaps were examined giving a special

attention to the topographic land raisings because they were given as reference in determining the

orthophotomaps’ accuracy.

Instruments and methods

Place research has considered several areas that were seen as representative in line with the



161

purpose. Thus, topographic measurements were made in Poiana Braşov, at the edge of the

forest fund and built on about 300 hectares, in the “Valea Cetăţii” neighborhood by “Noua”

neighborhood, at the edge of the Brasov city’s built on about 250 hectares and in the “Scheii

Braşovului” neighborhood in the place called “După Gr ădini” on an area of about 50 hectares.

In the first two cases the raisings have completed with plans that define the site and the building

property, including details about plan-metric bordering (roads, fences, buildings etc.). In the thirdcase it has drawn up a comprehensive plan event which included 4500 points, including altimetry.

The topographical raising from the “După Gr ădini” place did not take place in the forest but

in city’s built. The slope land in plan is limitary to the forest fund, which allowed tracing the

limits and at the same time pursuing the obvious details of the discovered land in order to make

comparisons. The slope land in plan varies from 10-20°, in the case of the topographic survey

from “Valea Cetăţii”, to 30-40° in the other two cases.

The materials used are digital orthophotomaps made for A.P.I.A., georeferenced in the

“Stereographic 1970” projection system and which covers portions of the forest fund of the

county of Braşov which are considered to be representative from many points of view of the goal.

These were purchased in the tiff format from The Of fice for Cadastre and Estate Advertising

Braşov (O.C.E.A.).

The features of the digital orthophotomaps that were used are: 1: 5000 scale, 0.5 meters pixel

resolution, they are colored and provide ± 1.5 meters accuracy. These are based on aerial images

that were acquired between 2002-2005 through seven different airphotogrammetric projects

(Table 1 and Fig. 1-2) (Gacichevici 2006). Their analysis was done with the Erdas Imagine v. 8.7,

Leica LPS, Terra Model, Intelicad and AutoCad Land programs.

In terms of percentage of coverage with orthophotomaps for Romania, this is about 98.8%

of which about 97.0% are images that correspond to quality and about 1.8% were returned for

quality problems. From that 1.8% some of them were remade and others were entirely recreated

and processed. For the remaining percentage of 1.2% the images are missing.

The methods used in this paper are observation, analysis and specific methods of photogrammetric(Rusu 1978, 1988, Chiţea et al. 2003) and topography (Vorovencii 2006, Boş & Iacobescu

2007).

Ground measurements were made with the Trimble M3 total station which allows measurement

of angles with a 3 seconds accuracy and distance with accuracy of ± (3 + 2 ppm x D) mm for

temperatures in the range (-10°C to +40°C) and ± (3 + 3 ppm x D) mm where the temperature

ranges (-20°C to -10°C) and (+40°C to +50°C).

The projection system used is “Stereographic 1970”, the orthophotomaps being georeferenced in

this system, thus looking to ensure the same basis of comparison in the pursuit of orthophotomaps’

precision. In this sense, the points used in the inclusion for the national system of projection were

determined by GPS technology, and where it was not possible, were made Pothenot intersectionin order to determine the points’ coordinates. The materialization of points on land is made trough

concrete borne, the landmark being materialized by a bolt of iron.

The topographic surveys were performed using the traverse method in combination with the

radiated method. The control of these methods has been made by creating closed traverses on

the starting point (Poiana Braşov and partly “După Gr ădini”) or by making traverses supported

at the end by coordinated points which are known and with visa guidance taken in both ends

(“După Gr ădini” and “Valea Cetăţii”). The end of traverses are part of the Braşov’s thickness

and they are determined by GPS technology. Their coordinates are of ficial, they exist in Braşov’s

O.C.P.I. database. In the case of the topographic survey from “După Gr ădini” place, which was

much more complex, have been made secondary (cross) traverses supported on the main traverse

(fig. 3). During the creation of traverse, where was possible and were was visibility to other

known and indicated points by the geodetic support network, there have led visas to these points

in order to ensure an intermediate control. Some station points from the way were determined



162

also by Pothenot intersection (“După Gr ădini”). For these points there were obtained closely

coordination (± 2-5 cm) and it was taken into account the average of these values. The calculation

and compensation of topographical survey were made depending on their type: closed or

supported. It was used the Terra Model software in which the permitted tolerances for measuring

the distances and zenital angles for the return visa have been established from the beginning.

The non-closings on coordinates were included in the permitted tolerances. Therefore, no other

reference in the pursuit of digital orthophotomaps precision was given special importance to the

topographic raising lands which constituted the only basis for comparison.

Results and disscution

The orthophotomaps’ quality is defined by parameters including the height of flight, analog

photogrammes scanning techniques, the geodetic control, the aerial triangulation, the digital terrain

Table 1 Situation of the flights effected for data acquisition for drown up the orthophotomaps

The firm which effected the flySurface

(km2)Time of fly The type of aerial camera

FIN MAP (Aero 03) 17000 March – May 2003Zeiss LMK 1015

Leica RC 30

MARMANET/OFEK (Aero 05) 23850 April – May 2004 Zeiss RMK TOP 15

EUROSENSE (Aero 05) 21575 April – September 2004 Leica RC 30

EADS/BLOOM 8000 April – May 2004 Leica RC 30

EUROSENSE (Aero 05) 27700 May – September 2005 Leica RC 30

KLM (Aero 07) 44700 May – Septembre 2005

Zeiss LMK 1000

Sistem 1000

Zeiss LC 1015

GEODIS (Aero 07) 34880 May – September 2005

RMK TOP 15

Z/I Imaging DMC

Pancromatic

OFEK (Aero 07) 62430 May – August 2005 RMK TOP 15

Total 240135

Fig. 1 Flight status 2003-2005 (Gacichevici 2006)



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model and the way of generating the orthophotomaps (Kiss & Vorovencii 2000, Chiţea & Kiss

2001). Since the detailed elements of these parameters are unknown, the digital orthophotomaps

used in this paper have been studied using the existing resources, such as analysis, comparison

and, in particular, with topographic survey.

The way of purchasing the data took into account the type of equipment that was used. Thus,

the photogrammes were taken with airphotogrammetric cameras appropriate to the analog ones

and after that they have been scanned to be converted into digital format. The fact that flights were

made in several projects of different companies has led to the obtaining of orthophotomaps of

different qualities. Regarded throughout the country, they present a very heterogeneous situation

due to the scattered covering on the project and to the images of different qualities. The fact that these orthophotomaps became of ficial, because they exist in N.A.C.E.A.’s database

ANCPI, leads to an analysis in terms of forest fund cadastre as work performed in the sector can

Fig. 2 Situation of the country cover with flights in 2005 year (Gacichevici 2006)

Fig. 3 Scheme of topographic survey – The place “După Gr ădini”



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be verified through these digital products. Therefore, the forestry sector is directly interested in

using current and future generations of orthophotomaps because, compared with the basic plans

at a 1: 5000 scale achieved in the years 1970-1975, orthophotomaps are based on images taken in

recent years. The issue that is raised is, in essence, if these products meet the requirements of the

forestry sector, particularly those of forest cadastre, in various ways such as accuracy and other

issues concerning the identifi

cation and delineation of cadastral land parcels, highlighting thelimits with other owners, defining the categories of service, determination of areas, parcels and

subparcels etc. All these are taking into account that a high percentage of forest area is found in

mountain where the ortophotomap is not specific.

The accuracy provided by digital orthophotomaps is perhaps the most important aspect to be

taken into account. It represents the determinant factor in the use of these pieces in some areas

including forest fund cadastre. The importance lies in the fact that digital orthophotomaps being

georeferencial in the “Stereographic 1970” system, it is necessary to know the limits to where

these photogrammetric products can be used.

According to technical specifications, digital orthophotomaps should provide an accuracy

of ± 1.5 meters. Starting here it has sought to establish whether these values are provided in the

inclined land and very inclined and if they are suf ficient for forest fund cadastre. In this sense, it

tried to find the position of the most easily identifiable details on the ortophotomap, details which

were determined on the field by topographic measurements, followed by their overlapping. The

election of details was conditioned by the possibility of identifying them on the ortophotomap

and by determining the position by measuring the land. Because in the inside of the forest fund

the non-existence of the clearly identified details causes problems, there were used details from

the vicinity of the forest fund

Differences in the positioning of the same depth offield which was recorded on the ortophotomap,

unlike the of ficial ones, generally appear where the quality of images that were used to obtain

orthophotomaps was poor or there was not enough attention given to the image processing or

where the digital terrain model shows some errors etc. Given the circumstances presented, itwas found that these differences are, in some places, quite large, which includes the granting of

an increased emphasis in the way of using such parts for each case. In some cases the accuracy

referred to these digital products (± 1.5 m) is much lower the and difference is even ± 4-5 meters.

This result was reached after the overlapping of the topographic surveys on orthophotomaps or

after some of the limit details materialized on the ground through obvious fences, construction,

etc., raised in the terrestrial and quite clear on the orthophotomaps, appeared displaced by about

4-5 meters. Even large differences in position could be seen in the lands with a pronounced

fragmentation and in those where the digital model used as a basis for achieving orthophotomaps

did not clearly present the microrelief.

The establishment of forest’s fund limits with the lands belonging to other specializedcadastres or private owners is a major task of forest fund cadastre because in the realization of

this cadastre the operation starts from the delimitation of other specialized cadastres. Also, most

litigations in these conditions when private ownership of forests has been widespread, start form

the unrecognizing of borders. In this sense, the use of digital orthophotomaps may be, in some

cases, a way of verifying the establishment of limits and tracking the changes. As in the case of

analogical aerial photogrammes here are, also, a number of problems in setting limits. Among the

most important factors affecting their establishment are the trees’ shade from the forest, the land

tilting that could mask parts of or all of the side slope, the existence of coppice on certain limits

such as land for hunting food, nurseries, expansion of limits of the forest fund by the emergence

of a new brush which is in various stages of development etc. This last issue was referred from

measurements made in “După Gr ădini” place where the forest’s limit has spread and where the

establishment of forest using orthophotomaps is very dif ficult, if not impossible. Such a situation

can be generalized, particularly when the sapling-covered finds a shelter and conditions to live at



166

fact that the points used as land reparation in preparing the basic plans and those used for the

georeferention of aerial digital images used in the preparation of orthophotomaps have not been

determined with the same precision.

From a qualitative point of view, it was found that not all the images that formed the basis of

creation of orthophotomaps were appropriate. In this sense were met orthophotomaps obtained

on the basis of some photogrammes which present the brush recorded more as a side view ratherthan as a central projection (Fig. 4).

This issue has been brought no only in areas where the determinations presented in the paper

have been measured but also on other orthophotomaps. It was seen that the phenomenon is much

stronger as the picture becomes more of a side view. Moreover, on the same ortophotomap are

encountered situations where crowns are facing different directions fact that arises problems in

getting the information by using it. In the cases found at the edge of forest, it is very dif ficult to set

limits with other properties because the projection of crowns is not perpendicular to the ground.

Conclusions

The issues addressed in the paper were to analyze the possible use of the digital orthophotomaps

in the forest fund cadastre. Basically, it went the way of making them, but because it was not

enough information (orthophotomaps being made by various companies) there were used different

methods to analyze the accuracy, such as topographic land measurements. There were treated

issues related to the establishment of items included in the definition of specific land parcels

which are typically for such a cadastre.

Benefits of using the digital cadastre orthophotomaps forest are obvious: they can be obtained

quickly, it creates large pictures, they may be used as primary sources of information to the

produce of returned plans or to regulate the existing ones, they present georeferential and

complete information for documentation purposes, they can be used to make summary checking

regarding the topographic survey, the scale can be easily changed, easy integration into geographicinformation systems and they have a relatively low cost due to the highly degree of automation.

Furthermore, the regulation of orthophotomaps can be achieved quite easily if the land area has

no major changes and the digital terrain model must be updated only in certain places. If the

necessary information must be under the form of a vector, it can be extracted immediately. The

Fig. 4 Portion from ortophotomap with poor quality



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possibility is of great interest if the requirements on accuracy are not major and if the problem

needs special knowledge for interpretation that cannot be a joint by a photogrammetric operator.

The specified accuracy for the digital orthophotomaps (± 1.5 m) was found to be respected,

in general, even if the orthophotomaps that were analyzed are from the mountain area where

these photogrammetric products are not common. This result was reached after the completion of

land topographic measurements on several areas (totaling about 600 hectares) were made. Therewere obtained situation plans and plans for site and of delimitation of the ownership bodies that

overlapped over the digital orthophotomaps all of them being located in the “Stereographic 1970”

system projection. To verify the accuracy of orthophotomaps there were determined the details

that were outside the forest. So the measured is not necessarily to be made in the forest fund, but it

is necessary that the ortophotomap to be prepared for an inclined area. As such, in order to follow

the precision provided by orthophotomaps on a inclined land or very inclined is indicated to use

orthophotomaps that include already discovered lands because there can be clearly identified the

details measured by land and then compared their positions. Tracking other targets on the use of

orthophotomaps in the forest fund cadastre, other than how to ensure accuracy in a tilted land,

was made taking into account the topographic arising made in the forest fund.

In terms of accuracy, digital orthophotomaps can be used in the forest fund cadastre as long as

the works that are used allow this. The use of such digital photogrammetric products at a 1: 5000

scale, whose specified accuracy is ± 1.5 meters and which in most cases is respected except when

were used photogrammes of low quality, it has to be always reported to the time when it was

used. The works must be reported to the respective periods, too. This has to be noted since these

orthophotomaps will be replaced with others. A part of the country will be covered with aerial

images at a 1: 5000 scale which will probably include the forest fund. The in built will be made

at scales of 1: 1000 and 1: 2000. It should be noted that these are the first digital orthophotomaps

made at the level of our country and, like any product that is perfectible preparation of a new

generation of orthophotomaps in the near future will require the achievement of some superior

products in terms of quality and insurance of accuracy. So, between the first generation of digitalorthophotomaps and the second will probably be differences as there are between the current

basic and the present digital orthophotomaps.

Because the ortophotomap is not a specific photogrammetric mountain areas product, with a

tilted relief, their evaluation was done by measurements made by land. Then they were compared

by overlapping with the informational content of digital orthophotomaps. All issues related to

accuracy’s precision presented in this article are references made at the use of orthophotomaps in

mountain areas where this product is not representative. In the case of horizontal and plane lands

these pieces can be used without reservation because the level differences are very small and the

influence of the relief has no importance.

Establishing the category of use using digital orthophotomaps in the forest cadastre doesnot pose major problems because in the inside the area is generally covered with forest. Some

problems may arise where, because of the forests crumbling, the owners of private forest, private

meadows or pastures appear or where you must pay special attention in determining the limits of

the categories of service.

The determination of areas using the digital ortophotomaps can be done easily as long as the

land parcels have been established. Although they are made on slope areas of land or on heavily

sloped ones, the surface can be determined taking into account the limit of the percentage of ± 2%

according to the technical N.A.C.E.A. rules.

The purpose for which these digital orthophotomaps were created should not be neglected.

Mainly, these photogrammetric products have not been completed for cartographic purposes but

with the purpose of identifying the lands used by different owners. Due to the way of working with

them and probably due to the less cost (the money were received from the European Community),

the orthophotomaps are used by several sectors that have specialized cadastre. Because the forest



168

fund cadastre is a specialized one and because its achievement is conditioned by the achievement

of general cadastre and by the connection with the specialized border cadastres, we have to bear

in our minds that while N.A.C.E.A. believes that these products are appropriate in several ways,

they can be used also in forest’s domain. It should also be noted the fact that these were and

are used by N.A.C.E.A. for summary paper checks, particularly where, for certain territorial

administrative units, there are no measurements in the database. If it is drawing up a newgeneration of orthophotomaps mainly with cartographic purposes, they will certainly have a high

accuracy that the current orthophotomaps.

In conclusion, the issues discussed in this article were the checking of precision of digital

orthophotomaps taken into the mountains and the examination of the possibilities of using these

products in the establishment of certain elements necessary for the forest fund cadastre. By

tracking the ensurence of accuracy, practically, I wanted to see whether the digital orthophotomaps

comply, across their way, the orthogonal projection as in the case of the orthophotomaps obtained

using the means of analogical photogrammetry that were recovered on tapes.

References

Bos, N., Iacobescu, O. 2007. Topografie modernă. Editura C.H. Beck, 542 p.

Chitea, Gh., Kiss, A. 2001. Cadastru general şi forestier. Editura Universităţii “Transilvania” din Braşov,

224 p.

Chitea, Gh., Kiss, A., Vorovencii, I. 2003. Fotogrametrie şi teledetecţie. Editura Universităţii “Transilvania”

din Braşov, 230 p.

Gacichevici, S. 2006. Status of LPIS in Romania. Status of LPIS Implementation Workshop, Ispra, 16-17

Octomber.

Kiss, A., Vorovencii, I. 2000. Fotogrametrie. Universitatea “Transilvania” din Braşov, 116 p.

Lillesland, T.M., Kiefer, R.W., 1987. Remote sensing and image interpretation, 2nd edn. Wiley and Sons,

New York, pp. 112-210.

Lillesand, T., Kiefer, R. 1994. Remote sensing and image interpretation. Third edition. Editura John Wiley& Sons, Inc. SUA, pp. 50-78.

Rusu, A. 1978. Fotogrametrie forestier ă. Editura Ceres, 282 p.

Rusu, A. 1988. Fotografia aeriană şi teledetecţia în economia forestier ă. Editura Ceres Bucureşti, 197 p.

Vorovencii, I. 2005. Cercetări privind posibilităţile de utilizare a imaginilor satelitare în lucr ările de

amenajarea pădurilor. Teză de doctorat. Universitatea “Transilvania” din Braşov, 304 p.

Vorovencii, I. 2005. Noi perspective ale utilizării înregistr ărilor de teledetecţie în lucr ările de amenajarea

pădurilor. In: Silvobiologie Vol. 4B – Amenajarea pădurilor la începutul mileniului al III-lea. Editura

Academiei Române, pp. 324-330.

Vorovencii, I., Pădure, I. 2005. Exploatarea modelului digital al terenului în cadastrul forestier. Lucr ări

prezentate la Simpozionul de măsur ători terestre şi cadastru: “50 de ani de învăţământ geodezic superior

civil din Bucureşti; 15 ani de la reînfiinţarea Facultăţii de Geodezie”. Bucureşti 17-18 noiembrie 2005.

Revista de Geodezie, Cartografie şi Cadastru – volumul 14 anul 2005, nr. 1-2, pp. 344-355.

Vorovencii, I. 2006. Topografie. Editura Universităţii “Transilvania” din Braşov, 364 p.



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Bucharest, Romania

Integrated forest planning and management system:

pathway to the future in Romania?

E. Iordache, M. Petrila

Iordache E., Petrila M. 2009. Integrated forest planning and management system:

pathway to the future in Romania? In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.),

Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“,


pp. 169-176.

Abstract. Forests are dynamic systems. They constantly evolve and change through

time in response to both internal and external forces. It is necessary to have a clear

understanding of forest conditions at a particular point in time. To better know the

changes occurring in forests helps to conceive appropriate management plans and

helps to the implementation of the actions prescribed in these plans. The Integrated

Forest Planning System is recommended to be used by Forest Research Units. A

GIS could answer to the needs of information about the geographic situation of an

object of study, its characteristics, its status, the analysis of its development trends,

about evaluation and modeling. The nal result of the work is a database in GIS

environment including the following main components: administrative subdivisions;

forest fund (forest management plan, game breeding plan); property; road network;

hydrographic network and watershed basins; forests (tree species composition, age

classes and forest treatment); territories having special functions and purposes and

limitation regimes; topographic map; relief digital model, satellite images; conict

zones and specic objects. Thematic maps, tables, charts etc. are developed.

Key words: map base, thematic maps, cartographical appendices to GIS, forest plan-

ning, multifunctional management.

Authors. Eugen Iordache - Transylvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Silvi -

culture and Forest Engineering, Şirul Beethoven St. 1, 500123 - Braşov, Romania,

Marius Petrila - Forest Research and Management Institute, Bucharest, Romania.

Introduction

The Integrated Forest Planning System (IFPS) is a spatially-based modelling system consisting of

several computer applications linked together through a common database (Lau et al. 1994).

The system follows a “tool kit” approach, permitting the basic building blocks to be quickly tted

with new models and components according to the needs and objectives of the analysis. Such an

approach has proven that it can be practical and benecial. The main benets are the relatively

low costs and the exibility of adapting the system to new applications and analyses.

