suport curs didactica limbii engleze angela stanescu

8/10/2019 Suport Curs Didactica Limbii Engleze Angela Stanescu

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Chapter1

APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING

A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

The present course-book is aimed at introducing students of English to the principles,

methods and procedures regulating the domain of English language teaching

methodology. Commonly designated by various acronymic names such as ELT (English

Language Teaching, TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language, TE!L (Teaching

English as a !econd Language or TE!"L (Teaching English to !peakers of "ther

Languages, the domain is concerned #ith the theory and practice of teaching English to

non-native speakers. $ddressing students at the stage of initial ELT teacher-training, this

course of lectures proposes to ac%uaint students #ith the current methods and procedures

#hich represent the stock in trade of contemporary language teaching.

Learning foreign languages is a long-standing human endeavour and has been a

cornerstone of any system of education throughout history. !tarting from the early

&iddle-$ges, foreign language study #as mainly concerned #ith offering a classical

education, #ith an emphasis on 'reek and Latin. Later on, kno#ledge of modern

languages came to be regarded as e%ually important for an accomplished education. !o,

in the course of time, any ne# concept or system of education has recognised the

importance of foreign language learning and has contributed to the development of a

time-honoured tradition in the pedagogy of language learning and teaching. This tradition

of language pedagogy has gro#n and often changed #ith the times, according to ne#

trends or systems of thought in the study of linguistics, language learning psychology and

pedagogy.

The maor teaching approaches to language teaching and learning have al#ays

been based on certain assumptions about language (linguistic theory and concepts about#ays of learning a language (psycho-linguistics and pedagogy. )o#adays, the specific

domain of linguistics concerned #ith language learning and teaching is circumscribed to

$pplied Linguistics or !econd Language $c%uisition (also kno#n as !L$, #hich

underlie most of the contemporary teaching approaches and methodologies. The teaching


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approache an! "etho!presented belo# closely illustrate the changes and evolutions

in linguistic and pedagogical assumptions about language learning.

GRA##AR TRANSLATION

This is the oldest method used in language teaching. *t #as largely used for the study of

both classical and modern languages ever since the &iddle-$ges. *t remained popular

throughout the +thand early thcentury, being regarded as a standard method until as

late as the +/s.

Theoretica$ approach0 The assumption about language underlying the grammar

translation method #as that language #as a finite body1system of kno#ledge to be learnt.

Ai"0 The main goal informing this concept of language learning #as gaining a

theoretical kno#ledge of a finite linguistic system, #hich re%uited a certain mental

discipline and helped develop the intellect.

#etho!0 Teaching and learning dealt primarily #ith the #ritten form of the language,

#ith a focus on mastering the grammatical and le2ical system. Learning activities #ere

based on prescriptive grammar, #hich emphasised rote learning, i.e. the memorisation of

grammar rules and #ord lists, as #ell as the analysis of parts of speech and syntactical

patterns.

Proce!%re0 3ritten grammar practice consisted in translation e2ercises from and into

the target language. Classroom procedure #as accuracy-oriented, re%uiring the learning

and application of rules. The teaching #as of a deductive kind, based on prescribing rules

to be follo#ed in order to produce grammatically accurate sentences or te2ts. The main

procedure #as the study and translation of classical te2ts or outlandish sentences, #ith

reading and translation as the central linguistic skills. The target language #as not used in

class interaction. $s the mother tongue #as the customary medium of instruction, neither

the teacher nor the students #ere supposed to speak the language studied. The teaching

aims of the grammar translation method concerned the ability to read literature and gain

kno#ledge of the culture of the target language via literary te2ts and to translate te2ts

through the accurate application of rules. Teaching materials consisted in classical literary

te2ts.


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Teacher&$earner ro$e an! interaction' The teacher has a dominant role in the

classroom as the sole kno#er and source of kno#ledge, the model to imitate and

controller of the class, #hile students only relate their learning to the teacher and the te2t.

THE AUDIO(LINGUAL APPROACH&AUDIO(LINGUALIS#

4egarded as an informed, modern-day alternative to the classical methods of grammar

translation, the audio-lingual approach #as derived from the theoretical tenets of

behaviourism, a psychological trend #hich largely influenced language pedagogy starting

#ith the +5s.

Theoretica$ approach0 6ehaviourists held that linguistic behaviour #as based on

automatic speech habits ac%uired through a process involving three interconnected steps0

!timulus -7 4esponse -7 4einforcement. The formation of such linguistic automatisms

#as the result of systematic e2posure to this process of conditioning refle2es of correct

language use. The approach #as largely influenced by the studies in behaviourist

psychology of F. 6. !kinner.

Ai"0 The approach aimed at establishing, developing and reinforcing the set of speech

habits necessary for accurate oral e2pression. 8ractice focused on spoken language for

actual use.

#etho!0 The main assumption underlying this method is that speech habits can be

conditioned by means of sustained oral drilling consisting of conversational or structural

pattern drills. The emphasis on correct form entailed the use of recorded materials #ith

structural and syntactical patterns of 9isolated:, de-conte2tualised form and meaning, in

#hich irregularities tended to be ignored.

Proce!%re0 Teaching and learning #as organised according to a strict se%uence of skill

training ; listening -7 speaking -7 reading -7 #riting and based on controlled drill-#ork.

Language lab classes consisted of listening to and repeating after recorded dialogues,

used both for structural presentation and drilling. The practice of structural patterns #as

graded so as to progressively follo# a structure-based syllabus. Errors #ere not regarded

as part of learning, so they #ere to be avoided through immediate correction and through

repetitive pattern drilling, #hich often led to over-learning. *n contrast #ith the grammar

translation method, there is almost e2clusive emphasis on the spoken language and,


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obviously, on phonetic practice for correct pronunciation. The concern for accurate

structural patterning also precluded a preoccupation #ith vocabulary building, #hich

tended to remain limited. *nductive teaching involved learning by doing, based on the use

of the target language. The teaching materials are simple dialogue drills on #ritten

support or on tape recordings.