IFPS uses spatial and non-spatial data stored in a database to evaluate a range of alternativemanagement options. IFPS is used to describe and analyse forest resources such as timber, water,

wildlife, conservation, and recreation. It enables us to look at interactions between these values,



170

to evaluate alternative management options, to optimize immediate and long term benets and to

determine the impacts of various management decisions through time.

This system offers forest planners a structured approach to manage forests. It provides a

scientic basis to: (i) forecast sustainable timber yields; (ii) analyse impacts of forest harvesting

on water; and (iii) monitor changes in forest estates over time.

Alternative management options and different scenarios can be evaluated by providing answersto “What if?” questions. This way, the probability to reach the objectives of an ecologically-based

forest management is enhanced.

IFPS offers many advantages in relation to forest planning and management (Sutton 1998),

namely: (i) Identity and spatial location of each forest land unit is maintained as it is modelled

over time; (ii) Inputs to and outputs from the system can be readily displayed on the computer

screen or as printed maps; (iii) IFPS is a useful strategic or long-term forest management planning

tool; (iv) Outputs from IFPS can be used at the regional and local levels for short term and

operational planning; (v) IFPS enables to evaluate options for management and scheduling of

various forest activities, by taking into account policy, environmental, social, economic and

operational considerations.

All the activities and stages of the development as well as the implementation of the forest

management plans are more effective when appropriate graphic and attributive database are

established in GIS environment.

The Geographic Information System (GIS) is a powerful modern tool supporting the

development and presentation of forest management plans at all the stages (inventory, mapping,

activities planning) in the process of planning activities elaborated by State Forestry Enterprises,

municipal and non-state forestry structures.

Presenting detailed and multiple information in a form of thematic maps, charts, general

tables, analyses and visualization. During the development of the “Implementig GIS in Romanian

forests” project and during public discussions, workshops and other meetings, information about

territory and forests in a given object has been presented. The maps and data are usually readableand understandable for a limited number of specialists, aware with the peculiarities of forest

cadastres.

Presenting data about the object of study in a GIS environment enables the different participants

in the process to easily understand the information. It permits to shorten the time necessary during

discussions to spot conict points, to foresee the future ones and to delineate current and future

problems. It also facilitates the adequate and fruitful participation of potential stakeholders,

interested in the multifunctional forest management. It contributes to a maximum of transparency

and makes the forest policy implemented by the responsible administration to be well understood,

so as the condence of the participants increases.

Integration of data of different type and from different sources. In the framework of

multifunctional forest management appears the need of additional specialized information about

forest territories and adjacent zones. During the starting period of implementing GIS it is not

possible to clearly know which information will be necessary. Therefore all the data available

about one territory are collected and integrated in common models and databases.

Performing spatial analyses and revealing relationships and tends. One of the most important

tasks of GIS technology is to answer to questions, to help trends revelation and delineation in

forest development and to obtain new types of quality information regarding one territory.

Using the options of GIS for simulating of a “virtual forest”. The three-dimensional

presentation of the information attracts visual interest, and different processes are stimulated in

real time. GIS capacities are used to forecast and to project different objects and activities (routes,

cuttings, engineering infrastructure).Forest is a complex of resources and factors, which are dynamic along the time and are

interrelated. A correct preliminary assessment regarding potential disasters inside the forest status



171

(forest res, snow breaks, windfalls) and predicting “scenarios” as responses to different crisis

situations, could introduce a part of realism in the way of planning activities in multifunctional

forest management. Otherwise, some of these activities will be inadequate.

Technical tools and data

Hardware and software

An appropriate hardware with peripheral devices and a software are necessary to develop GIS

in multifunctional forest management. Microsoft Windows (98,2000,NT,XP) operation system,

with a minimum of 526MB RAM (for XP 1GB), 60GB HD, Pentium processor, CD-ROM and

specialized software (ArcGIS, MapInfo, Autodesk Map) are recommendable.

The primary database

The primary database for GIS development is putting together information about the object of

study in the current forest management plans and game management plans, digital models and

data from the municipal services, territorial development plans of the object of interest, available

cartographic materials, texts and numerical data, eld measurements results, aerial photographs

and photo-charts, ortho-photo-plans and satellite images, relief digital models.

The Regulation for forest land planning management and game land management in Romania

identies geodesic and photogrammetry methods as the basic ones in the development of forests

map background. A management plan is developed for every forest management unit on the

territory of the country, and forest thematic maps are substantial parts of its contents, together

with the data inventory regarding stands and activites planned therein.

Forest thematic maps are themselves situation maps on 1:10 000, 1:25 000 scales and smaller.

Their elaboration is based on topographic maps on М 1:5 000 and М 1:10 000 scales, ondigital models of land division plan, and on the maps of the restored property on forest lands,

geodesic eld measurements and other sources. They are updated every ten years by a new forest

management planning of the territory.

Information from State Forest enterprizes, Regional Forestry Directorates and from the

National Forestry Board. The main forest-related information, necessary for the development of

multifunctional forest management is taken from digital models of the forest management plan

and game management plan of the object of study and its attributive database developed in the

adopted standard formats.

The information supplied by state forestry institution is a source for: (i) obtaining information

regarding the spatial distribution of forest complexes, the borders among the properties of

different owners and users; (ii) determining the forest fund area and its subdivisions from the

point of view of forest and game management planning; (iii) linking the activities planned in

the multifunctional forest management of the area to the planning of forestry and engineering

activities; (iv) identifying territories with forest use limitation regimes (protected and protection

territories, water supply zones, water catchments, protected localities, natural sights, zones

restricted for grazing, zones restricted for collection of medicinal plants, mushrooms etc.); (v)

marking areas according to re risk, access to water basins, platforms for aviation techniques,

observation towers, tourist replaces; (vi) determining hunting areas, game habitats, zones for

game breeding, zones with restricted access, hunting routes, equipment, activities.

Data from the municipal administration. An important part of the general model development

of the object of study is the identication of the properties in the forest territory based on the lein a standard format: (i) digital map models of the restored property of the land in the object of

study; (ii) digital models of land division plans regarding the land in the object of study.



172

Data from aerial photographs and images: (i) new (or available in archive) aerial photographs

and ortho-photo-plans of the forest fund; (ii) new (or available in archive) satellite images.

Supporting data and materials. Additional information concerning the object during the

development of GIS is provided by different services and subdivisions of the local authorities,

unions and NGOs: (i) Municipal administration - data about municipal objects and areas of

responsibility (forests, waste deposits, single constructions out of regulation etc.), data from the“Ecology” municipality service with regard to the state of water, air and soil; (ii) Mayors and

mayor representatives - information about the objects of local importance, pastures; (iii) Regional

service for re control and public safety - data about re control activities and objects; (iv)

Regional service for environmental protection data about environmental pollution and ecological

problems, data about environment monitoring; (v) Hunting unions - data about the areas managed

by hunting unions; (vi) Tourist clubs - tourist routes, paths and sights around, recreation places,

camps, caves, rock-climbing objects, bicycle tracks, ski-tracks etc.; (vii) Regional road service;

(viii) Water service - water network and sewerage out of regulation, canals, water power stations

, dams, springs; (ix) National Energy Company – power lines, power distribution stations, zones

of responsibility of the National Energy Company; (x) Union of hoteliers and tour-operators -

objects (hotels, country houses, guest houses), services and sightseeing; (xi) Other stakeholders

- private forest owners, timber harvesting companies.

Development of GIS in Romanian forest

GIS could respond to the necessity to have data and information about the situation of an object,

its characteristics and status. Later on, after the developmental trends analysis, assessment and

modeling, of a new level of knowledge about the object is achieved.

Working project of GIS

Establishment of a working model and database

The object selected, Experimental Forest Service, is usually situated on the territory of one or

more settlement lands belonging to one or more municipalities. The primary les for graphics

with cadastral information (provided by cadastral units) are generated at settlement territory

level (layer cadastre), and the les of forest/game management plan (with the main area units -

management subunits) are collected at the level of management units (layer forest management).

The les of all the settlement territories are united and converted, so as to obtain a united model

for the management unit.

Some difculties appeared when the current forest management has been developed before

ownership restoration of forest lands. In such a case, a new layer was created (layer ownership).

This is necessary because the forest management operational units in the current plan are not

classied according to their ownership. According to the rules, there cannot be different ownership

within an elementary management unit. Therefore this information needs updating. This layer

contains the information about the ownership of forests and forest lands, according to the le

containing the map displaying restored ownership.

Thus, at this stage (Table 1) three main components of the graphical database are identied,

namely: (i) forests (forest management plan) - borders of the management operational units and

subunits in the management unit, administrative subdivision following forest management and

game management principles; (ii) cadastre of agricultural land - cadastral units; (iii) forest

cadastre - (a map of the restored ownership) - management operational subunits, classied byownership.

The general attributive database is obtained through converting and combining data of two



173

main levels: (i) cadastral units; (ii) management operational subunits.

Development of a common model of territory, activities and requirements

According to the objectives and tasks of multifunctional forest management, the main layersare set with surface elements: cadastre layer, forest management layer and ownership layer. For

a better visualization and to complete the maps, additional layers are developed containing the

Table 1 Stages of development of GIS proposed in the project

Stage Activities Results

Preliminary

investigations and

analysis

Analysis of the potential of ideas, information

available, particular topicsData in different formats

Presentation of GIS

technologies

Informing the participants in management andincreasing their awareness with the capacity

of GIS technologies.

Demonstration of GIS

software products

Tasks for GIS

development

Dening the parameters of GIS - objectives,

extent and contentsTasks list

Preliminary concept for

GIS

1. Development of a common model of

territory - data conversion in a unied format

Common model and

database

2. Presenting the list of the necessary

information for GIS developing Necessities list

3. Development of the matrix with therequirements

Matrix of requirements

4. Conicts identication and mappingDetailed and general maps

and information

Dynamic

implementation of GIS

1. Presentation of GIS during public

discussions - information tablesThematic maps, tables,

charts, analyses2. Logistic support to the workshops

3. Dening zones of “agreement” and conict

zones

Working project of GIS

1. Mapping affected territories; solving

conicts, achieving compromises

Working model and

database

2. Planning, designing and mapping the

activities taken into account in multifunctional

forest management

Implementation of GIS

1. Implementation of the nal variant of GISGeneral model and

database2. Implementation of partial models according

to the requirements dened in multifunctional

forest managementPartial models

3. Updating GIS

4. Development of the nal variant after the

public discussion and presentationFinal model and database

Providing information

service to users

1. Practically-oriented training about the ‘way

to work with GIS’ intended to be given to thestaff at local level

Short-term courses,

deposition of data in a nalvariant

2. Information service during the project

implementationPresentations

Maintaining GIS Monitoring and updating GIS



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following elements: (i) linear and surface object – situation elements of anthropogenic origin

(ordinary and forest roads, paths, cutting rides, fences, engineering constructions); borders of

open areas within the forest territory (meadows, pastures, cutting yards, windfalls, snow breaks,

red places, clearings); hydrography, skeletal lines of the relief (watershed lines and ridges) and

relief elements (rocky areas, screes etc.); (ii) inscriptions – numbers of cadastral units, operational

management units and subunits, area, names of settlements, adjacent administrative units,localities, hydrographic information, typical objects, out of frame inscriptions; (iii) conventional

signs – from topographic background, from forest thematic maps, specially designed conventional

signs refering to multifunctional forest management; (iv) horizontals (in a vector type); (v)

topographic background (in raster type); (vi) satellite images – transformed into the common

model coordinate system; (vii) three-dimensional model of the relief.

The main components of GIS, corresponding to the requirements dened, are: administrative

subdivision (counties, municipalities and lands); forest fund management plans (forest

subdivision, forestry sections, guarding sections, operational management units and subunits);

forest game fund management plans (game management subdivision into hunting sections and

hunting areas); ownership (according to the cadastral and forestry units); roads (main and forest

road network, routes); watershed basins (hydrographic network, borders of watersheds); forests

(tree species, composition, age classes and forest system); territories with special functions and

purposes; territories affected (conict zones, zones of particular attention); three-dimensional

models; satellite images.

Development of partial territory models according to the different requirements

in multifunctional forest management. According to the particular requirements set in

multifunctional forest management, new components of GIS are developed. They contain layers

representing samples and combinations of the layers developed in the working model, as well

as completely new layers. In each component of the system, data are arranged in respective

layers with linear, text and symbolic objects, as well as surface objects. To present graphically

and visualize the components related to the specic requirements of multifunctional forestmanagement, new layers including necessary surface and linear objects, conventional signs, text

and digital indications are created in the partial models. Appropriate scales and subdivisions can

be selected, together with the respective frame and out-of frame design for each sheet.

Conclusions

The development of integrated forest planning and management system is an obligatory element.

At the same time, the contents of multifunctional forest management should be incorporated

into the current and future regional plans. The results of multifunctional forest management are

presented to the higher organizations – County administration, RNP, MADR etc. In decision-

making, in discussions about regional plans and in implementing directives, the multifunctional

forest management decisions are of substantial importance. Therefore, GIS of multifunctional

forest management appears to be the single alternative in the management of the forest resources

to optimize the development and the effective implementation of integrated forest planning and

management system.

The main advantages provided by GIS for the optimization of integrated forest planning and

management system are: (i) establishment of new databases with spatial data about the respective

territory; (ii) exible visualization of the information and thematic mapping; (iii) management

of databases; (iv) numerical and spatial analysis and statistics; (v) development of graphical and

attributive databases, based on the new information and aimed at supporting decision-making

process.The effect of using GIS in the implementation of integrated forest planning and management

system could be expressed by: (i) a better understanding of the objectives of multifunctional forest



175

management; (ii) a denition of multifunctional forest management capacities and requirements;

(iii) a decreasing of the time needed to analyse conictual situations and to reach compromises;

(iv) an exclusive information service for the participants in multifunctional forest management;

(v) information service of the multifunctional forest management.

References

Lau, J.A., Vandenberg, W.G. Willig, R.U. 1994. Visual and Spatial Techniques in Multiple-Use Planning.

Resource Technology ‘94: New Opportunities Best Practice, University of Melbourne.

Lau, J.A., Vandenberg, W.G. Willig, R.U. 1999. Linking different scales of planning using an integrated

forest planning system approach in Victoria. Proceedings of the IUFRO Working Party S4.12.00 Workshop

on Assessment Methods of Forest Ecosystem Status andSustainability: Krasnoyarsk, Russia.

Sutton, M.W. 1998. What’s in the black box? Forest News.



176



177


Bucharest, Romania

Inventory of primary and secondary forest ways us-

ing GPS/GIS in Romanian mountainous forests

E. Iordache

Iordache E. 2009. Inventory of primary and secondary forest ways using GPS/GIS

in Romanian mountainous forests. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.),

Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a changing environment“,


pp. 177-182.

Abstract. The non-existence of a cadastre of primary (forest roads) and secondary

(strip roads and skid trails) forest ways represents a huge problem in planning for-

est communications in economic forests of Romania. It is also almost impossible to

carry out an intensive and rational management of forest ecosystems based on con-

tinuity and biodiversity principles, if we do not have a good insight into the existing

forest road infrastructure. This paper suggests contemporary methods of surveying

forest ways using GPS device Trimble GeoExplorer and the so-called return survey

method with differential correction. It also proposes to map this road network us-

ing an ArcGis programme package and previously established GIS of the area of

research. A forest ways classication system has also been suggested. Researches

have been carried out in Braşov forest county (Săcele forest district). A classical

and relative opening-up (through forest roads and strip roads) of the area of research

has been observed. These research works emphasized the advantages of forest ways

cadastre and GIS, both for forest opening-up and forest works planning, as well as

towards multi-disciplinary, comprehensive forestry.

Key words: forest road network , forest roads information system, cadastre, GIS,

GPS.

Author. Eugen Iordache - Transylvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Silviculture

and Forest Engineering, Şirul Beethoven St. 1, 500123 - Braşov, Romania.

Introduction

An appropriate accessibility has an important role in the concept of forest management. It is

realized through an adequately dense network of forest ways, among which forest roads represent

the basic skeleton. In Romania, there are 32082.6 km of forest roads implying an important

forest management and representing a kind of national wealth, which has to be adequately

kept and planned in an optimal way, at the same time respecting ecological and economical

considerations.

In the past, many forest areas do not have been well or sufciently opened, or do not have been

opened at all. The only way to successfully and efciently manage forests is the building of newways. To do this, we rstly have to know the number and distribution of the existing forest ways

and we consequently need a cadastre displaying them. Such a cadastre does not always exist, or



178

sometimes is incomplete, being unuseful in both cases.

The basic aims of this paper are dened as follows: (i) carrying out the full cadastre of primary

forest roads and reporting their drawing in a digital form on forest-economic maps, to the account

of Doftana, Management unit VI, Săcele forest district, Brasov forest county; (ii) carrying out

the full cadastre of secondary forest roads and reporting their drawing in a digital form on

forest-economic maps, to the account of certain departments of the same management unit; (iii)determining the classication criteria for a special category of forest roads and categorize these

roads; (iv) analysing secondary opening of special departments of Doftana management unit VI,

suggesting a methodology to elaborate a forest ways cadastre.

Materials and methods Area of research

The research was carried out in the area of Doftana Management unit VI, Săcele forest district,

Braşov forest county.

To survey forest roads we used GPS device - Trimble GPS Pathnder Pro XRS and GPS device

Trimble, GeoExplorer 3. Afterwards the data we gathered were processed in a package GPSPathnder Ofce 2.80 programme, and then corrected by measures made in base stations, in order

to eliminate mistakes and to increase data preciseness, so as to report these data on previously

scanned maps.

Forest roads were surveyed by an external antenna put on a vehicle registering data every

5 seconds, while points of separating forests from public roads were surveyed by GPS device

Trimble GPS Pathnder Pro XRS.

Fig. 1 Doftana Management Unit VI, Săcele forest district, Braşov forest county - actual

situation of infrastructure components



179

Strip roads were surveyed by GPS device Trimble, GeoExplorer 3 which, unlike in the case

of forest roads, was not put inside the vehicle; we indeed walked along each tractor road. For

strip roads we also corrected differential mistakes using the results of base stations continuing

survey.

Both primary and secondary forest ways were surveyed by so-called return method (recording

was carried out in both directions) during the vegetation resting stage, according to a previouslydetermined almanac (satellite position above the area of research at a various time of the day).

Forest ways are structures used for trafc. There are many denitions and divisions according to

various criteria depending on their purpose, their location in a stand, their technical characteristics,

etc. Forest roads belong to primary forest ways. These are permanent structures permitting a

constant trafc of motor vehicles to carry out the tasks established by management plans (timber

transport, hunting, forest protection, forestry). They are made up of superstructure and substructure

having all road technical characteristics and permanently occupying forest fertile ground (for

instance for road width).

Secondary forest ways are structures which are used from time to time for tasks determined by

a management plan. They are primarily intended for tractor skidding. They include strip roads

and skid trails. Strip roads are structures in which ground works are present, what means that they

consist only of a substructure. They are just drawn into maps and are not planned. Skid trails are

temporary structures resulting from cutting through a forest, which are then maintained through

the continuous passage of tractors along the same trace. After these structures have completed

their purpose, the forest takes again over the ground surface previously ceded to skid trails.


The inventory of the forest ways of the area of research carried out using GPS-a Trimble

GeoExplorer 3, data processed through Pathnder Ofce 2.80 programme package and mapped

using ArcGIS software on previously scanned and geocoded maps (on 1:5000 scale) provided alltogether very precise data.

Adding forest ways onto large-scale maps requires surveying on the eld through the so-called

return method, i.e. surveying the route of a forest way in two directions, in order to decrease the

number of forest way sections about which we have no surveyed data or low quality surveyed

data and in order to t in differential corrections into original terrain databases.

Once established, the cadastre of primary and secondary forest ways enables us: (i) to precisely

visualize existing resources in specic forest areas; (ii) to analyse actual conditions of primary

and secondary forest opening; (iii) to notice potential needs, failures and inadequacies regarding

trafc infrastructure; (iv) to plan and control the costs of maintaining forest ways and repairing

strip roads; (v) to make studies on working sites regarding harvesting in specic forest areas etc.

The method of bordered areas in combination with a relative forest opening for which a quality

evaluation system has been developed, represents an exceptionally efcient mean of analysing

the actual network of primary and secondary forest ways, separating not opened areas and areas

about to be opened up.

Table 1 Inventory and classication of the roads of Doftana management unit VI

National road Regional road Forest road Tractor road Total

km 6.4 12.6 22.0 30.0 71.0

% 9.1 17.7 30.9 42.3 100

m/ha 1.3 2.6 4.5 6.2 14.7



180

Like forest management, forest roads management cannot be conceived without appropriateinformation permitting a more rational and optimal work. Therefore Romania’s Forest Service

must design a forest roads information system made up of two main modules. The rst module

consists of forest road registers (EGC, supported by graphic information layer). The second

module is intended for monitoring forest roads maintenance. Both modules have to be connected,

but each one is also operational by itself.

The concept of forest roads information system is open, dynamic and modular. It is also treated

as a sub-system of the broader forestry information system which is based on the principle of

relational databases. Data gathering on a road are run by the stationary system, as the individual

events are recorded on the spot.

The Sloven Model of FOREST ROADS REGISTER (EGC) is presented below

Forest ways data are gathered in information databases forming an individual module in a forest

ways information system called Forest Roads Register. This module is regulated by the rules on

forest trafc ways. It consists of an attribute part and a graphic part, which are interconnected by

an identication eld (by the road code in the case of forest ways).

Attribute part of EGC. The attribute part of the EGC is dened by the elaboration of an

information database model based on the points where the necessary elements, which should be

incorporated in the system, were determined. The formation of the information database model

comprises: (i) System realization and denition of “objects” – information databases; (ii) Record

and denition of attributes for individual information databases and conceptual execution of codes

legends; (iii) Scheme of relational interconnections between individual information databases.

Fig. 2 The actual situation of opening-up in the Management Unit VI, Doftana



181

Data gathering or data acquisition for the needs of EGC must be very rational because of high

work and equipment costs. Forest ways data are gathered from the eld and from ofce. The

eld data acquisition can be done classically through inventory and geodetic survey or through

global positioning system (GPS) use. Work at the level of the forest district mainly consisted in

processing digital ortho-photo images (DOF, M 1: 5,000). Since data in the information system

constantly change, a road can be included deleted or remodeled in the EGC, according to a specic procedure.

Building the forest roads information system we tried to gather all the data necessary for a

comprehensive overview of the forest roads network. The system being open and dynamic, it

is easy to include additional data, which may be important and useful. The addition of basic

forest ways data and data regarding the spatial arrangement of forest ways into the system, is of

greatest importance, as these data represent the basis for the whole information system. Links and

harmonization with the information layers of the public trafc routes network on the formal level

are also factors of great importance. This harmonization refers simultaneously to the inclusion of

diverse road categories in the joint register of economic public infrastructure. A precised image

of forest roads network cannot be obtained before harmonization on this level. Therefore this is a

priority task which should urgently be completed.

Discussions and conclusions

The inventory of forest ways present on the area of research carried out using GPS-a Trimble

GeoExplorer 3, data processed through Pathnder Ofce 2.80 programme package and mapped

using ArcGIS software on previously scanned and geocoded maps on 1:5000 scale, gave all

together very precise data.

Forest ways data are gathered in information databases forming an individual module in a forest

roads information system called Forest Roads Register. This module is regulated by the rules on

Table 2 List of information databases in FOREST ROADS REGISTER

Information database Description

General data

ROAD Basic road data

R PROPERTY Property data

R USE Forest roads use

Administrative and forest management division

R FMU Afliation in forest management unit

R DISTRICT Afliation in district

R MUNICIPALITY Afliation in municipalityRDEMOG Data on demographically endangered areas

Data on road objects and road construction elements

R LAYER Data on wear or blocking layers of roadway

construction

R DRAINING Data on surface water draining devices

R POROUSNESS Data on forest road porousness

R BRIDGE Data on bridges and tunnels

R WALL Data on supporting constructions

Forestry Technological data

R CHARACTER Data on forest road productivity

Trafc signalizationR SIGN

Data on site and contents of trafc

signalization on the road



182

forest trafc ways. It consists of an attribute part and a graphic part, which are interconnected byan identication eld (by the road code in the case of forest ways).

References

Becker, L., Jaeger, D. 1992. Integrated design, planning and evolution of forests roads and logging activities

using GIS- based interactive CAD-systems. Proceedings of the IUFRO Workshop on Computer Supported

Planning of Roads and Harvesting, Feldang, Germany, pp. 159-164.

Gunnarson, P. 1992. GIS as a tool for transport planning. Proceedings of the IUFRO Workshop on Computer

Supported Planning of Roads and Harvesting. Feldang, Germany, pp. 151-158.

Hurn, J. 1989. GPS - A Guide to the Next Utility. For Trimble Navigation, 2-69.

Hurn, J. 1993. Differential GPS Explained. For Trimble Navigation, 5-49.Martin, A. A., Holden N. M., Owende, P. M., Ward, S. M. 2000. Measuring DGPS performance with respect

to peripheral canopy on forests roads. Workshop of Forestry Information Systems, 16-19 May 2000, Hytiälä,

Finland, pp. 1-4.

Pičman, D., Pentek, T. 1996. Factors inuencing the necessity of building a forest road network. Proceedings

of workshop Care for Croatian forests since 1846. to 1996., Zagreb, Book 2, pp. 293-300.

Pentek, T. 2002. The computer models for forest road network optimisation with regard to the dominant

inuential factors. PhD Thessis, Forestry Faculty of Zagreb University, 271 p.

Table 3 The most appropriate way of getting data for the attribute and graphic parts of the forest road

information system

Attribute Graphic

General data on forest road

-ofce work on the basis of available

sources(maps, projects, older information)

-eld inventory

-DOF5 combined with GPS eld recording or

digitalization of road line course from a quality

map basis, also DTKS line transfer

Administrative and forest management division

-ofce work on the basis of data from

appropriate maps

-use of information layers from other modules

of forestry information system and layers from

other branches (municipality)

Objects on the road and road construction elements

-ofce work on the basis of projects and older

information

-eld inventory

-transfer of attribute data into the graphic form-eld work with GPS

Forestry and technological data

- ofce work on the basis of evaluation

Trafc signalization

-eld inventory- transfer of attribute data into the graphic form

-eld work with GPS



183


Bucharest, Romania

Model operational pentru evaluarea impactului

asupra mediului la executia drumurilor forestiere

V. Alexandru, R. Bereziuc, V. Ciobanu

Alexandru V., Bereziuc R., Ciobanu V. 2009. Model opera ţional pentru evaluarea

impactului asupra mediului la execuţia drumurilor forestiere. [Operational model forassessment of environmental impact in forest road construction]. In: Olenici N., Teo-dosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestryin a changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research andManagement Institute ICAS, pp. 183-188.

Abstract. The present paper sought to submit to specialists a more complete modelfor quantification of the intensity of environmental impact caused by the construc-tion of forest roads on the environment. This model should be the basis for the stud-ies conducted in order to obtain the environmental agreement. The proposals madein the paper are susceptible of improvements and may be partially or fully supported by the designer teams working in the field of forest road construction. Accepting ofthe proposals by the decision-making institutions and their introduction into forest

roads designing normative, which presently is in a review process, will be a guide forusing a uniform working methodology.Key words: operational model, impact, environmental protection

Authors. Valeria Alexandru, Rostislav Bereziuc, Valentina Ciobanu - TransylvaniaUniversity of Braşov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Eneneering, Şirul Beethoven,st. 1, 500123 - Braşov, Romania.

Obţinerea „acordului de mediu”, devenit obligatoriu pentru proiectele de drumuri forestiere, presupune elaborarea unui studiu de impact, în cuprinsul căruia se evaluează şi se cuantifică impactul prognozat şi se precizează măsurile ce se impun. În prezent evaluarea propriu-zisă a impactului produs asupra mediului se face după metoda detip cantitativ care ia în considerare principalii factori de mediu supuşi impactului (apă, aer, solşi biodiversitate) exprimând intensitatea acestora prin dimensiuni convenţionale, respectiv notede bonitate ( N

b) pentru fiecare factor în parte. În funcţie de acestea, în final se determină, prin

metoda grafo-analitică, indicele de poluare globală ( IPG). Apreciem că procedura actuală, pe lângă faptul că ia în considerare un număr redus de factoriastfel încât nu surprinde toate aspectele fenomenului, prezintă şi unele aspecte discutabile cum arfi: (i) folosirea confuză a indicelui de calitate; (ii) exprimarea unor dimensiuni tehnice în procente,care sunt dimensiuni relative şi nu pot înlocui dimensiunile tehnice într-un caz dat; (iii) utilizareaunei singure scale de conversiune, indiferent de dimensiunea tehnică considerată.

Faţă de cele menţionate, ne propunem să prezentăm un model operaţional de evaluare aimpactului care, pe lângă factorii folosiţi actualmente (apă, aer, sol, biodiversitate), să ia înconsiderare şi „întreruperea integrităţii masivelor păduroase” şi „degradarea peisajului natural”.

,

,



184

În acest caz se iau în considerare 6 factori, recurgând la determinarea indicelui de poluare globală ( IPG) prin „metoda hexagonului”. Modelul operaţional propus conţine: (i) graful arborescent al modelului care precizează factoriide mediu supuşi analizei, dimensiunile tehnice de exprimare a impactului şi limitele de variaţieale acestora (fig. 1); (ii) scalele de conversiune a dimensiunilor tehnice în unităţi convenţionale

(u.c.), diferenţiate în funcţie de factorul considerat; (iii) grafi

cul de agregare a notelor de bonitate N b, stabilite pentru fiecare factor în parte pe cale grafo-analitică, în vederea determinării indicelui

de poluare globală (IPG), care cuantifică intensitatea impactului. Scala generală de bonitate, precum şi scalele de conversiune a indicilor de poluare ( I

p) în

unităţi convenţionale, respectiv note de bonitate ( N b) sunt redate tabelar şi fac parte integrantă din

modelul operaţional. De asemenea face parte din model şi figura geometrică utilizată (hexagon),gradată în unităţi convenţionale, precum şi scala de evaluare a calităţii mediului.

Astfel în tabelul 1 este redată scala generală de bonitate, iar în tabelul 2 scalele de conversiunea dimensiunilor tehnice în note de bonitate pentru fiecare factor în parte. Reprezentarea grafică

pentru determinarea indicelui de poluare globală ( IPG), respectiv hexagonul, este redată în anexa1. În baza modelului operaţional se stabilesc, în conformitate cu determinările din teren sau delaborator (pentru factorii „apă” şi „aer”), limitele de variaţie ale dimensiunilor tehnice, prin carese măsoar ă intensitatea impactului asupra factorului considerat. Având aceste limite, dimensiuniletehnice se convertesc, conform cu scala aferentă factorului respectiv. În cazul apei şi aerului,conversiunea se face pentru fiecare factor poluant în parte şi se ia în considerare media notelorde bonitate. Pentru factorul sol nota de bonitate finală este media ponderată a notelor de bonitate

Tabelul 1 Scala generală de bonitate

Nota de bonitate N b Efecte asupra omului şi mediului înconjur ător

10- calitatea factorilor de mediu: naturală, de echilibru- starea de sănătate pentru om: naturală

9 - f ăr ă efecte

8- f ăr ă efecte decelabile cazuistic- mediul este afectat în limitele admise - nivel 1

7- mediul este afectat în limitele admise - nivel 2- efectele nu sunt nocive

6- mediul este afectat peste limita admisă - nivel 1- efectele sunt accentuate

5- mediul este afectat peste limitele admise - nivel 2- efectele sunt nocive

4- mediul este afectat peste limitele admise - nivel 3- efectele nocive sunt accentuate

3- mediul degradat - nivel 1- efectele sunt letale la durate medii de expunere

2- mediul degradat - nivel 2

- efectele sunt letale la durate scurte de expunere

1 - mediul este impropriu formelor de viaţă



185

F i g .

1

M o d e l u l o p e r a ţ i o n a l c u f a c

t o r i i d e m e d i u s u p u ş i a n a l i z e i , d i m

e n s i u n i l e t e h n i c e d e e x p r i m a r e a i m p a c t u l u i ş i l i m i t e l e d e v a r i a ţ i e a l e a c e s t o r a



186

T a b e l u l 2

C o n v e r s i u n e a i n d i c i l o

r d e p o l u a r e I p a i f a c t o r i l o r d e i m p a c t a s u p r a m e d i u l u i î n n o t e d e b o n i t a t e N

b



187

par ţiale pentru volumele de să pături şi volumul resturilor de exploatare din zonă. De asemenea,în cazul factorului „sol”, conversiunea volumelor de să pătur ă se poate face, în funcţie de situaţiadin teren, în următoarele ipoteze de calcul:1. se ţine seama numai de să păturile în pământ pentru platformă, nefiind necesare ziduri desprijin;2. să pături pentru platformă, f ăr ă să se ţină seama de să păturile efectuate pentru amplasarea

eventualelor ziduri de sprijin, considerând că impactul provocat de să pătura suplimentar ă estecompensat de sporul de atractivitate al unui zid de sprijin faţă de taluzul denudat;3. se au în vedere ambele categorii de să pături, respectiv atât pentru platforme cât şi pentruziduri de sprijin, acordându-se în schimb la nota de bonitate o unitate în plus, datorită sporului dearmonie estetică a zidului de sprijin. În cazul în care condiţiile de teren impun rezolvări diferite, nota de bonitate este media notelorde bonitate par ţiale, corespunzătoare fiecărei situaţii în parte.Volumele de să pături, în vederea conservării, se exprimă în m3/hm de drum. În cazul factorului biodiversitate se recurge la o apreciere mai mult sau mai pu ţin teoretică a procentului de afectare a biodiversităţii existente P şi determinarea indicelui de poluare ( I

p) cu

relaţia:

Factori Apa Aer

Sol Întrerupereaintegrităţiimasiv.păd.(m2supraf.

ampr./hm)

Peisaj(m3de

rocă/hm)

Bio-diver-sitate

Volum desă pătur ă (m3/hm)

Volum resturide exploatare(mst/ha)

Indice poluare I p

3,0 5,5 I

p1

2,50 I p2

4,25750 117 0,20

Nota de bonitate N b

4,50 4,75 7,50 6,75 7,50 8,66 9

I p = 7,275

Anexa 1 Calculul indicelui de poluare globală IPG

Metoda grafo - analitică (varianta hexagonului)



188

(1)şi a notei de bonitate corespunzătoare, conform scalei specifice. Pentru întreruperea integrităţii masivelor păduroase, elementul caracteristic s-a consideratsuprafaţa medie a amprizei, exprimată în m2/hm de drum. Deteriorarea peisajului se apreciază prin volumul de să pătur ă în stâncă, care este convertitconform scalei specifice. Determinarea indicelui de poluare globală (I.P.G.) se face în baza figurii geometrice regulate(hexagon) a cărui suprafaţă exprimă situaţia ideală (f ăr ă poluări) şi care se raportează la suprafaţă hexagonului oarecare obţinut prin unirea din aproape în aproape a punctelor ce marchează notelede bonitate medii pe scările gradate aferente fiecărui factor şi care semnifică situaţia reală (afectată de poluări). Indicele de poluare globală (IPG) se determină în baza relaţiei:

(2)

şi a scalei calităţii mediului (tabelul 3).

Bibliografie

Anonim 2002. Procedura de evaluare a impactului asupra mediului şi de emitere a acordului de mediu (O.M.MAPM nr. 860).Bereziuc, R ., Alexandru, V., Oprea, I., Olteanu, N., Ciubotaru, A. 1995. Model operaţional pentru estimareaeficienţei sociale şi ecologice a reţelei de drumuri forestiere. Revista Pădurilor 1: 40-48.Bica, I. 2000. Elemente de impact asupra mediului. Editura Matrix Rom, Bucureşti.Bereziuc, R., Alexandru, V., Ciobanu, V., Ignea, Gh., Abrudan, I., Derczeni, R.. 2006. Ghid pentru

proiectarea, construcţia şi întreţinerea drumurilor forestiere. Editura Universităţii Transilvania, Braşov.

Valoare Calitatea mediului IPG = 1 Mediu natural neafectat de activitatea umană1 < IPG ≤ 2 Mediu supus activităţii umane în limite admisibile2 < IPG ≤ 3 Mediu supus activităţii umane provocând stare de disconfort formelor de viaţă3 < IPG ≤ 4 Mediu afectat de activitatea umană provocând tulbur ări formelor de viaţă4 < IPG ≤ 6 Mediu grav afectat de activitatea umană, periculos formelor de viaţă6 < IPG Mediu degradat, impropriu formelor de viaţă

Tabelul 3 Scala calităţii mediului



189


Bucharest, Romania

Possibilities of estimating discharge in small water-

sheds by means of TR-55 model

C. C. Tereşneu, Ş T. Tamaş, I. Clinciu, M. M. Vasilescu

Tereşneu C. C., Tamaş Şt., Clinciu I., Vasilescu M. M. 2009. Possibilities of e

stima-ting discharge in small watersheds by means of TR-55 model. In: Olenici N., Teo-dosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in- a changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 189-194.

Abstract. The paper firstly outlines the model types that can be used for producingthe stream discharge hydrograph, specifying for each model its application field.Once created the digital terrain model of the studied area (Valea Por ţii watershed,Braşov county), the model was used to delineate hydrographic sub-basins, to de-termine terrain slopes, to produce the unit hydrograph, identifying the primary andsecondary flow tracks and the drainage area. All these data were aggregated with thenecessary hydrological data and, in the end, the discharge for the whole watershedwas determined.

Key words: small watersheds, discharge estimating, TR-55 model

Authors. Cornel Cristian Tereşneu, Ştefan Tamaş, Ioan Clinciu, Maria MagdalenaVasilescu - Transylvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Silviculture and ForestEngineering, Şirul Beethoven 1, 500123 - Braşov, Romania.

Introduction

To determine the discharge of a watershed, the following alternatives may be taken into account(Anonymous 1986): (i) The rational model; (ii) The TR-55 model (to produce hydrographs

graphically); (iii) The TR-55 model for tabular hydrograph method; (iv) The TR-20 model. TR-55 (Technical Release 55) model, designed as a rule for urban or urbanized watersheds,may be used with good results in other watersheds too, provided that necessary restrictions arerespected. The model is based on simplified methods to estimate discharge (SCS method) and

peak discharge (graphical method), to produce hydrographs (tabular method) and determineretained volumes (expeditious method). The model enables to estimate the discharge from a watershed resulting from a meteorologicalevent, regardless of the conditions and the specific management standards applied within thewatershed. The model was developed by the Natural Resources Conservation Service NRCS

– USA (Anonymous 1986) and enables the unit hydrograph to provide data worked out both in

tabular and graphical formats.



190

Analysis of the area of research

A small watershed of 65 ha, located in the middle third of the Valea Por ţii brook, Braşov county,has been considered in the present research. This area is bordered by Bucegi Mountains to the eastand Piatra Craiului Mountains to the west.

Identifying and quantifying the elements regarding watershed morphometry and the morphometryof the hydrographic network are problems that can be solved relatively easily provided that thedigital terrain model is available (Tereşneu 2005, Tereşneu & Brad 2006) (Figure 1). To producethe model, 5 m contour lines have been digitized according to the topographic plans of the areaof research, plans L-35-87-D-b-1-I and L-35-87-D-b-1-II, the superimposition with the 539-442ortophotomap being also achieved. Other components of interest like the hydrographic networkand the stands subcompartment boundaries inside the watershed have also been digitized.

The next step was the delineation of the hydrographic sub-basins existing in the area ofresearch. The Watershed function of the AutoCAD Land Desktop software has been used for boththe delineation of the component sub-basins and the exclusion of the neighboring areas having noinflow into the watershed under consideration (Figure 2). Afterwards the slopes of each component sub-basin have been determined using the CreateSurface function. Its output window includes, in the Extended Surface Statistics zone, somestatistical data for the watershed such as the number of triangles in the TIN model, the maximumand the minimum triangle area, the maximum, minimum and average slope etc. (Figure 3). Determining the interest of TR-55 model’s use

The hydrological module of the AutoCAD Civil Design software enables to adjust the hydrographso as it produces data worked out in graphical format or through the tabular hydrograph method.This particularity is typical of the TR-55 model.

For Romania’s torrential watersheds, the peak discharge forecast is performed using indirectmethods, which take into account the depth of the rainfall generating the flood and the watershedcharacteristics influencing flood generation and propagation (Clinciu & Lazăr 1999).

Fig. 1 The digital terrain model



191

Fig. 2 Exclusion of the neighboring areas having no inflow into the watershed

Fig. 3 Average watershed slope output

The watershed discharge is the rainfall depth over the watershed diminished by the volumesrepresented by soil infiltration, vegetation interception and stagnant water in the existing sinks.To determine the value of the discharge, many elements like intensity, duration and distributionof the rainfall, geological and soil conditions, soil initial water content, vegetation covered area,

type of vegetation and watershed morphometry should be taken into account.The TR-55 model requires the following values (Anonymous 1986) to be specified: rainfall

distribution model, drainage area, runoff curve number, runoff coef ficient, concentration time,



192

time of runoff travel, area of pond sand swamps and of flooded zones, rainfall frequency andintensity for each sub-basin (Figure 4). With regard to the AutoCAD input data specified above, the following issues should be takeninto account: (i) For the rainfall distribution, model type II has been chosen, as it is characteristicfor high amount, high intensity and short duration rainfalls. Models of types I and IA are suitable

for the maritime (Pacifi

c) climate, with humid winters and rainy summers, while type III is suitablefor the Atlantic coastline and the Gulf of Mexico, with tropical storms and high amounts of dailyrainfall; (ii) The drainage area has been determined by establishing the watershed boundary bymeans of the Select Polyline (or Draw) function; (iii) The number of runoff curve has beenspecified according to land use type and soil type. As the watershed under consideration iscovered by stands aged 60 to 100 years, with stand densities in the range of 0.6 (sometimes even0.4) and 0.9, the soil being a typical eutricambosoil, the 76 runoff curve has been adopted; (iv) Asfar as the time of concentration for the watershed is concerned, AutoCAD permits its automateddetermination by means of the Hydrology module (Hydrology - Runoff Time of Concentration(Tc)…). By applying this method, the resulted output is Tc = 11.65 min, i.e. approximately 12 min(Figure 5). The data for rainfall frequency for Bran area have been provided by the Vf. Omu and Fundataweather stations and have been reported into the dedicated field of the Rainfall-Frequency Editorwindow (Figure 6). The computation of discharge by means of the TR-55 model is base on the equation:

where Q represents the discharged volume (mm) P- the rainfall depth (mm) S – the maximum retention potential after runoff initiation

Ia – the initial abstraction, expressed by losses in discharge before the initiation of the runoff,

Fig. 4 Input data for the graphical format of the hydrograph by means of the TR-55 model



193

Fig. 5 Determination of time of concentration in AutoCAD

including retention by vegetation, soil infiltration and evapotranspiration. The adopted valuewas Ia = 0.2S.

The amount of rainfall recorded in the area of research is converted into discharged volume bymeans of a numeric curve – NC. This curve takes into account a series of factors of influence suchas soil type, proportion of vegetation cover, vegetation type, area of impermeable zones, rainfallinterception and drainage area. Figure 7 shows the variation of Ia/P by rainfall depth and the numerical curves.

All these input data permit to determine the discharge for the area of study, resulting a value of

Fig. 6 Specification of rainfall frequency data for the research area

Fig. 7. The variation of Ia/P by P and CN



194

3.0464 cm (Figure 4).

Conclusion

The quantification of discharge from a watershed is a problem which, with a classical approach,

implies elaborate computation efforts and an extended processing time. The alternative approachoffered by the TR-55 model is a feasible one, provided that the digital terrain model is available.To apply this automated approach, a series of input date, some of general characters, like the type

of method to be used, and others with specific significance should be specified, as for example thesize of the drainage area, the number of the numerical curve to be used, the runoff coef ficient, thetime of concentration for the watershed, the time of runoff travel, the area of ponds, marshes andflooded zones, the frequency and intensity of rainfall and the intensity-runoff-frequency curve.The suggested method is user-friendly, its successful implementation being straightforward andstrongly influenced by the operating abilities of the user.

References

Anonymous 1986. TR-55: Urban hydrology for small watersheds. In HydroCAD Manual (http://www.hydrocad.net/hcmanual.htm).Clinciu, I., Lazăr, N. 1999. Bazele amenajării torenţilor. Editura LuxLibris, Braşov, 208 p.Munteanu, S., Clinciu, I., Gaspar, R., Lazăr, N. 1979. Calculul debitului maxim de viitur ă prin formularaţională. Îndrumar de proiectare. Universitatea din Braşov, 178 p.Munteanu, S., Traci, C., Clinciu, I., Lazăr, N., Untaru, E. 1993. Amenajarea bazinelor hidrografice torenţiale

prin lucr ări silvice şi hidrotehnice (vol. II). Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 310 p.Tereşneu ,C.C. 2005. Avantajele realizării modelului digital al terenului în AutoCAD. În Lucr ările celei de a7-a Conferinţe naţionale pentru protecţia mediului prin biotehnologii şi a celei de a 4-a Conferinţe naţionalede ecosanogeneză, Editura Pelecanus, pp. 437-442.

Tereşneu ,C.C., Brad, M.L. 2006. Realizarea modelului digital al terenului în AutoCAD în vederea explor ării bazinelor hidrografice torenţiale. În Studia Universitatis “Vasile Goldiş” Arad, Editura Universităţii “VasileGoldiş” Arad, pp. 77-86.



195


Bucharest, Romania

Contributions to the kinematics study of the blade

borers for seedling planting holes

I. Popescu, R. Derczeni, E. Iordache, H. Şotoc

Popescu I., Derczeni R., Iordache E., Şotoc H. 2008. Contributions to the kinematics study of the blade borers for seedling planting holes. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu

M., Bouriaud O. (eds.): Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a ch-

anging environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest: Forest Research and Management I

nstitute ICAS, pp. 195-202.

Abstract. In this paper is presented the evolution of the preoccupations linked to

the mechanization of the digging process of holes for planting seedlings. At the

same time, there are emphasized constructive forms of digging borers realized

under the form of blades. The final part of the paper describes an analysis of a

calculus model of kinematics elements which can be integrated into a unitary

system for the full range of digging blade borers.

Key words: blade borers, mechanization, seedling planting

Authors. Ilie Popescu, Rudolf Derczeni, Eugen Iordache - Transylvania University

of Braşov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering, Şirul Beethoven, St. 1,

500123 - Braşov, România; Horia Şotoc - University of Oradea, Faculty of Environ-

ment Protection, Romania.

Introduction

Machineries that realize digging holes to plant seedlings are part of the large group of ground

working machines whose active components have a moving rotation generated by a power

source. The specific of these machineries is the fact that the soil is prepared by chipping, action

from which the soil mobilization and aeration is carried out with or without putting out the soilfrom the hole. The principle of this action is not exclusively reserved to machineries digging

holes for seedlings. This principle exists in other machineries whose destination is to prepare

the soil to be a germinating bed, to maintain crops along rows gap, a.s.o. The same principle has

applicability on a large scale in the wood and metal industries.

The interest regarding soil preparation machineries started 130 years ago (Tămăşanu 1971).

The year 1875 was an important one; in this year a machinery for soil preparation having a

blade borer mounted on vertical rotor driven by two steam engines was fabricated in England.

Afterwards during the 1920’s and the 1930’s, researchers constructed different mill types,

especially experimental models, in the U.S.A. and in Germany.

In our country, thefi

rst systematic research regarding soil mills were made by Prof.Ph.D.Gheorghe Dragan, who experimented different motor – mill types in the frame of the Agronomical

Research Institute of Romania.



196

In the forest field, some preoccupation regarding the use of machineries with driven rotary tools

could be mentioned after 1960. It started with digging holes machineries and machineries to plant

seedlings, made in Germany and Italy. These were experimented in different relief conditions in

our forest found (Chiru et al. 1963, Comănescu & Mecotă 1961, Popescu & Mihai 1966).

Mills to prepare the soil to be a germinating bed in forest nurseries then attracted attention. In

thefi

eld of mills, thefi

rst preoccupations are remarkable for their thoroughness in the theoretical basis of the soil mill process (Popescu & Mihai 1966, Popescu & Curtu 1968). Systematic and

ample researches on mills for germinating bed preparation were made after 1969, following the

influences of the works regarding physical-chemical soil properties, and regarding seedlings

emergence, growth, and soils quality for some important forest species (Popescu 1975).

Nowadays, as a result of the impetuous development of the machine industry fitted out with

driven rotary tools for soil preparation, the existence of some distinguished types easily leading

100 should be noted. From these, approximately 20% are made up of digging holes machineries

having different destinations.

The present paper is dealing with one of these types: the hole digging machineries for seedling

planting, manually carried and fitted out with active tools as knifes having a cutting blade

form. Experiences proved that this type of machineries, as a result of their low weight, is useful

especially on steep terrains with roots and skeletal residues on the working soil profile.

Motor borers with active tools were in attention of the researchers starting from 1963-1969.

After this period, a substantial diversification of the active tools having a cutting blade form

was noted. This is why a study on them was lead, in order to observe how much some of the

constitutive and functional characteristics could be improved to reduce the energy consumption

during the hole digging operation when planting seedlings. From a theoretical point of view,

the problem generally imposes to clarify three main aspects: kinematics, dynamic and power

consumption elements.

In the first stage, the study will be limited at the knowledge regarding kinematic characteristics,

which could be generalized to all borer categories fitted out with cutting blade form for forestseedling holes.

Constitutive characteristics of blade borers

As it was explained above, blade borers are used for motor borers which, because of their

underweight (under 20kg), are especially adapted to dig holes on steep terrains not accessible

to tractor – driven digging machineries. 30 cm diameter and 20-40 cm depth holes are usually

digged.Consequently, the use of blade borers is limited to normal size seedling planting.

These types of borers dig holes from which the earth is not put out. The soil remains mobile and

aerated inside the holes. The subsequent operations to evacuate the soil and to plant seedlingshave to be made manually.

In many cases, the borer is made up of a vertical axle driven by a two stroke motor with

small capacity, having approximately 3 PH power. A flange or a support bar on which the

single side sharpened blades are mounted, is fastened on the driving axle. Taking into account

the mounting position, there are borers with horizontal blades and with vertical cutting blades

(Figure 1). Horizontal blades borers frequently have one construction form. The posterior part of

the horizontal cutting blade slowly dips in order to pull up the soil chip detached by the knife’s

cutting edge.

The active parts (the blades) are also frequently used in combined borers, which are used to

dig holes with cavities to plant seedlings (Figure 2). These groups are used in very sunny areas,

frequently submitted to air courses.

Horizontal blade borers are recommended to dig planting holes in light soils having a middle

resistance to digging, fallowed on surface but without any wooden roots and gravel on the working



197

soil profile. These kinds of borers can sometimes be used only to cut the surface layer, in places

where holes will later be made using vertical blade borer or other borer type, but with a lower

performance rating in grassed soil.

Vertical blade borers get active tools having the most diversified constructive forms. The

observations made on different informative materials (articles, prospects and constructive models

being in usage) lead to express that their evolution start from vertical blade borers with floating

apex to vertical blade borers joining at the apex. The explanation of this situation could be the

twisting of vertical blades borers with floating apex during the usage.

Vertical blade borers with floating apex (Figure 1, II, a –c) let the conviction (Chiru et al.,

1963) that they have a relative good comportment in soils with low and medium resistance, low

fallowed, with roots and gravel on the digging depth. The authors named above recommend the

stone diameter to be under 10 cm, and the roots diameter not to exceed 6 cm.

Vertical blade borers joining at apex (Figure 1, III, a – b) have almost the same working qualities

as vertical blade borers with floating apex. The superiority of the last ones is put in evidence in

the case of soils having a high resistance. It is also necessary to mention that in case of planting

holes’preparation on loamy and clayed soils whose humidity is around 22%, it is also possibleto evacuate more than 30% of the bored soil. When the borer is extracted, the soil that was cut

remains on the borer’s blades and it could be put near the hole. Concentrating the soil in a single

place will make the planting work much easier.

Kinematics of the earth chipping process

At least one chipping technological cycle occurs during a kinematic cycle. The geometrical form

of the earth removed depends on the elementary generating line form (the knife edging) and on

the generating line curve form. During the digging process, the borer makes two characteristic

moves: a rotating one which is considered as the main move and a feed motion one in soil,considered as a secondary move (Figure 3).

The effect of these moves is pointed out through a successive chipping of the soil layers. Each

Fig. 1 Representative blade borersI – horizontal blades; II – vertical blades with floating apex: a – circular;

b – straight inclined at 90°; c – straight with slanting inclination; III –

vertical blades joint at apex: a – circular; b - with slanting inclination; IV

– polygonal blades joint at apex

Fig. 2 Combined borer

1 – axle; 2 – apex; 3 – horizontal

blade; 4 – knifes; 5 – helicoidally

transporter; 6 – flange; 7 – hole; 8

– mobilized earth



198

point of the blade makes a screw movement. The axles of this screw correspond to the blade

rotation axis (Figure 4).

The position of each point on the knife which has a helicoidal movement could be determined

with the following relations:

(1)

(2)

(3)

in which:

- r x is the radius of the considered point, in cm;

- δ is the referent angle in radians;

- un is the advance speed, in cm/rot.

The helicoidal paths that result during the chipping movement, realize a helicoidal surface (Figure

5). Each of the knife’s movement is characterized by his proper speed. Thus, the tangential speed

corresponds to the rotation movement and the advance speed for the feed motion in soil.

Tangential speed value is determined through the relation:

(4)

Feed motion speed:

(5)

where:

un – feed motion speed, in cm/rot;

r x – radius of a certain point, in cm;

n – borer speed, in m/s.

The real chipping speed is obtained in basis of the resultant between v x and u:

(6)

Fig. 3 Main movements of the borers Fig. 4 Way of chipping the soil layers



199

The relation (6) takes into account the fact that the digging is made in the feed motion way

when the speeds are added, and against the feed motion way when the speeds are subtracted.

The speed on the paths of the chipping soil varies according to a complicate law. Therefore,

it is useful to determine the real chipping speed in a specific moment to simplify the calculus.

For this purpose, the tangential speed in the considered point, whose radius is known should be

determined first. There are some dif ficulties to determine the radius, especially on the horizontal

part of the blade. This point of the calculus will be developped below (Figures 6-7).

After a thorough and meticulous observation it could be ascertained that

(7)

where:

e is the blades eccentricity in plan

α x – the angle between the vector radius of a point and the borer axis in plan

Fig. 5 Movement of the earth inside the hole

Fig. 6 Cutting speed variation

Fig. 7 Cutting speed variation on the horizontal part of the blade



201

(12)

where ξ is the angle of the apex.

The width of the detached soil layer could be determined with the following relations which

depend on the blades form:

- for borers with vertical parallel blades and free apexes curved in interior:

(13)

where Rc is the radius of the curve

- for borers with vertical parallel blades an apexes curved in interior:

(14)

- for borers with vertical parallel blades an apexes curved in interior with 900:

(15)

- for borers with polygonal blades closed at basis an for borers with vertical blades closed at

apex:

(16)

The notation that were used in relations (13 … 16) are:

R – the radius of the curve;

r – the existing coarse between the blades apex;

R M

– the maximum radius, respectively the distance between the blade and borer axis;

θ – the blade curvature angle;

ξ – the angle at the blade apex.

For most of the borers with vertical blades and apex, the constructive parameters have the

following values: R = 14 cm, R M

= 15 cm, r = 2cm, θ = 80...90° and ξ = 60...70°.

For borers with vertical blades joint at apex it is recommended to calculate the width of the soil

detached layer using the relation (16).

The surface of the detached earth layer:

(17)

By carefully observing the relation (13 … 17), it could be noted that the earth prism has the

lower surface in the case of blades bent at 90°. Therefore in this case the power action is expected

to be the less.

Conclusions

The research works that were made and the results that were analyzed in this paper lead to some

important conclusions:

- The mobile mills for soil mobilization as for example hole digging machineries fitted out with

spiral drills are in many aspects similar with the machineries with rotary tools used in wood

and metal working. In contrast with these, the blade borers have some characteristics which

differenciate them from the others soil machineries with rotary tools. The influence of these

functional – constructive characteristics points out especially the working process study from the

kinematics point of view.

- Along the time a balanced development of the digging machineries equipped with spiral and

blades could be noted. Even they do not put out the soil from the hole, as a result of a small

contact with the soil, the blade borers reduce the digging effort. The advantage of letting the soil

in the hole is more important in hilly and mountain areas.

- The diversification of vertical blade borers could be explained also by the tendency to reduce the



203


Bucharest, Romania

Gully erosion in Suceava Plateau – a case study

O. Iacobescu, I. Barnoaiea

Iacobescu O., Bărnoaiea I. 2009. Gully erosion in Suceava Plateau – a case study.

In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sus-

tainable forestry in a changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, For -

est Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 203-210.

Abstract. Land degradation by means of gully erosion and alluvium transport is

a complex phenomenon, inuenced by a multitude of factors related to geology,

geomorphology, soils, land cover and, not last, the human factor. The characte-

ristics and the functionality of the process are studied before, but less is known

about the spatial extension and the temporal evolution of the affected areas. The

studies done before show a tendency of regressive erosion, with less intensity in

the downstream area and very intense degradation phenomena in the origin area.

The paper’s general objective is a multi-scale approach to ravine monitoring

from gully erosion point of view. The means of solving the general and spe-

cic objectives proposed within the paper are represented by complex methods,

including ground inventory by surveying and GPS, aerial remote sensing and

topographical maps, all integrated within the data frame of the GeographicalInformation System. The comparison is done from a horizontal point of view,

using the information contained in the materials used. The total station survey-

ing of the ravine is processed within the 3D Analyst extension of the ArcGIS 9.3

software application, generating the three dimensional prole of the terrain. The

evolution analysis showed a maximum extension of about 10 m on the sides of

the ravine in the 30 year between the two analysis moments. The highest hori-

zontal extents appears in the high declivity areas (around 80 o), with elevation

differences of 30 m; the extension rate is not as intense as it would be expected,

giving perspectives for ecological rehabilitation. The use of exact same mark

points in the repeated ground inventory allows quantication of further evolution

and an area classication by land displacement units (separated according to the

amount of the displaced land). The methods used show good results in the com-

parison of ravine characteristics at certain moments and could also be extendedin obtaining proper visualization of the phenomena, needed in the raising of the

public awareness towards the problem.

Key words: gully erosion, monitoring, digital images, multiscale analysis

Authors. Ovidiu Iacobescu - Ştefan cel Mare University Suceava, Forestry Faculty,

Ionuţ Bărnoaiea - Ştefan cel Mare University Suceava, Forestry Faculty, 13 Uni -

versity St. 720229 - Suceava, Romania.

Introduction

The importance given to soil erosion on a global scale and in our country is shown rstly by

the loss in fertile soil due to pluvial water. On a world scale, the phenomenon presents a special

^



204

importance, affecting 2 billion hectares, representing a larger area than United States and Mexico

together (Maftei 2007). A comprehensive understanding of soil erosion is still very difcult

because the approaches used differ in terms of scaling, short term versus long term, small scale

– large scale, regional perspectives, experimental – monitoring – modeling, development of

restoration measures, management practices and socio-economic processes and impacts.

In nowadays conditions, in Romania, the stakeholders in land and environment managementdomain are interested in the ecological rehabilitation of degraded lands and consider this among

the national priorities. In this context it is obvious that any solid action in this direction should start

with the inventory of the affected areas within the specic conditions of each geomorphologic

unit. The Land Parcel Identication System (LPIS) provided the materials needed for extending

the land degradation inventory on a national level, repeated on a ve years period – digital

orthorectied photos, taken for the entire country.

Specic objectives: (i) Installing a repeated inventory plot area containing complex degradation

phenomena (gully erosion as prevalent degradation process); (ii) Assessing the behavior of

the slopes (in time) and the major changes in the ravine morphology; (iii) Identifying useful

instruments in ravine dynamics monitoring.

The researches presented is engaged within the preoccupations of the authors to inventory thedegradation forms in the limits of the Suceava Plateau, based on the digital ortophotos taken

through the LPIS program. The image resolution and details positioning accuracy are sufcient

for the needs of the inventory.


The mapping of any terrestrial phenomenon on remote sensing basis is bound by the same general

research protocol, protocol that includes (Rusu et al. 1981, Boş et al. 1985, Boş et al. 1986): (i)

terrestrial study of the phenomenon in representative areas from the mapping point of view; (ii)

comparison of the ground data with the data resulting from image processing and interpretation;(iii) construction of a model that should be applied in similar cases; (iv) testing the model in

similar situations, in other areas than the ones used in the construction of the model.

A supplementary task that has been included in this research is represented by the comparison

of data obtained in different moments regarding the same phenomenon – soil erosion. In respect to

this objective, a gully erosion form in Suceava Plateau has been monitored in different moments

of its evolution: 1978, 2005 and 2008.

The materials used for the monitoring have been diverse and had to take into account the

availability of the data. The oldest moment taken into account is represented by the preparing,

in 1978, of the general topographic maps (scale 1:5000), based on aerial photointerpretation

and stereorestitution (Fig. 1a). The general objective of the mapping was not the identication

and characterization of the land degradation phenomena, but the major forms of gully erosion

and land displacements have been outlined (exterior contour). The Balaceana Ravine taken into

study within the present research is present in the 1978 mapping with a sufcient accuracy if we

consider the areas that have been stable in the last decades.

In 2005 the entire national territory has been inventoried within the Land Parcel Identication

System using color orthorectied aerial images (Fig.1b). These images have been obtained by

georeferencing and geometrically correcting aerial photographs taken in 2004-2005 and have

been made available through the National Agency for Cadastre and Land Registration. The spatial

resolution of the images is 0.5 m, accurate enough for the mapping of the land erosion forms,

forms that are visible due to the high contrast with the surrounding areas. The corresponding

scale of the images is considered approximately 1:5000, comparable with the scale of the generaltopographic plans.

The present day’s inventory has been done terrestrially, by means of GPS and survey points



205

(Surdeanu 1998, Rădoane et al. 1999). The precision of the coordinates of the points determined

is less than 0.5 m, assuring comparability with the aerial images. The GPS points have been

determined with a handheld GPS receiver using differential corrections – TOPCON GMS2. The

estimated RMSE ( Root Mean Square Error ) has been less than 0.5 m for each point, fact proven

by overlaying the points on the orthophoto (Fig. 1c). The surveying has been done by using the

LEICA TCR 407 total station, within a closed transverse started on a geodesic point and oriented by the local topographic signals (churches and high buildings with known coordinates). The

precision of the surveying is high due to the possibilities of accurate determinations of angles and

distances. The entire surveying was based on topographic points in order to establish a permanent

monitoring network for the ravine; also, the points measured within the eld data collection have

a sufcient density for a being used in Digital Terrain Model generation – a point was installed in

every change of slope or ravine contour.

Data processing. The data processing stage was designed to bring the mapping and inventory

materials in a compatible format for the monitoring of the gully erosion process. The most accurate

comparison method involves the use of GIS modeling of the phenomenon. In such a case, every

material must be transformed and georeferenced for overlaying in the same data frame. The

general topographic maps (1:5000) have been scanned and georeferenced in the StereographicCoordinate System.

The data has been extracted from the materials used by means of digitization in the ArcGIS 9.3

Software, obtaining GIS databases regarding the extent and the parameters of the phenomenon.

The surveying measurements acquired in the eld have been processed with specialized software

within the ofcial Romanian data frame - the Stereographic Coordinate System, in order to ensure

Fig. 1 Materials used in ravine study: a. General topographic maps (1:5000 scale); b. Ortorectied aerial

images (1:5000 scale); c. survey and GPS ground control points; d. general image of the ravine



206

the accurate overlaying on the digital images with the same data frame. The traverses used have

used geodesic mark points with high precision on all three axes of coordinates. The 3D coordinates

of the surveying points have been further used for computing the Digital Elevation Model (Fig.

3), model that should represent a start point for the monitoring of the ravines. The ArcGIS 3D

Analyst offers the possibility to drape a georeferenced digital image over the three-dimensional

model of the area. The result is of little interest from a technical point of view, but can be reallyuseful in raising public awareness in concern to the problem.

Results

The terrestrial study of the ravine showed spectacular erosion and land displacement phenomena.

The length of the main course is approximately 1.5 km and is accompanied on both sides by high

declivity slopes, affected by massive landslides, gully erosion and supercial ows. The gravity

of the phenomena is accentuated by the very close proximity with the Balaceana village, with

important implications in defending the houses downstream. Two ramications of the ravine

have been consolidated by low height dams in the past 20 years. The surveying inventory has

taken into account the entire area of the ravine and not only the exterior limit and the talweg.The measured points (Fig. 2) have been classied into ve classes: contour, talweg, breakpoints,

altimetry points and points around the areas with excessive water. The interior details of the

ravine can be noted by joining the points according to the eld sketches or it could be obtained by

analyzing the three-dimensional model of the terrain.

Fig. 2 Comparison between the limits of the Balaceana ravine in 1978 and 2008



207

The evolution analysis has been done by comparing the data acquired in the eld campaign

(2008) with digital aerial images taken in 2004 and the topographical maps done in 1980 (based

on the photogrammetric ight campaign in 1978). The comparisons between the three sets of

data has been done by means of GIS systems, bringing al the data formats in the same data frame

within the ArcGIS 9.3 software. The accuracy needs have been satised by relying on points with

precise coordinates within the same national coordinate system, points found on each of the datasets processed.

The results are interesting, especially when taking into account the disastrous aspect of the

ravine. The ravine side banks are practically turned into very steep slopes, with a maximal

altitudinal difference of about 30 m. The steepest slopes are found on the right side of the ravine,

side signicantly different form the other one in respect to this criterion (Fig. 3).

The evolution of the phenomenon is differentiated along the sides of the ravine (Fig. 2). The

high declivity of the slopes would suggest an increased instability and rapid evolution of the

phenomenon. The maximum distance between the contour lines corresponding to 2008 and 1978

is 11 m, obtained especially by displacement of the terrain on the high slopes. Four distinct

situations have been identied along the contour lines: (i) areas with a high degree of extension,

located on the slopes with crumbling phenomena; some of the situations are relatively recent,since it doesn’t appear on the orthorectied aerial images in 2005 (Fig. 2b); (ii) relatively stable

areas, encountered on the stabilized banks due to the human intervention (dams) or by reaching

a stable declivity line, according to the internal abrasion angle (Fig. 2c); (iii) stabilized areas,

with low slopes, covered by herbal vegetation (Fig. 2e); (iv) areas with signicant differences

between the two moments taken into account (Fig. 2e); this could be explained by the details

inventoried within the stereographic restitution – some of the areas could have had erosion and

land displacement phenomena of lower intensity, leading to a low separability on the analogical

aerial photos.

The most active phenomenon that can be noticed in the ground inventory is a very intense

Fig. 3 Digital elevation model of the Balaceana ravine area



208

supercial ow. Practically the upper soil layers are carried downstream by excessive rain,

together with the herbal vegetation. This process appears to be continuous and spreading on all

high declivity areas. The vegetation is extending by natural dissemination on the bare geological

strata and develops into a thick herbal layer, apparently consolidated, but fragile and susceptible

of owing with the sandy underlayer.

The two dams present on the left-side branches of the ravine had the purpose of consolidating

the rapid landslides and soil erosion on that side. The effects of the dams are noticeable in

raising the lowest transversal level of the secondary valley, but do not solve the problem of

ravine expansion, especially in the origin area. On the 3D terrain model is relatively easy to

measure the compensation slope above the dams, given the fact that these hydro-technical works

have functioned for long enough for retaining the maximum amount of alluviums. The evolutionanalysis showed an increase in length due to the origin expansion. As in other cases, the ravine

remains the most active part of the ravine, requiring separate restoration techniques (Băloiu 1967,

Rădoane 1999, Grudnicki 2007).

Concerning the slopes, the attenuation of the erosion intensity is noticeable in downstream part

of the main ravine, with lower declivities and higher stability. In contrast, the river bed is the

most affected in this part due to the increase water ow – it concentrates the ows from the entire

watershed. The erosion in the talweg area is increased, leading to a vertical distance between

the banks and the bottom of about 2 m. The riverbed alluvium transport and the increased depth

lead to losses in the stability of proximity areas. Consequences to that are the frequent sliding

ruptures on the slopes, in the proximity of the talweg. The land displacement process is intensiedalso by the excess of pluvial water, kept on the slopes by the slope’s declivity discontinues – the

past landslides have formed natural ow obstructions, retaining water in their upper part. The

increased water content raises the density of the terrain increasing also the rapidity of the land

slide and the alluvium transport trough the main water course.

Discussion

The comparison materials tend to be different when analyzing the amount of details contained in

each material. The surveying inventory done in 2008 is the most complete, but required a large

amount of eld work. The problem is found in the other materials. The orthophotos taken in

2005 have a single spectral channel, corresponding to the visible portion of the electromagneticspectrum (Iacobescu 2006). The details that can be identied on it are the extent of the eroded

Fig. 4 Ortophoto drapped on the digital elevation model of the area



209

lands, the wetlands, the land displacement zone and the riverbed. It is practically impossible to

extract any altimetry data, given the fact that these images are 2D. The topographical maps done

in 1978 have altimetry details as contour lines, but with a high vertical distance between the

curves, which has a smoothing effect on the terrain details. Also, the maps contain information

only about the major degradation phenomena inside the ravine, not being able to represent the

small areas with erosion or displacement processes.The ravine evolution process is different than one would expect, taking into account the high

declivity and apparent instability of the slopes. The expansion of the ravine, even in the area

with high elevation differences, is not as intense as it would be expected – the width of the

extension area is maximum 10 m in 30 years of evolution. Among other causes that could explain

the slow horizontal evolution, one should take into account the geological layer. This result

gives perspective for ecological restoration through aforestation using wood species with high

protective functions (Traci & Costin 1966, Untaru 1988).

The ground inventory using the total station is practically a basis for further research in the

matter. The repetition of this inventory with a certain periodicity can offer exact information

about the metrics of the torrential watershed: erosion evolution, alluvium transport, alteration

of the transversal and longitudinal prole. The accurate altimetry measurement, with a networkof permanent mark points in the geodetic network, insures land displacement quantication

on repeated inventory on the entire area of the ravine, with graphic display of differences in

elevation.

An efcient land degradation analysis procedure should include the use of aerial photographs, as

being cost efcient and accurate enough for the required measurement (Yengxiang 1996, Perlado

1998). Another advantage is the potential of extending the inventory and monitoring to a national

level, given the periodical aerial photo acquisition campaign done by the National Agency for

Payments and Interventions in Agriculture within the Land Parcel Identication System.

Conclusions

The multi-scale analysis of the ravine evolution showed good results in using remote sensing

methods for the inventory of the land degradation in its complexity. Even tough the main

degradation process is the gully erosion, within the exterior limits of the study area one can

nd different types of processes – supercial ows, landslides, excessive humidity areas. The

conclusion following the present research show good perspectives in using these methods in land

degradation lands’ inventory and it’s ecological rehabilitation: (i) using the complex analysis

methods described, one can delineate the areas with high susceptibility to ecological rehabilitation;

(ii) the lack of origin protection works causes rapid regressive erosion; (iii) the effect of the hydro

technical works can be quantied by comparison with non-consolidated areas; (iv) the geologic

layer constituted by consolidated sandstone delays the slope displacements and increases their

declivity; (v) monitoring of the gully erosion by survey works will offer quantitative information

regarding land displacement and allows the estimation of transported alluviums; (vi) continuous

monitoring possibilities in the context of Land Parcel Identication System, system that requires

a 5 years repeated of agricultural land resources.

Acknowledgements

The researches presented in this paper have been done in the frame of the project DEGRATER

31-047/2007, PNCDI II, “Partnership in Prioritary Domains”.



210

References

Băloiu, V. 1967. Combaterea eroziunii solului şi regularizarea cursurilor de apă. EDP, Bucureşti.

Boş, N., Kiss, A., Clinciu, I., Chiţe, Gh. 1986. Posibilităţi de fotointerpretare a unor elemente necesare la

amenajarea unor bazine hidrograice torenţiale. Revista Pădurilor 101(3): 151-155.

Boş, N. et. al 1985. Cercetări privind aplicarea fotogrammetriei în amenajarea bazinelor hidrograce

torenţiale. Referat nal temă cercetare. Universitatea Transilvania din Braşov, 200 p.

Grudnicki, F. 2007. Consideraţii privind amenajarea obârşiilor formaţiunilor torenţiale. Simpozionul

„Pădurea între tehnic, economic şi politic”, Facultatea de Silvicultură Suceava, 26 Octombrie 2007.

Iacobescu, O., Ciornei, I., Barnoaiea, I., Hogaş, Şt. 2006. Metode de cartare a eroziunii prin mijloace ale

teledetecţiei satelitare. Simpozion Internaţional al Facultăţii de Silvicultură şi Exploatări Forestiere, Braşov,

(sub tipar).

Maftei, C. 2007. Eroziunea de adâncime. Măsuri de protecţie, Editura Matrix Rom, Bucureşti, 137 p.

Perlado, C.C. 1998. Remote sensing and GIS applications in the erosion studies at the Romero river

watershed. ACRS. pp. 141-152.

Rădoane M., Rădoane Nicolae, Ichim I., Surdeanu V. 1999. Ravenele: forme, procese, evoluţie. Editura

Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca, 266 p.

Rusu, A., Kiss, A., Chiţea, Gh. 1981. Identicarea surselor de aluviuni în cuprinsul bazinelor hidrogracetorenţiale, după fotograme. Aspecte de principiu, Revista Pădurilor, 4: 234-237.

Surdeanu, V. 1998. Geograa terenurilor degradate. Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj Napoca, 274 p.

Traci, C., Costin, C. 1966. Terenurile degradate şi valoricarea lor pe cale forestieră. Editura Agro-silvică.

275 p.

Untaru, E., Traci, C., Ciortuz, I., Roman, FL. 1988. Metode şi tehnologii de instalare a vegetaţiei forestiere

pe terenuri degradate cu conditii staţionale extreme. ICAS, Seria II, Bucuresti, 54 p.

Yengxiang, Y. 1996. Mountain Soil Erosion Mapping in Central Tibet Using Remote Sensing and GIS, The

4th International Symposium on High Mountain Remote Sensing Cartography. Karlstad - Kiruna - Tromsø,

August 19-29, pp. 255-264.



211


Bucharest, Romania

The importance of some endemic plant taxa in main-

taining the identity of Dacian Beech forest (Symphy-

to-Fagion )

A. Paunescu

Păunescu A. 2009. The importance of some endemic plant taxa in maintaining the

identity of Dacian Beech forest (Symphyto-Fagion). In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M.,

Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a chang-

ing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Manage-

ment Institute ICAS, pp. 211-218.

Abstract. Within Europeean beechwood, Dacian Beech forests has an individualised

position which determined their af filiation to a regional alliance Symphyto-Fagion

Vida 1959 (syn. Fagion dacicum Beldie 1951). For this alliance was described the

suballiance Symphyto-Fagenion (Vida 1959) Soó 1964 characterised by some en-

demics as diferential species (Symphytum cordatum, Ranunculus carpaticus, Pulmo-

naria rubra, Dentaria gladulosa, Hepatica transslivanica, Aconitum moldavicum).

Inapropiate forestry practices like extensive deforestation endanger the structureand the stability of Dacian beech forest threatening the vegetal associations that give

their syntaxonomic identity. In this paper are described the Dacian beech forests with

emphasis on their ecological and patrimonial value. Some conservation measures are

also proposed.

Key words: Dacian Beech forest, endemics, conservation

Author. Anca Păunescu - Institute of Biology - Bucharest, Splaiul Independenţei

296, 060031 - Bucharest, Romania.

^

Introduction

Forest area in Romania covers about 27% of the total land of the country forested area amounting

6 368 000 ha (Enviromental Report, 2007). Woody plants from forests composition consist of

about 60 native tree species. Five major groups were distinguished: conifers of about 31%, beech

(pure and mixed forests) 31%, oak species 18%, other hard broadleaves 15% and soft broadleaves

5% (Borlea et al. 2006). Romania’s forest resources include 10 groups of natural forest and 150

types of forest ecosystems (Doniţă et al. 1990). Presently, Romania has the largest natural forested

area and the largest natural beech forest in all Europe covering an area of 1 915 657 ha.

The syntaxonomy of mesophilous forests united the European beech forests in a single order

named Fagetalia sylvaticae Pawlowski 1928. Fagetalia include a number of regional alliances

(Török et al. 1989) as follows:• Scillo-Fagion Oberdorfer 1957, described from western Europe;

• Fagion austro-italicum Soó 1962, from central and southern Italy;



212

• Fagion medio-europaeum Soó 1960, from central Europe with several ecologically distinct

suballiances such as Carpinion, Cephalantero-Fagion, Eu-Fagion, Luzulo-Fagion, Abieti-

Fagion, and Acerion;

• Fagio illyricum Horvat 1938 from southeastern Alps, southwestern Hungary, Yugolsavia,

Albania, Greece;

• Fagion dacicum Soó 1962 (Syn S ymphyto-Fagion Vida 1959) described from eastern andsouthern Carpathians and eastern Balkan.

Beech forests from northern Asia Minor, southeastern Balkan, Crimeea and Caucasus are

assigned to order Fagetalia orientalis Soó 1962. The communities of Fagus orientalis are

markedly different from the communities of Fagus sylvatica, have a distinct floristic composition,

and belong to the Euxinian alliance Fagion orientalis (Soó 1964).

It is noted that the mesophilous forests of the eastern Balkan were subsequently included into a

separate alliance named Fagion moesiacum (Török et al. 1989).

More recent syntaxonomical approaches, includes the alliances Luzulo-Fagion (acidophilous

beech forests), Asperulo-Fagion (nutrient-rich beech forests), and Cephalanthero-Fagion

(thermophilous beech forests) as characteristic for the southern Central European beech forests

(Willner 2002).

Dacian beech forest characterization

Beech forests are well represented in Carpathian Mountains, their spreading area being known as

beech sub-zone. The inferior limit of beech sub-zone is 240 m high, sometimes lower (in Danube

Valley for example is 60 m). The most accepted superior limit of beech spread in Romania is

1200-1400, with a maximum of 1700 in Apuseni Mountains. Beech Carpathian forests are united

by Moor (Moor 1938) in a group of distinct vegetal associations named Fagetum carpaticum with

five distinct subunits (List 1).

Beech forests include in the herbaceous synusia some elements with selective or preferentialfidelity. These species are considered characteristics for Fagion alliance and their list (as shown

in List 2) are proposed for the first time by Moor (1938).

These floristic elements constitute a fundamental stock of mid-European and Baltic species that

survive the glaciations and followed the expansion of beech. Herbaceous layer of beech forests

include also other elements with different origins: Atlantic, Mediterranean, Illyrian, Pontic,

Dacian etc. These elements are considered to be essential to distinguish the regional association

from beech forests (Boşcaiu 1971).

The vegetal association that individualize the Dacian beech forest was named Fagetum dacicum

and described for the first time by the reputed Romanian botanist Al. Bedie (1951). The described

List 1. Subunits of Fagetum carpaticum

1 Fagetum carpaticum Fatrae Klika 1936

2 Fagetum carpaticum Cortusae Klika 1936

3 Fagetum tatrticum Szafer et Sokolowski 1927

4 Fagetum carpaticum babiogorense (Wallas 1933) Moor prov. 1938

5 Fagetum carpaticum orientale (Zlatnik 1935) Moor prov. 1938

List 2. Characteristic species for Fagion alliance

Abies alba Corydalis cava Festuca silvatica Neotia nidus-avis

Actaea spicata Daphne mezereum Lysimachia nemorum Phyteuma spicatum Asarum europaeum Elymus europaeus Melica uni fl ora Sanicula europaea

Asperula odorata Euphorbia dulcis Mercurialis perenis Veronica montana



214

Southeastern Carpathians between 600-1100 m altitude (Coldea 1991). The adjacent phytocenoses

are developed on mollic brown soil, deep pseudogleic, rich in mull type humus. In the tree layer

(24 m high and 70-80% coverage) the monodominant species is Fagus sylvatica. Other tree

species from the phytocenoses are Acer pseudoplatanus, Picea abies, Abies alba and Carpinus

betulus (Boşcaiu et al. 1982). In the herbaceous synusia the species Symphytum cordatum has

coverage of about 20%. There are also a number of species characteristic for the suballiance

Symphyto-Fagenion. Some of these species have coverage of about 30% like: Galium odoratum, Dryopteris filix-max, Anthyrium filix-femina (Boşcaiu & Täuber 1985). Based on their dominance

in herbaceous synusia Vida (1963) delimits a number of subassociations. A detailed analysis of

Table 4 Characteristic species for Symphyto-Fagion

Species Constancy class

Symphytum cordatum IV

Festuca drymeja IV

Euphorbia carniolica III

Dentaria glandulosa IIPulmonaria rubra II

Hepatica transsilvanica II

Aconitum moldavicum I

Ranunculus carpaticus I

Crocus heuffelianus I

Rubus hirsutus I

Silene heuffelii I

Helleborus purpurascens I

Table 5 Dacian beech forests types (adapted from Doniţă et al., 2005)

Nature

2000

code

Nature 2000

name

Romanian

codeRomanian

Habitat name

91V0

Dacian beech

forest

(Symphyto-

Fagetum)

R4101

South-East Carpathian spruce (Picea abies) beech(Fagus

sylvatica) and fir ( Abies alba) forests with Pulmonaria

rubra

R4103

South-East Carpathian spruce (Picea abies) beech

(Fagus sylvatica) and fir ( Abies alba) forests with

Leucanthemum waldsteinii

R4104South-East Carpathian beech (Fagus sylvatica) and fir( Abies alba) forests with Pulmonaria rubra

R4108

South-East Carpathian beech (Fagus sylvatica) and fir

( Abies alba) forests with Leucanthemum waldsteinii

R4109

South-East Carpathian beech (Fagus sylvatica) forests

with Symphytum cordatum

R4116

South-East Carpathian beech (Fagus sylvatica) forests

with Phyllitis scolopendrium

R4119

Dacian beech-hornbeam (Fagus sylvatica, Carpinus

betulus) forest with Carex pilosa

R4120Moldavian beech-silver lime (Fagus sylvatica, Tilia

tomentosa) mixed forest with Carex brevicollis



215

the phytocenologic material lead to the conclusion that the described subassociations are in fact

facies because the differential species are present in most of the analyzed beech forests (Sanda et

al. 2001).

Conservation measures

In 1998 the European Community adopted a Communication on a European Biodiversity Strategy

(Com (90)42), as required by the ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity. In a small

section on forests, it is acknowledged that forests contain the greatest proportion of biological

diversity in terms of species, genetic material and ecological processes and have an intrinsic

value for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. With global concern growing

over deforestation, loss of carbon stored in forests and the role of forests in climate change, the

spotlight has been turned on forest monitoring in a bid to safeguard forests and monitor emissions

from deforestation (Skov & Svenning 2004).

The main function of forests is to protect different ecosystems from soil erosion, pollution, to

create watershed protection and biomass production. Aerial pollutants are a serious thread in some

industrial areas (Ohlemüller et al. 2006). It is estimated that 250 000 ha are heavily affected by

pollution, and more than three million ha show foliar signs of pollution (FAO 2001). Pollution,

global warming and inappropriate forestry practices are the main causes for forest destruction.

Forest protection was legalized in Romania by the Act of Constitution from 1907. The National

System of Natural Parks and Reservations was initiated in 1990 and presently Romania’s network

of protected areas include a number of 27 parks (14 national and 13 natural) and reservations (55

scientific and 617 natural) totaling about 15000 km2 (each park and reservation has 80% forest

cover).

The major types of Dacian beech forests are conserved in situ within national parks and

biosphere reserves. The main protected areas where Dacian beech forest is preserved are given in

Table 6. In all these areas silvicultural practices are restricted and directed to conservation purposes.

As a consequence we can assume that Dacian beech forests are well conserved in these areas.

For the Dacian beech woods that are not included in protected areas and conservation areas

a sustainable forestry should be applied. These include the monitoring of natural evolution of

vegetal association in order to apply the proper forestry practices. Dacian beech forests are

evaluated to be in the ultimate successional stage named climax. Clearcutting critically disturb

the established balance damaging the structure of the associations and removing the climax stage

Table 6 National parks and biosphere reserves

Name Type Area (ha)Retezat Biosphere Reserve 54 400

Rodna Biosphere Reserve 56 700

Domogled - Valea Cernei National Park 60 100

Cheile Nerei - Beuşniţa National Park 45 561

Apuseni National Park 37 900

Bucegi National Park 35 700

Semenic - Cheile Caraşului National Park 30 400

Ceahlău National Park 17 200

Cozia National Park 17 100

Călimani National Park 15 300

Piatra Craiului National Park 14 800Cheile Bicazului National Park 11 600

Gr ădiştea de Munte National Park 1 000



216

(Godefroid et al. 2005).

Inappropriate forestry practices had consequences also on beech forests spread. In some forests

the beech moves to lower altitude favoring the pine (Jahn 1985). In this way beech forests were

replaced by pine forests that are not a reliable Piceetum, from phytosociological perspective.

These lost beech forests could be recognized by the presence of species Asperula odorata

in pine forests. Silvicultural practices should be as conservative as possible for the establishedclimax associations within Dacian beech forests. For example selective cutting (harvesting

individual trees or groups of trees from time to time on a regular basis over a long period of time)

is preferable.

Recently developed approaches like ex situ methods are not ef ficient in conservation of Dacian

beech forest. Ex situ conservation measures like preservation within Botanic gardens, seed banks,

in vitro cultures collections, cryopreservation etc. could be applied to individual species only, not

to the entire vegetal association.

Conclusions

Dacian beech forest has an individualized position within European beech forests. The presence

of some endemic species in the herbaceous synusia of the beech forest is a prerequisite for the

identity of the Romanian endemic vegetal associations and adjacent regional alliance Symphyto-

Fagion that characterize the Dacian beech forest. In situ conservation of the characteristic endemic

plants for the Symphyto cordati-Fagetum association is an essential condition for preserve the

individual position of Dacian beech forest within European beech woods. Silvicultural systems

should be adapted to limit any interference with natural ecosystems and forest herbs generally

and endemic species especially in order to enable the in situ preservation of the characteristic

associations. To achieve this goal, management without large clear harvesting methods that never

leave the ground completely bare is proposed as alternatives to the clearcutting system. The

forest conservation programs should include Dacian beech forest as one of the main importantobjectives because of their patrimonial, scientific and ecological value.

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Godefroid, S., Rucquoij, S., Koedam, N. 2005. To what extent do forest herbs recover after clearcutting in

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Jahn, G. 1985. Chorological phenomena in spruce and beech communities.Vegetatio 59: 21-27.

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Tőr ők, K., Podani, J., Borhidl, A. 1989. Numerical revision of the Fagion illyricum alliance. Vegetatio 81:

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219


Bucharest, Romania

Formarea, dezvoltarea şi caderea prematura a ghin-

dei de gârnita (Quercus frainetto ) în decursul unui

sezon de vegetatie

M. S. Nica, M. O. Badele, C. Netoiu, I. Cioc, C. Şoanca

Nică M. S., Bădele M. O., Neţoiu C., Cioc I., Şoancă C. 2009. Formarea, dezvoltareaşi căderea prematur ă a ghindei de gârniţă (Quercus frainetto) în decursul unui sezonde vegetaţie. [Formation, development and early abscission of the Italian oak (Quer-

cus frainetto) acorns during vegetation season]. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouri-aud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a changingenvironment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and ManagementInstitute ICAS, pp. 219-226.

Abstract. The paper presents the evolution of the formation, development andearly abscission of the italian oak acorns during vegetation season, from Mayto October. In order to study these physiological processes we isolated the firstset of flowering braches from the carpophagous insect’s attacks and compare the

results with natural flower development from the second set of branches. Resultsshowed that non-fecundated flowers, represented 27% from the initial number offlowers and 36% felt down in the different stage of the acorns development. Inthe autumn only 8% of the flowers developed in mature healthy acorns in naturalobservation plots and in the isolated flowers/acorns variant 28%; the differenceis represented by the acorns with carpophagous insects larvae: Balaninus glan-

dium, Carpocapsa sp., and Cynips sp..Key words: Querqus frainetto, flowers, development, acorns viability, fructificationseason

Authors. Marius Sorin Nică, Marcel Octavian Bădele, Constantin Neţoiu, IonelCioc, Cornel Şoancă - Forest Research and Management Institute, Bucharest,Craiova Station, Romania.

Introducere

Este cunoscut faptul că regenerarea naturală şi artificială a pădurilor de cvercinee depinde în principal de periodicitatea şi adundenţa fructificaţiei, dar şi de calitatea, viabilitatea ghindelorrezultate în anii de fructificaţie. Sporirea calităţii şi cantităţii de ghindă produsă în aborete sursă de seminţe, rezervaţii şi

plantaje a reprezentat şi reprezintă o preocupare constantă a silvicultorilor. În acest scop, la noiîn ţar ă studiile şi cercetările s-au concentrat numai pe protejarea ghindei stocate, iar în ultimi ani

cercetările s-au extins asupra protejării ghindei de atacurile insectelor seminofage, prin aplicareade stropiri succesive în plantaje (Neţoiu 2005). Speciile de cvercinee indigene fructifică abundent la cca. 4-8 ani, “cu stropeli” mai mari sau mai

,

,

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^

^

,

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220

mici intermediare. Periodicitatea şi abundenţa fructificaţiei variază cu specia, condiţiile staţionaleşi de arboret şi cu vitalitatea arborilor. Gorunul, în general, are producţia de ghindă mai constantă,cu o periodicitate de 3-6 ani, beneficiind de condiţii mai favorabile fitoclimatic ale arealului său.Stejarul pedunculat fructifică abundent mai rar, la 3-8 ani, însă în conditii de vegetaţie favorabile

produce stropeli slabe aproape anual. Cerul fructifică abundent la 3-5 ani sau mai des iar gârniţa

fructifi

că foarte rar, la 6-10 ani iar stropelile sunt slabe şi rare (Enescu 1982).Abundenţa fructificaţiei depinde în primul rând de numărul de flori ce apar primăvara, ca primă condiţie a dezvoltării unui număr cât mai mare de fructe (ghinde). Numărul şi periodicitateaapariţiei florilor este un caracter fixat genetic în decursul evoluţiei speciilor şi, într-o mică măsur ă,influenţat de factori de mediu. Gârniţa (Quercus frainetto) formeză flori grupate în inflorescenţe,din care se dezvoltă 1-4 (rar 5) ghinde pe un peduncul scurt, celelalte flori fiind nefecundatesau ghindele formate nu se dezvoltă. Acest fapt reprezintă, cel mai probabil, o formă de selecţienaturală la nivelul formării fructelor, din 4-6 flori din inflorescenţă, chiar dacă sunt fecundatetoate, numai 1-4 ghinde ajung la maturitate, în funcţie de anumiţi factori fiziologici şi/sau demediu.

Apariţia de flori numeroase primăvara nu garantează o producţie sporită de ghindă în acel an,cele mai multe specii de cvercinee având periodicităţi relativ mari cu fructificaţie abundentă (Stephenson 1981, Cecich 1991, Loftis & McGee 1993, Johnson et al. 2002). Într-un studiuf ăcut de Kossuth în 1974, la stejar alb (Q. alba), 80% din florile iniţiale au fost avortate nefiindfecundate în prima lună de la formare iar procentul de ghindă matur ă din florile iniţiale a fost de1-6%, în patru ani consecutivi.

Fecundarea florilor începe imediat după apariţia acestora, în luna mai, dar, conform unui studiuf ăcut de Jovanovic & Tucovic (1975) la Quercus robur fertilizarea (formarea zigotului), începe la5-6 să ptămâni de la germinarea polenului, sugerând că creşterea tubului polinic are loc după ceovulule s-au dezvoltat complet.

Având în vedere că, din totalul florilor din inflorescenţă o parte r ămân nedezvoltate, iar la altele

dezvoltarea ovarului s-a oprit în diferite stadii, este posibil ca numai florile fecundate primelesă se dezvolte în ghinde iar cele la care fecundarea s-a produs mai târziu, în funcţie de aportulde substanţe nutritive de care dispune planta, să fie avortate în diverse stadii de dezvoltare aleghindei.

La numeroase specii de arbori, factorii cu cel mai mare impact asupra cantităţii de fructe ce ajungla maturitate sunt de natur ă edafică şi climatică, dintre aceştia, cantitatea de substanţe minerale şiapă din sol fiind deteminaţi (Rauscher et al. 1997, Cecich & Sullivan 1999). Stephensen, în 1981,într-un studiu de sinteză a literaturii din domeniu, a ajuns la concluzia că, deşi lipsa polenizării,vătămarea fructelor şi seminţelor de către diver şi agenţi fitopatogeni şi entomofagi şi climatulnefavorabil influenţează considerabil producţia de fructe, principalul factor care limitează numărul

final de fructe, seminţe viabile este determinat de resursele minerale de care dispune planta. Dintre factorii biotici care influenţează producţia şi, în special, viabilitatea (puterea degerminare) ghindelor, insecte seminofage au o pondere însemnată. În literatur ă sunt citaţi ca

principali dăunători ai ghindei insectele din genul Curculio şi Conotrachelus (Feret et al. 1982,Csoka & Hirka 2006, Bonal & Munoz 2007). La noi în ţar ă principalele specii ce afectează

producţia de ghindă sunt Balaninus glandium (sin. Curculio glandium) , Carpocapsa amplana

şi Carpocapsa splendana (sin. Laspeyresia sp. , sin. Cydia sp.) (Neţoiu 2005). Deşi speciile deinsecte amintite mai sus pot provoca căderea prematur ă a ghindelor şi diminuarea considerabilă a viabilităţii ghindei prin reducerea (consumarea) cotiledoanelor embrionului, aceste afectează doar 20% din posibila producţie de ghindele, întrucât din numărul iniţial de flori, în medie doar20% devin ghinde (Kossuth 1974). Având în vedere că, prin aplicarea de măsuri şi tratamente pentru combaterea dăunătorilorseminofagi se poate mări procentul de ghindă sănătoasă, viabilă dar nu şi numărul total de ghindă ce ar putea fi obţinut într-un an, este necesar să se identifice complexul de factori ce acţionează



221

asupra formării, dezvoltării şi menţinerii ghindei.Cunoaşterea factorilor care influenţează producţia de ghindă, de la înflorire până la căderea

tuturor ghindelor formate, precum şi evoluţia dezvoltării acestora în decursul sezonului devegetaţie, reprezintă un prim pas în adoptarea unor măsuri diversificate de sporire a producţiei deghindă în arborete sursă de seminţe şi plantaje.

Având în vedere periodicitatea mare de fructifi

caţie a cvercineelor, determinată atât de factorigenetici cât şi de factori climatici şi edafici care, de cele mai multe ori, nu pot fi “îmbunătăţiţi”, prin studierea şi determinarea factorilor ce influenţează procesele de formare şi dezvoltare aghindelor putem să intervenim cu o serie de măsuri în scopul creşterii producţiei de ghinde viabileîn anii în care au loc fructificaţii abundente sau stropeli. În cadrul studiului s-a urmărit determinarea procentului de ghindă viabilă care rezultă dinnumărul iniţial de flori, a cauzelor care au condus la căderea prematur ă a florilor/ghindelor şidinamica căderii acestora pe parcursul unui sezon de vegetaţie.

Material şi metoda

Studierea factorilor ce influenţează formarea, dezvoltarea şi căderea prematur ă a ghindelor s-af ăcut pornind de la identificare a 10 arbori care au prezentat fructificaţie (flori) în anul 2007, în

plantajul de gârniţă de la Balasan, O.S Perişor, D.S Craiova. Dintre aceştia s-au selectat cinciramuri (de la cinci arbori diferiţi) pe care s-au instalat coşuri (fig. 1), respectiv cinci ramuri pe cares-au instalat saci (fig.2). Coşurile, instalate în scopul recoltării florilor/ghindelor căzute, au fostconfecţionate din sârmă şi plasă, având un diametru şi lungime variabilă, în funcţie de lungimearamuri pe care au fost instalate. Sacii au fost confecţionaţi din plasă de pânză cu ochiuri mici

pentru a nu permite pătrunderea insectelor şi pentru a colecta florile/ghindele căzute. Prima variantă, constituită din cinci ramuri pe care s-au instalat coşuri, denumită variantă martor, a încercat să surprindă procesele naturale ce au loc de la fecundarea florilor până la

căderea tututor ghindelor de pe ramuri. Cea de-a doua variantă, constituită din cinci ramuri pecare s-au instalat saci, denumită flori/ghinde izolate s-a amplasat în scopul protejării totale aghindelor de acţiunea insectelor seminofage.

Odată cu instalarea coşurilor şi sacilor s-a f ăcut şi numărarea florile de pe fiecare ramur ă (tabelul1). Numărarea ghindelor r ămase pe ramuri şi colectarea celor care au căzut în coşuri şi saci s-auf ăcut în datele de 29.05.2007, 12.06.2007, 25.06.2007, 17.07.2007, 02.08.2007, 14.08.2007,29.08.2007, 19.09.2007, 15.10.2007. Ghindele şi florile recoltate din coşuri şi saci au fost aduseîn laborator unde, prin secţionare s-au analizat cauzele care au condus la căderea acestora. Pentruaceasta s-a utilizat bisturiu pentru secţionarea ghindelor şi lupă 50x pentru observaţii. Florile

^

Fig. 1 Coş pentru colectarea florilor/ghindelor Fig. 2 Sac instalat pe ramur ă



222

nefecundate au fost identificate prin examinarea cu lupa a ovarului, fiind considerate nefecundateacele flori la care creşterea, dezvoltarea ovarului nu a început, chiar dacă, este posibil ca acestesă fi fost polenizate. Ghinde avortate (flori fecundate) au fost considerate florile la care a începutdezvoltarea ovarului, dar ghindele aflate în diverse stadii de dezvoltare au căzut.

Florile, respectiv ghindele căzute au fost împăr ţite în 6 categorii, după cum urmează: (i)nefecundate - florile la care, prin examinarea cu lupa, s-a constatat că ovarul nu a început să

se dezvolte, procesul de formare a embrionului nefiind declanşat; (ii) avortate - ghinde căzutecare au prezentat ovar în dezvoltare (ghindă în formare), embrionul fiind în diverse stadii dedezvoltare; (iii) Cynips - ghinde atacate de larve de Cynips sp.; (iv) Carpocapsa - ghinde atacatede larve de Carpocapsa sp.; (v) Balaninus - ghinde atacate de larve de Balaninus sp.; (vi) mature- sănătoase ghinde ajunse la maturitate fiziologică care nu au prezentat vătămări biotice. .Rezultate şi discutii

Pornind de la numărul de flori existent la data de 29.05.2007 cu două variante de lucru, neizolate(varianta martor) şi izolate de acţiunea insectelor seminofage (varianta ghindă izolată), pe

parcursul sezonului de vegetaţie s-au numărat şi analizatfl

orile/ghindele prezente pe ramuri şicele care au căzut, la diferite date calendaristice.În cazul variantei martor (fig. 3) se observă că numai 8% din numărul iniţial de flori au devenit

ghinde mature sănătoase. Din numărul iniţial de flori, 29% au fost nefecundate iar cel mai mare procent (33%) deşi fecundate, au fost avortate de către plantă în diverse stadii de dezvoltare aghindei. Procentul relativ mare de flori nefecundate este caracteristic speciilor de stejari, fiindinfluenţat de o serie de factori de natur ă biotică şi abiotică. Avortarea ghindelor se datorează,cel mai probabil, unor cauze fiziologice determinate de aportului de elemente nutritive şi/sau deumiditate din sol. Dintre insectele seminofage, Balaninus glandium a fost specia care a atacat cele mai multeghinde, deteminând căderea prematur ă a ghindelor şi consumarea cotiledoanelor ghindelormature (23% din florile iniţiale), urmată de Carpocapsa sp. (6%) şi Cynips sp. (2%).

Dacă scădem florile nefecundate şi ghindele formate dar avortate, rezultă că 38% din florileiniţiale ar fi putut deveni ghinde mature, sănatoase dar, datorită influenţei insectelor seminofage,numai 8% au ajuns la maturitate, sănătoase, restul fiind atacate de insecte, în special de Balaninus

glandium.În funcţie de cauzele care determină cădereaflorilor/ghindelor în decursul sezonului de vegetaţie,

acestea cad preponderent în anumite perioade de timp (fig. 4). După cum era de aşteptat, 30%din totalul florile nefecundate au căzut în intervalul 12.06-25.06, iar un procent aproximativ egalîn perioada următoare, 25.06-17.07, în total 60% din totalul florile nefecundate, restul de 40%au r ămas pe ramuri, pe pedunculii care au ghinde dezvoltate, căderea acestora având loc gradual

până în toamnă.Cele mai multe ghinde (40% din total) sunt avortate când se află în stadiul incipient, în intervalul

25.06-17.07, 20% în intervalul următor (17.07-02.08), iar restul gradual până la finalul sezonului

Ramura nr. Varianta martor Varianta ghindă izolată

1 127 932 203 1473 170 104

4 193 1635 104 40

TOTAL 797 547

Tabelul 1 Numărul de flori existent la data de 29.05.2007, pe fiecare ramur ă, respectiv variantă

,



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de vegetaţie. Ghindele atacate de Balaninus încep să cadă în intervalul 02.08-14.08 (20%), urmând o curbă ascendentă cu un maxim în intervalul 29.08-19.09 (60%), când ghindele au ajuns la maturitate

Fig. 3 Evoluţia numărului de flori/ghinde pe parcursul sezonului de vegetaţie 2007 la varianta martor

Fig. 4 Dinamica căderii florilor/ghindelor în cursul sezonului de vegetaţie la varianta martor



224

fiziologică, respectiv larvele de Balaninus au consumat o cantitate însemnată din cotiledoaneleembrionului. Comparativ cu ghindele atacate de Balaninus, cele atacate de Carpocapsa încep să cadă mai târziu, în perioada 17.07-02.08, iar cele mai multe (50% din numărul total de ghindeatacate) în ultimul interval, adică 19.09-15.10.

La varianta flori/ghinde izolate, deşi a fost constituită cu scopul izolării totale aflorilor/ghindelor

de acţiunea insectelor seminofage, se observă că Balaninua glandium a depus ouă în ghindele dininteriorul sacului cel mai probabil prin ochiurile sacului, la contactul dintre acesta şi ghindă, fiindgăsite larve în ghinde ce reprezintă 4% din numărul de flori iniţial (fig. 5). Ghindele atacate deCynips sp. (3% din numărul iniţial de flori) se explică prin faptul că această specie depune ouă înmuguri florali, deci înainte de data de 29.05.2007 când s-au izolat florile.

Ghindele mature sănătoase reprezintă 28% din numărul iniţial de flori, cea ce reprezintă un procent considerabil mai mare decât în cazul variantei martor (8%).

În cea ce priveşte florile nefecundate căzute şi ghindele avortate de către plantă, acestea aureprezentat 40%, respectiv 25% din numărul de flori iniţiale. Aceste procente sunt aproximativegale cu cele înregistrate la varianta martor, izolarea florilor/ghindelor în saci fiind f ăcută pentru a

proteja ghinda de atacurile insectelor seminofage, neinfluenţând fecundarea florilor sau avortareaghindelor. Din ghindele ajunse la maturitate (35% din florile iniţiale) în acest caz, 28% au fost sănătoase,f ăr ă a prezenta urme de atacuri. Acest fapt conduce la concluzia că, prin protejarea ghidei deatacurile insectelor seminofage prin combaterea acestora cu diverse insecticide, se poate mări

procentul total de ghindă, în special de ghindă sănătoasă.Căderea florilor nefecundate s-a produs relativ constant, între 15-20% din totalul ghindelor

în fiecare interval studiat, tot parcursul sezonului de vegetaţie (fig. 6). Acest fapt se explică prin protecţia oferită de saci împotriva curenţilor de aer, care în acest caz nu au mai scuturat florile de pe pedunculi şi ramuri, acestea căzând gradual şi nu în prima lună, ca în cazul variantei martor. La varianta ghindă izolată, cele mai multe ghinde au fost avortate în intervalul 25.06-17.07

(30% din totalul ghindelor avortate) şi în intervalul 14.08-29.08 (28%). Comparativ cu varianta

Varianta flori/ghinde izolate

10096

92

7470

66

47

17

48

1315

16

19

23

25

13 15 18

28

36

40

1

3

2

4

4

4

18

28

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

29.05 12.06 25.06 17.07 2.08 14.08 29.08 19.09 15.10

Data

% d

i n n u m a r u l i n i t i a l d e f l o r i

MATURE SANATOASE

CARPOCAPSA

BALANINUS

CYNIPS

AVORTATE

NEFECUNDATE

RAMASE

Fig. 5 Evoluţia numărului de flori/ghinde pe parcursul sezonului la varianta flori/ghinde izolate



225

martor, se observă un al doilea maxim în intevalul 14.08-29.08, când ghindele erau aproape dematuritate, lucru datorat probabil stresului hidric la care a fost supusă planta în a doua parte asezonului de vegetaţie. Rezultatele studiului indică faptul că, deşi insectele seminofage joacă un rol important îndezvoltarea, căderea prematur ă şi sănătatea ghindelor mature, cele mai multe ghinde au fostavortate de către plantă (33-40 % din florile iniţiale) ceea ce înseamnă că factori edafici (cantitateade elementele minerale din sol) şi climatici (cantitatea de precipitaţii) exercită, în ansamblu, ceamai mare influenţă asupra producţiei finale de ghindă.

Concluzii

Deşi în anii de fructificaţie gârniţa produce multe flori, majoritatea nu ajung să se dezvolte înghinde, cantitatea totală de ghindă produsă într-un an de fructificaţie şi viabilitatea acesteiadepinzând de o serie de factori care acţionează în momente diferite asupra formării şi dezvoltării

acestora. Principalii factori care influenţează producţia finală de ghindă şi în special calitatea acesteiasunt numărul de flori ce apar primăvara, determinat de periodicitatea de fructificaţie a speciei,fixată genetic, condiţiile pedo-climatice şi activitatea insectelor ce atacă ghinda. Pe parcursulsezonului de vegetaţie, în perioada mai-iunie polenizarea este influenţată de factori climatici cavântul şi precipitaţiile; în iunie-iulie căderea prematur ă a ghindelor formate este determinată,în principal de factori pedo-climatici şi fiziologici, iar în perioada iulie-septembrie de insecteleseminofage şi de cantitatea de precipitaţii (Larsen & Cecich 1997). Analizând procentul de fecundare a florilor, s-a observat că acesta a fost de 75%, respectiv 79%din numărul de flori iniţiale. Tinând cont de faptul că polenizarea florilor este influenţată şi de

factori climatici (vânt, precipitaţii ) acest proces nu poate fi controlat sau îmbunătăţit în scopulcreşteri producţiei de ghindă. Ghindele avortate au reprezentat cel mai mare procent din numărul iniţial de flori, fiind de 33%la varianta martor, respectiv 40% la varianta ghindă izolată. Diferenţa dintre cele două variantese poate explica prin faptul că o parte din ghindele căzute datorită atacului de Balaninus sp. înintervalul 14.08-29.08, oricum cădeau, probabil din cauza stresului hidric din această perioadă.35-40% din numărul total de ghinde avortate au căzut în perioada 25.06-17.07, când condiţiileclimatice, în special umiditatea au fost favorabile. Într-o sinteză a literaturii din acest domeniu,Stephensen (1981) a concluzionat că în cazul speciilor arborescente resursele minerale de caredispune planta reprezintă un factor principal ce determină cantitatea de seminţe viabile produsede către plante, deci şi în cazul de faţă avortarea ghindelor, la începutul dezvoltării acestora sedatorează cel mai probabil factorilor fiziologici legaţi de nutriţia minerală a plantei.

Un factor important care influenţează cantitatea de ghindă ce ajunge la maturitate, şi în special

Fig. 6 Dinamica căderii florilor/ghindelor în cursul sezonului de vegetaţie la varianta ghindă izolată



226

gradul de viabilitate al acesteia, îl reprezintă acţiunea insectele seminofage, larvele acestoraacţionând asupra reducerii viabilităţii ghindelor prin consumarea cotiledoanelor embrionului şideterminând căderea prematur ă a acestora. Ghindele atacate de Balaninus sp., Carpocapsa sp.şi Cynips sp. au reprezentat 30% din numărul iniţial de flori (din 38% câte ar fi putut fi atacate),iar în cazul variantei ghindă izolată numai 7% (maximul 35% din numărul iniţial de flori), 3%

reprezentând atacuri de Cynips, care a depus ouăle înfl

ori înainte de izolare şi 4% Balaninuscare a înţepat ghinda la contactul acesteia cu sacul. Studii privind acţiunea insectelor seminofageasupra căderii prematuare şi viabilităţii ghindei arată că 36-61% dintre ghindele căzute prematursau mature au prezentat diverse grade de vătămări provocate de larvele acestor insecte (Csoka &Hirca 2006), deci combaterea acestor insecte la momentul optim (iunie), poate spori considerabilcantitatea de ghindă viabilă obţinută în special din livezi semincere şi plantaje. Dintre cauzele care conduc la diminuarea producţiei de ghinde de gârniţă, căderea prematur ă reprezintă unul dintre cei mai importanţi; 33-40% din procentul iniţial de flori, deşi s-au formatghinde, acestea au fost avortate de către plantă, în diverse stadii de dezvoltare. Având în vederea că acest proces este determinat, în principal de cantitatea de substanţe minerale pe care plante poatesă le asimileze, pentru a mări producţia de ghindă, alături de combaterea insectelor seminofage,trebuiesc aplicate măsuri de asigurare a optimului de elemente minerale în sol, în func ţie decerinţele fiecărei specii de cvercinee.

Bibliografie

Bonal, R., Munoz, A. 2007. Seed growth suppression constrains the growth of seed parasites: premature acornabscission reduces Curculio elephas larval size. Ecological Entomology 33: 31-36.Cecich, R.A. 1993. Flowering and oak regeneration. In Loftis, D., McGee, C.E. (eds.) Oak regeneration: serious problems, practical recommendations. Symposium proceedings. Asheville, NC: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, ForestService, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station Gen.Tech. Rep. SE-84, pp. 79-95.Cecich R. A., Brown G. L., Piotter B.K. 1991. Pistillate flower abortion in three species of oak. In Mc Cornick L.

H., Gottschalk, K.W. (eds.) Proceedings, 8th Cantral Hardwood Forest Conference. U.S Department of Agriculture,Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-148, pp. 578.Cecich, R. A., Sullivan, H. N. 1999. Influence of weather at time of pollination on acorn production of Quercus

alba and Quercus velutina. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 28(12): 1817-1823.Csoka, G., Hirka, A. 2006. Direct effects of carpophagous insects on the germination ability and early abscissionof oak acorns. Acta Silv. Lign. Hung. 2: 57-68.Enescu, V. 1982. Producerea seminţelor forestiere. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, 323 p.Feret, P.P., Kreh, R.E., Merkle, S.A., Oderwald, R.G. 1982. Flower abundance, premature acorn abscission, andacorn production in Quercus alba L. Botanical Gazette 143(2): 216-218.Johnson, P. S., Shifley, S. R., Rogers, R. 2002. The Ecology and Silviculture of Oaks. CABI Publishing. www. books.google.com.Jovanovic, M., Tucovic, A. 1975. Genetics of common and sessile oak (Quercus robur L. and Q. Petraea Liebl.).

Annales Forestales 7: 23-53.Kossuth, S.V. 1974. Premature acorn abscission in white oak. (Quercus alba L.). Ph.D. dissertation, YaleUniversity.Larsen, D. R., Cecich, R. A. 1997. Model of white oak flower survival and maturation. In: Pallordy S. G., Cecich,R.A., Gorrett, H.G., Johnson, P. S. (eds.), Proccedings of the 11th Central Hardwoods Forest Conference, Univ.Missouri, Columbia, MO. March 23-26, USDA, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, Gen.Tech. Rep. NC-188, pp. 262-268. Neţoiu, C., Stoenescu, M. 2005. Vătămări produse de dăunatorii seminofagi ai cvercineelor şi măsuri de controla acestora. Simpozion cu participare internaţională, “Agricultura durabilă - Agricultura viitorului”, ediţia I,Universitatea din Craiova, (CD) ISSN 1582-9391Rauscher, H.M., Loftis, D. L., McGee, C. E., Worth, C. V. 1997. Oak regeneration: a knowledge synthesis. TheCompiler 15(1): 52-53.

Rauscher, H.M., Rogers, R. 2009. Oak reproduction biology. www.forestencyclopedia.net/p/p2204.Stephenson, A.G. 1981. Flower and fruit abortion: proximate causes and ultimate functions. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst.12: 253-279.



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Bucharest, Romania

Physiological aspects of Quercus species under

chemical and integrated pest control in North-

Eastern Romania’s forests

L. Acatrinei

Acatrinei, L. 2009. Physiological aspects of Quercus species under chemical andintegrated pest control in North-Eastern Romania’s forests. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu

M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable forestry in a

changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Man-

agement Institute ICAS, pp. 227-234.

Abstract. Ecophysiological studies were made in Quercus species in oaks forest un-

der chemical and integrated pest control treatments. The ecophysiological response

of the trees to pesticide treatments was evaluated in Şanta forest (chemical treated)

and Poieni forest (integrated control on insect defoliator) stations, Ciurea forest dis-

trict, Iaşi county. Studies are dealing with the analysis of photosynthetic parameters

(chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids pigments), hydric metabolism (dry

matter content and humidity of leaves) and indicators of sugars metabolism (mono-,

di- and polysaccharide. Fresh and oven dried leaves as well as one-two years old branches taken from the middle part of the trees during three growing cycles, (2006-

2008) were used as biologic material. The photosynthetic parameters analyzed have

shown relatively higher values of chlorophylls and carotenoids in Poieni forest oaks

(mainly, Q. robur ) than in Şanta forest oaks (mainly, Q. petraea). Dry matter ac-

cumulation rate is relatively faster in one year old branches from Poieni forest oaks.

Oak branches relative humidity is higher due to Poieni forest conditions. Until now,

ecophysiological studies have shown a constant rhythm of dry matter and sugars

accumulation and higher values in Quercus sp. in Poieni forest than in Şanta forest.

Integrated pest management in Poieni forest have probably determined these eco-

physiological responses in plants and have not affected the plants capacity to adjust

to defoliators attacks and to diseases. More studies about physiological behavior of

oaks over different growing cycles will be needed to certify this point.

Key words: Quercus petraea, Quercus robur , pshyology

Author. Ligia Acatrinei - Biological Research Institute, Iasi, Lascăr Catargi st. 47,

700107 - Iaşi, Romania.

Introduction

In Poieni forest (Ciurea Forest District, Iaşi County) the last treatment with a biological insecticide

(Thuringin) was done in 1990 on T. viridana, Geometridae and L. dispar caterpillars, in medium

infestation conditions (higher defoliations under a treatment with an organophosphorous product

Silvetox were registered one year before). Because of the stand structure (Quercus petraea, Fagus

sylvatica, Q. robur of 60-140 years) and of the favorable conditions in this forest (insectivorous



228

birds stimulation), no growing of the defoliators populations was registered in the last 17 years

and consequently the application of some pest control works was not necessary.

Our study approaches oak forest physiological capacity through photosynthetic parameters and

carbohydrates, and nally evaluates the metabolic potential of oak forests after many years of

treatment and climatic change in this part of Europe.

Material and methods

The samples were collected in Şanta and Poieni forests (Ciurea Forest District, Iaşi county, in the

NE of Romania) mostly in oaks stands. In Şanta Forest (oak stands in which trees are mostly 150

years old) the last treatment with Rimon (synthesis product) was given in 2003 against T. viridana

and Geometridae. The previous treatment with Dimilin (insect growth regulator) was in 1997.

We also used physiological methods like the analysis of chlorophylls and carotenoids pigments. physiological methods like the analysis of chlorophylls and carotenoids pigments.

Photosynthetic parameters as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids complex were analized

through the method with acetone 85% Meyer-Berthrand modied by Ştirban (1985). The results

were expressed in mg/g fresh weight (mg/g fr.w.). The analysing of sugars metabolism about

monosaccharides, dissacharides and polysaccharides by the method Bertrand & Borell (1953)

was also performed. The results were expressed in g of glucosis per cent (g%) of dry matter. The

water and dry matter content in branches were appreciated by gravimetric methods.

The studies were performed in the framework of a national project, CEEX type, in collaboration

with the Forest Research and Management Institute (ICAS).Forest Research and Management Institute (ICAS).

Results

Investigations focused especially on the sites which suffered the highest insect attacks during the

last years. To do that, some oak species from different ua’s and up’s (forest organized in landscape

units = ua’s) of Şanta and Poieni forests (Ciurea Forest District, Iaşi county) were analyzed. Physiological researches regarding the plant responses investigated the content of assimilatory

pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids) and also the sugar metabolism by analysing some

indicators (monosaccharides, di- and polysaccharides).

These studies aimed at analysing oak branches water content and dry mass, in order to evaluate

the physiological response of the trees after many years of pesticide treatment in these woods.

The water regime parameters analyzed in pedunculate oak (Q. robur ) branches show normal

physiological activities in early spring (Fig.1). In this period of buds formation we observe an

increasing of physiological activity parameters from the basis to the top of the tree crown, in the

same time with the circulation of the phloem sap..

The dynamics of branches water and dry content was analyzed through the variation of these

parameters during the spring of 2007. The water content increased and dry matter decreased by

1.04-1.45 times (Fig.2) in Q. robur trees from Şanta forest between January and April 2007. In

Poieni forest, the dynamic of water content in branch and dry matter decreased with 0.98 to 1.57

times during the period January-April 2007. This process was due to sap circulation and buds

opening in the spring once with sugars translocation in branches.

The variation interval of dry mass and water content respectively is higher in tree branchesThe variation interval of dry mass and water content respectively is higher in tree branches

from Poieni forest than in Şanta forest tree branches, although the differences are not signicant

(Fig. 2-3).

Analysis of water content and dry mass showed a slightly larger variation in Poieni forest tree

branches than in Şanta forest branches. The values of those parameters are closer for the trees

of two of the forests but dynamics during the January-April period had some variation. Theincreasing of water in tree branches in Poieni forest could be due to pedoclimatic conditions

insofar as where the quantity of precipitations was higher (587 mm) and the altitude higher (300



230

is due to the smaller values of all the pigments (chlorophylls and carotenes), but moreover of

chlorophyll b which is three times lower than the same parameter registered in oaks from Poieni

forest.

Sugar metabolism was studied through the analysis of the monosaccharides, disaccharides andSugar metabolism was studied through the analysis of the monosaccharides, disaccharides and

polysaccharides. Sugar metabolism showed an increasing of the disaccharides by almost 3 times

than monosaccharides in one year branches of trees in early spring at Şanta forest. The higher

content of sucrose (represented by disaccharides) increased from basis up to top of tree crown

Fig. 3 Variation of water and dry matter content in branches of in branches of branches of Quercus petraea from Poieni forest, Ciureafrom Poieni forest, CiureaPoieni forest, Ciureaforest, Ciurea

Forest District (Iaşi county)

Fig. 4 Average quantities of assimilatory pigments in Quecus robur and Q. petraea leaves at studied

forests, Ciurea Forest District (Iaşi county), in April



231

once with starch hydrolysis from annual wood and buds opening (Fig. 6).

The sugar assimilation in the oak leaves showed higher quantity with 5 % of total sugarsThe sugar assimilation in the oak leaves showed higher quantity with 5 % of total sugars

in leaves of analyzed species from Şanta forest than analyzed species from Poieni forest. The

differences are not signicant but showed greater accumulations of polysaccharides in oaks at

Şanta forest. The possible explanations could be the attack of the Microsphaera abreviata and

injurious insects observed at that time on the oaks leaves in trees from Poieni forest (Fig. 7).(Fig. 7).

Analyses of the carbohydrate parameters in Q. petraea in neighborhood of Ciurea Forest District

showed comparable values of the same parameters in other oak forests from Northeastern ofRomania (Antohe et al. 1995).

Fig. 5 Average quanties of assimilatory pigments in Quecus robur and Q. petraea leaves at studied

forests, Ciurea Forest District (Iaşi county), in June.

Fig. 6 Variation of carbohydrates content in branches of carbohydrates content in branches of content in branches of Quercus robur at Şanta forest, Ciurea Forestat Şanta forest, Ciurea ForestŞanta forest, Ciurea Forestforest, Ciurea Forest

District (Iaşi county)

Legend: I- basis of tree crown, II-middle of tree crown, III-top of tree crown



232

Discussion

Studies of physiology of trees from this period were limited concerning the observation of the

chlorosis, dryness phenomenon, the decrease of the foliage density, debilitation and decline of

trees (Murariu et al. 1997, Hance 2003).Murariu et al. 1997, Hance 2003)., Hance 2003).

Our results regarding the chlorophyll content and sugar metabolism showed closer values with

those registered in forest ecosystems from Central Moldavian Plateau in Q. petraea stands, also

from North-Eastern part of Romania (Murariu et al. 1997).Regarding the pollution matter, our analyses showed some differences between trees treated

with chemicals and those with integrated pest control.

The amount of chlorophylls and carotenoids in Q. robur from Şanta forest (chemical treatment)

are lower than those registered in Q. petraea from Poieni forest (integrated control). That

decreasing is due by a lower quantity of chlorophyll b during the leaves elevation until fully

development foliage in studied oaks from Şanta forest. Biosynthesis of chlorophylls depends

of species, site conditions and the studies should be approached to be sure if the differences are

related with the type of pest control (chemical or integrated) or have other causes.

Some authors revealed that pesticides actioned through blocking mechanisms of photosynthesis,

assimilatory pigments synthesis and were inhibitory over plant metabolism (Murariu et al. 1997,

Ivănescu et al. 2003, Acatrinei 200�). Our studies cannot certify what were the actions of the

pesticides and the interaction in tree over time, but exist obvious differences between trees

chemically treated and those integrated treated.

After years of applications of DDT, the pest control in Santa forest was achieved with

metamorphosis inhibitors as Dimilin and Rimon (Ciornei et al. 2007).

Some studies in oak forests in Northeastern Romania showed that undecomposed DDE, the

metabolite of DDT still exist in soil after twenty years of applications (Hance 2003). Pesticide’s

remanence in soil in Şanta forest could be incriminated by the lower values of the assimilatory

pigments and the inhibition of some physiological mechanisms that regulated the water regime in

branches of oaks from this site. After 1990’s Poieni forest was managed by integrated pest control

and there was no chemical treatment and grace to that, may be trees responses have a highervariation of physiological parameters.

Anyway, it could seem the multiple stress factors action than one in these circumstances. TheThe

Fig. 7 Average content of carbohydrates in leaves of Q. petraea (Şanta Forest) and Q.robur (Poieni Forest)

at studied sites, Ciurea Forest District (Iaşi county)



233

pesticide applications and soil depositions besides climatic conditions (drought and winds) will

inuence each time the ecophysiological response of Quercus petraea and Q. robur trees.

Conclusions

Pesticides act like inhibitors in trees metabolism. In this case, after years during which the lasttreatment was administrated (2003, at Şanta forest) the values of physiological parameters in two

species of oaks are smaller than those in trees without chemical treatment (Poieni forest).

The multiple stressor action is a more realistic hypothesis. The pesticide applications and

soil depositions besides climatic conditions (drought and winds) and biotic actions (insects and

diseases) will always inuence the ecophysiological response of Quercus petraea and Q. robur

trees.

References

Acatrinei, L., Andor, I. 2006. Physiological researches at varieties of grapes in Cotnari vineyards under

pesticides treatments (in Romanian with an English abstract). Lucrările Ştiinţice USAMV ”Ion Ionescu dela Brad”, Seria Horticultură 1(49): 317-322.

Antohe, A., Murariu, A., Pisica-Donose, A. 1995. Recherches sur la biosynthese des pigments d’assimilation

et sur l’intensite de la photosynthese au Quercus petraea, Carpinus betulus et Tilia tomentosa dans certains

ecosystemes forestiers du Plateau Central de la Moldavie (Roumanie). An. Muz. Naţ. al Bucov., Fasc.

Ştiinţele Naturii 13: 97-107.

Ciornei, C., Ciucă, L., Hance, Th. 2003. Predator soil fauna with impact on defoliator populations from oak

forests of Moldavia. Analele ICAS, Seria I 46: 187-196.187-196.

Hance, Th., Cambier, V. 2003. Relationships between soil fauna and Apethymus liformis outbreaks in

Romania. Analele ICAS, Bucharest, Seria I 46: 39-48.

Hager, A., Meyer-Bertenrath, T. 1966. Die Isolierung und quantitative Bestimmung der Carotenoide und

Chlorophylle von Blättern, Algen und isolierten Chloroplasten mit Hilfe dünnschicht-chromatographischerMethoden. Planta 69: 128-217.

Ivănescu, L., Toma, C. 2003. Inuence of air pollution in plant structure (in Romanian). Ed. Fund.”Andrei

Şaguna”, Constanţa, 394 p.

Murariu, A., Ştefan, M., Ştefan, N., Davidescu, G. 1997. Physiological and Biochemical modications in

leaves of woody species under air pollution (in Romanian). Stud. cerc., Seria biol. Veget. 49: 1-2, 77-89

Ştirban, M. 1985. First processes in photosynthesis (in Romanian). Ed. Did. Ped. Bucureşti.



234



235


Bucharest, Romania

Principii de management al populatiilor piscicole din

apele de munte

I. Cristea

Cristea I. 2009. Principii de management al populaţiilor piscicole din apele de munte.

[Management principles of sh populations in mountain waters]. In: Olenici N.,Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference “Sustainable for -estry in a changing environment“, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Researchand Management Institute ICAS, pp. 235-240.

Abstract. The studies already carried out permit to estimate that salmonides popula-

tions will be recreated by applying specic recommendations regarding mountainwater sh-breeding management, according to the ecology of the species and ac -

cording to the action plan elaborated through this research work by better protectingsh-breeding populations and by facilitating salmons migration to their reproduction places. As an example, by guaranteeing longitudinal connexion between mountain-

ous torrents, regarding the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD), the capture rate by recreative-sportive shing (TAC) will signicantly increase. Adopting ecological

reconstruction measures for mountainous aquatic ecosystems regarding both the bio-tope (river/creek; lake) and the aquatic biocenosis (ichtyofauna mainly represented by salmons, and benthic invertebrate fauna, main source of food for the ichtyofauna)has generated a considerable improvement in environmcnt conditions. Ecologicalreconstruction was established to be made on the shing funds with a higher levelof trout potenţial. It was established a number of ecologica! reconstruction measureson short, medium and long term, both in the rivers and lakes. Minimum ecologicalwater ow, down stream of the systematic dams from the mountain running waters,was established different, according to with trout productivity and in direct relationwith the reliability of the forest area. So, on the shing funds from the rst category,water usage for energetic purpose will be < 1/3 from the natural water ow up streamthe dam. For the shing funds from the second category of trout productivity, waterow used will be between 1/3 and 2/3 from the natural up stream water ow. For the

shing funds from third category, water ow used can be > 2/3, till the total usage. Inthis situation, hydro-electric-power has a benec purpose, to improve the water ow balance. As a conclusion, we can state that in order to harmonize the national legisla-

tion with the European one regarding environment, and more precisely regarding the protection of aquatic ecosystems in mountainous hydrographic basins, it is necessaryIo adopt a plan of sustainable management, so as this study does.Key words: mountain water, sh populations, management principles

Author. Ioan Cristea - Forest Research and Management Institute, Bd. Eroilor 128,077190 - Voluntari, Romania. Colaboratori RNP – Romsilva: Drd. Petre Gărgărea,Ing. Sabin Bratu, Ing. Mugurel Minca, Colaboratori ICAS Bucureşti, tehn. pr. Adri-ana Gruia, silv. Victoria Dobre

,



236

Consideratii generale

Pentru realizarea unui echilibru durabil în timp, implicit a stadiului de “climax” al ecosistemuluiacvatic montan, este necesar să se asigure o integrare in ecosistemul forestier zonal, corespunzător

bonităţii staţionale naturale, a amenajărilor hidrotehnice, astfel încât impactul antropic să e cât

mai redus, prin optimizarea soluţiei tehnice cu cerinţele ecologice conform Directivei Cadru pentru Apă a Uniunii Europene. Astfel, problematica actuală prioritară constă în asigurareaconectivităţii longitudinale şi laterale a cursurilor de apă, practic a migraţiei păstrăvului comun înamonte de baraje şi menţinerea unui debit minim ecologic în aval de aceste captări. Productivitatea salmonicolă medie în apele de munte din ţara noastră este în prezent de 14 kg/km, conform ultimei cartări efectuate de ICAS, în anul 2003. Aceasta reprezintă de fapt recoltade extras prin pescuit recreativ-sportiv (TAC - Total Admisible Capture), dintr-un fond gospodăritraţional. Prin măsurile de reconstrucţie ecologică aceasta poate reveni într-o primă etapă la 17kg/km, valoare estimată în anul 1992, ca obiectiv ţintă. Pentru refacerea populaţiilor piscicole înscopul realizării acestui obiectiv, s-a propus recoltarea a 25% din recolta calculată de pe ecarefond de pescuit, productivitatea calculată ind mult peste cea reală.

Stadiul cunoştintelor

ICAS a efectuat studii privind debitele minime ecologice în aval de baraje (Cristea 1988-1998) şimigraţia păstrăvului comun (Salmo trutta fario L.) toamna la boişte în amonte de aceste captări(Vişoianu et al. 1982). Marcarea peştilor s-a efectuat prin tăierea vârfului nodălcii. Specialiştii de la Facultatea de Piscicultură Galaţi şi Institutul de Biologie Bucureşti auconstatat, în perioada 1970-1980, impactul nefavorabil al barajului Porţile de Fier asupra migraţieisturionilor. Recent s-a efectuat un studiu privind migraţia sturionilor in Delta Dunării. Pentru realizarea conectivităţii longitudinale şi laterale a cursurilor de apă, conform directivelor

Uniunii Europene, de exemplu în Franţa, pentru refacerea cursului de apă Garonne, s-a dezafectat prin dinamitare un baraj al unui lac de acumulare colmatat. În Olanda există un pasaj pentru peştitip “by-pass” pe lângă barajul de pe insula Maurik. În SUA, pentru tranzitul peştilor anadromi (care trăiesc în mări şi oceane, şi care migrează

pe distanţe de peste 1500 km la izvoarele cursurilor de apă dulcicole, de exemplu somonul deAtlantic (Salmo salar ) pentru depunerea icrelor în vederea reproducerii), în amonte de localitateaConowingo, barajul pe râul Maryland s-a amenajat cu un lift în valoare de 12 mil. $, prin caretranziteaza anual peste 100.000 de peşti. Un alt tip de pasaj pentru peşti, functional prin lungime şi înălţimea treptelor, este de exemplucel din Scoţia de pe râul Clunie.

Scopul cercetarilor

Se preconizează realizarea unui management durabil al resurselor acvatice vii, conformlegislaţiei UE, principiul de bază ind protejarea acestora.

Obiectivele cercetarii

Pentru atingerea scopului acestei lucrări conform Directivei Cadru pentru Apă 60/E.C. s-austabilit următoarele obiective de management, pe următoarele etape de realizat: Etapa a I-a. Date generale privind fauna piscicolă existentă. Evaluarea stării de sănătate

a ecosistemelor acvatice montane: (i) biotop (râu, pârâu, lac) ca mediu de viaţă; (ii) biocenoză- fauna: vertebrate (peşti), conform cartării din studiul făcut de Cristea (2003).

,

,

^

^



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Etapa a II-a. Măsurile şi obiectivele de management pentru pescuitul sportiv. Elaborareamăsurilor manageriale pentru refacerea populaţiilor piscicole la nivelul optim, corespunzătorcategoriei de productivitate salmonicolă. Restabilirea conectivităţii longitudinale a cursurilor deapă montane.

Etapa a III-a. Monitorizarea ecosistemului acvatic după implementarea măsurilor

manageriale

Metoda de cercetare

S-a utilizat metoda analitică pe teren şi în laborator şi a constat în analize, observaţii şi evaluărispecice. Pe teren activitatea s-a desfăşurat în staţii de lucru şi pe “itinerar”, pentru evaluarea

bonităţii salmonicole, conform punctajului obţinut prin utilizarea cheilor de determinare elaboratede ICAS. Pentru evaluarea populaţiilor piscicole, s-a folosit metoda Leger-Huet completată deICAS (Vişoianu, Cristea) şi metoda anchetei sociale în rândul pescarilor localnici. În faza ulterioarăs-au sintetizat şi prelucrat datele înregistrate în urma lucrărilor de teren şi s-au concluzionatrezultatele în urma efectuării analizelor de laborator.

Rezultate preconizate - principii manageriale

Etapa I - Identicarea factorilor limitativi care contribuie la scăderea productivităţii salmonicolea apelor de munte, în scopul diminuării sau eliminării impactului acestora. Barajele amenajate

pe cursurile de apă montane constituie una din principalele cauze ce afectează fauna piscicolă.Acestea constituie obstacole pentru salmonide toamna la “boişte”, prin fragmentarea ecosistemuluiacvatic, prin absenţa scărilor de peşti fracţionate şi a debitelor în aval de acestea. Poluarea chimică a cursurilor de apă montane se produce prin deversarea în apele râurilora rezidurilor industriale locale (ex. pârâul Novăţ-Vişeu) şi menajere (hotelieră etc.) care sunt

extrem de periculoase asupra faunei şi orei acvatice. Deasemenea poluarea se poate produce prin braconaj, folosindu-se diverse substanţe chimice. Poluarea se poate produce şi prin precipitaţii pluvio-nivale cu metale grele (Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd) provenite din halde de steril minier, antrenateîn atmosferă de vânt. În general, sursa cea mai importantă de poluare cu reziduuri industrialeîn zona montană este reprezentată de întreprinderile miniere (ex. Întreprinderea minieră Borşade pe Vişeu) prin sterilul de otaţie, prin substanţele chimice utilizate în procesul de spălare aminereului. Astfel s-a produs catastrofa ecologică din anul 2000, prin spargerea barajului de pe

pârăul Novăţ, când cianurile rezultate din spălarea minereurilor neferoase au ajuns în Ungaria.Printr-o lucrare vizând protecţia lostriţei, nanţată de Ministerul Mediului şi efectuată de ICASîn perioada 1993-1996, s-a avertizat asupra pericolului de poluare prin amenajarea acestei captări

pe pârâul Novăţ. Exploatările forestiere abuzive provoacă o serie de fenomene negative cum ar degradareasolului, formarea de torenţi şi viituri, cu modicări majore ale albiei râului. Datorită creşteriivitezei apei, în urma unor cantităţi sporite de precipitaţii, creşte şi cantitatea de suspensii din apă(> 80 g/l), producându-se asxia piscicolă şi colmatarea albiei. Altă consecinţă a despăduririlormontane este şi creşterea temperaturii apei, prin absenţa umbririi, ceea ce limitează posibilităţile desupravieţuire în apa râului a salmonidelor şi a nevertebratelor bentonice, prin absenţa detritusului,resturi vegetale care constituie hrana acestora. În zona izvoarelor, despădurirea are adeseoriconsecinţe dezastruoase, modicându-se nivelul pânzei freatice, având ca urmare o afectare a

biotopului încă din zona din amonte a cursului de apă. Exploatările balastiere ilegale accentuează caracterul torenţial al cursului de apă, afectează

habitatul peştilor şi diminuează oferta trocă constituită de nevertebratele bentonice din albiaminoră. Pragurile articiale sunt construite pentru a diminua viteza şi puterea erozivă şi a crea bulboane



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pentru adăpostul peştilor şi o mai bună oxigenare a apei. Praguri de acest tip s-au constatat pefondurile de pescuit Putna mijlocie şi Ialomiţa superioară la Horoabe. Aceste praguri de betonnu reprezintă însă o soluţie ecologică, putându-se alege o altă variantă, mai simplă, şi anumeamplasarea de bolovani din albia majoră sau bucăţi de stâncă, din poieni învecinate în albiaminoră a râului, încastrate în mal. În acest fel se înbunătăţeşte coecientul de sinuozitate al

malurilor, creindu-se astfel locuri de adăpost pentru puiet, în primul rând, şi pentru instalareanevertebratelor bentonice, sporindu-se aportul troc pentru salmonide. “Igienizarea” şi dragarea albiilor minore inuenţează nefavorabil fondul piscicol. Bolovanii,stâncile etc. modică regimul de curgere creind alternarea zonelor cu faună lotică, de repeziş şi decontracurent, bulboane, cu cele cu fauna lentică, de curent redus. Un efect similar îl au şi arboriicăzuţi în albie, rădăcinile. Plantele acvatice din zonele lentice, în cantitate şi diversitate sucientă,

pot oferi habitatul optim pentru o largă biodiversitate în râu, de la puiet până la specii de peşti demari dimensiuni. Este indicată scoaterea din albie numai a buştenilor mari şi a arborilor care prinaglomerări în faţa podurilor ar putea duce la ruperea acestora şi pot produce inundaţii locale. Etapa a II-a - Conservarea şi ameliorarea bonităţii naturale a populaţiilor piscicole montane.Pentru reconstrucţia ecologică a fondurilor de pescuit care au un potenţial natural peste cel actual,

este necesar să se aplice şi să se respecte următoarele principii: (i) evitarea barării cursurilor deapă pentru amenajări hidrotehnice sau piscicole. Singurele baraje care se justică vor cele careameliorează caracterul torenţial accentuat al râurilor/pâraielor; (ii) debitul minim de servituteîn aval de baraje se va asigura în funcţie de productivitatea salmonicolă a fondului de pescuitrespectiv şi de debitul natural din amonte (Tabel 1). Debitul minim necesar în aval de barajelemicrohidrocentralelor se poate realiza prin adaptarea unei ecluze suedeze Vattenkraftkonsult-AB(Schweden Technica Suedia nr. 5/86, p. 4). Această poartă de ecluză reglează automat nivelulapei din bazinele de retenţie (în cazul nostru din lacul de acumulare din amonte). Ecluza poaterealiza un nivel determinat al apei în bazin (implicit şi în aval de acesta) fără surse exterioare deenergie. Scurgerea este cu atât mai mare cu cât nivelul din bazin creşte. Când nivelul revine la

valoarea prescrisă, poarta se ridică, presiunea asupra ei ind mai mică. Poarta din ecluză este dinoţel inoxidabil; (iii) volumul apei din lacurile de acumulare nu trebuie să scadă sub 1/3 din celcorespunzător NNR pentru protecţia faunei piscicole; (iv) amenajarea de pasaje tip “ecologic”

pentru accesul în amonte al păstrăvului comun (Salmo trutta fario L.) la depunerea icrelor, la“boişte”, în situaţia în care există baraje de tip “micro” şi care nu au scări de peşti, sau nu suntfuncţionale. Baza scării va în aval în şuvoiul principal, deoarece păstrăvul alege instinctivtraseul cel mai dicil, dar care îi asigură protecţie maximă, supravieţuirea speciei. Fiecare treaptăva avea prundiş din albia pârâului, pentru simularea “sitului” natural care va menţine un nivelal apei de cca. 20-30 cm în contrapantă, pentru odihna şi adăpostul peştilor în tranzit; treaptanu va avea mai mult de 30 cm înălţime, pentru ergonomizarea migraţiei salmonidelor; scarava trece peste baraj direct sau prin lateral, în arc de cerc, cu capătul din amonte deasemenea înşuvoiul principal, la “coada” lacului de acumulare. Panta maximă a pasajului nu o va depăşi pecea maximă a albiei cursului de apă; (v) protejarea şi îmbunătăţirea procesului de reproducerenaturală a salmonidelor. Prin amenajări specice în albie, numărul locurilor favorabile pentrudepunerea icrelor poate crescut. Prin folosirea la reproducerea articială în păstrăvării areproducătorilor de păstrăv capturaţi din liber din pârâu, se poate obţine un randament mai maredecât prin folosirea de reproducători proveniţi prin creştere articială. Aceasta atât în ce priveşte

procentul de supravieţuire începând din primăvară până toamna, cât şi în privinţa parametrilorsomatometrici; (vi) amenajarea de topliţe cu efect salmonicol şi hidrotehnic pe pâraie auente,de formă ovală şi mai adânci, astfel încât să preia o parte din viituri; (vii) amenajarea de poldereîn poieni concave, prin decopertarea malului din meandrele pârâului, pentru protecţia faunei

piscicole, în caz de viituri; (viii) amenajarea de perdele forestiere de protecţie a malurilor, ecareîn lăţime variabilă din amonte spre aval, similară lăţimii medii a albiei majore, cu specii forestieredin etajul climatic zonal (de ex. puieţi de molid - Picea excelsa, butaşi de anin alb - Alnus incana



Tabelul 1 Debitele în aval de baraje, recomandate pentru menţinerea productivităţii salmonicole lanivelul natural

N r . c r t .

Debite (l/s)minime

necesare înaval de baraje(% din Qnatural înamonte)

Condiţii

ecologice

Categoria de

productivitatesalmonicolă

ProductivitatesalmonicolăP (kg/km)

Productivitatenevertebrate

p ( g/m2)

Capacitate

biologică (B) habitat

(h)

1.≥ 2/3 Vmn = 0,5-1 m/s

hmn = 0,5-1,5 m I

≥ 60≥ 1

≥ 7≥ 0,7