Teacher&$earner ro$e an! interaction0 is theory upholds the idea that our production of language is

rule-governed and creative at the same time, being based on our application of a

grammatical code (deep structure to generate an infinite number of sentences (surface

structure. This rule-based creativity is rooted in the kno#ledge of a limited system of

rules, a kind of linguistic matri2 or language universals #hich, once understood, enable

us to produce original sentences.

Ai"0 Learning means the conscious ac%uisition of language as a coherent and

meaningful system. The students should be a#are of these aims and #ork actively

to#ards an understanding and control of the structure of the language.

#etho!0 Language learning is seen as a cognitive process, the emphasis is on studying

the rules governing the creation of meaning. "n the basis or their innate ability to learn


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languages, learners should be engaged in e2ploring language and forming hypotheses

about its functioning. The cognition of the system constitutes a learner:s linguistic

competence. *n their performance or productive application of the rules, students are

likely to make errors, #hich are regarded as fundamental to their adustments of their

internalisation of the rule system.

Proce!%re0 Classroom practice is centred on comprehension activities and the study of

structural meaning. 'rammar is taught both deductively and inductively, #ith an

emphasis on guided discovery techni%ues, #hich engage students in the formulation and

statement of rules. Errors are regarded as inevitable and instrumental in the development

of an internal grammar #hich students can rely on for generating meaning through

structure. 8ractice activities presuppose a much #ider use of a variety of materials, meant

to keep students mentally engaged in #orking #ith the target language.

Teacher&$earner ro$e an! interaction' 3hile the teacher still holds a prominent role as

a guide to kno#ledge, students are taught to be responsible for their o#n learning and to

monitor their cognitive process. 'iven the more liberal attitude to#ards learner errors, the

teacher encourages peer correction and interaction during language activities.

THE CO##UNICATIVE APPROACH

The communicative approach or communicative language teaching (CLT gained

prominence in the ?s and early @s, as language theorists started %uestioning the validity

of Chomsky:s model of linguistic competence and focus on structure study and practice.

Theoretica$ approach0 $pplied linguists such as >enry 3iddo#son dre# attention to the

limitations of structure-focused syllabi and de-conte2tualised structure practice,

advocating the need for adapting language teaching to communicational situations and

for developing communicative abilities and skills. The $merican linguist ymes

developed the concept of communicative competence as the main aim of language

teaching. Language learning is supposed to mean not only the mastery of the

grammatical, le2ical and phonological system, but also the learning of social rules

governing conte2tualised communication. *n other #ords, language should be appropriate

to the social conte2t. The rules of appropriacy are also conoined #ith rules of social


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interaction. The approach focuses on activities concerned #ith language as discourse,

language in action rather than as isolated specimens.

Ai"0 The rationale behind communicative language teaching is modifying classroom

procedures so as to promote realistic and socially conte2tualised communication rather

than artificial language practice.


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Ta)(*ae! $earning' The simulation of communicative conte2ts is realised by

means of tasks #hich re%uire students to e2change information or opinions and

interact in a realistic #ay. *n order to complete their task #ith the information

they need, the students have to ask and ans#er %uestions, to speak and listen to

each other. *n other #ords, the task provides them #ith a purpose for

communication.

Co""%nicati+e ta)' !o as to promote meaningful communication, the tasks

have to replicate real-life conte2ts of purposeful communication, #ith a focus on

language functions0 en%uiring, inviting, refusing, giving directions, asking for and

giving personal information, etc. These conte2ts can be simulated through such

interactive activities as in,or"ation gap(students have to e2change information

so as to carry out a common task, ro$e(p$a-, inter+ie., pro*$e"(o$+ing,

priorit- ran)ing, !ic%ion an! !e*ate, %r+e-, ga"e.

Ta) inter(!epen!enc-' The underlying principle of communicative activities

such as info-gap is that students #ill be unable to complete the task #ithout

sharing information bet#een themselves, #hich means they depend on each other

and have to cooperate on the task.

Pair(.or) an! gro%p(.or)' "rganising communicative tasks re%uires a

different kind of class organisation, layout and seating arrangements. &ost

communicative tasks re%uire students to #ork in pairs or small groups of three or

four, #hich creates the proper conditions for #orking together on a task.

Co$$a*orati+e $earning' Task-based learning creates the premises for cooperation

among students, #ho have to #ork together to achieve a certain outcome. This

allo#s for #orking and learning collaboratively, #hich helps promote a positive,

purposeful and productive class atmosphere and the proper conditions for learning

to take place. Communicative learning has also inspired the a,,ecti+e(h%"anitic

approach, #hich attaches great importance to a motivating and friendly class

atmosphere and to building a good rapport bet#een teacher and students.

Teacher&$earner ro$e an! interaction' *ncontrast #ith theapproaches#hich preceded

it, communicative language teaching radically redefines and changes the roles of both


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teacher and students. To begin #ith the traditional teacher-centred classroom is replaced

by a $earner(centre! c$aroo"/ #ith the students occupying the centre-stage of

classroom activity and acting not as passive recipients, but as active agents fully engaged

in their o#n learning. *n this conte2t, the teacher relin%uishes the age-old dominant

position as sole source of language and class controller, assuming more fle2ible and

motivational roles as c$a organier1intigator o, $ang%age

acti+it-1"oti+ator1in,or"ant to the $earner1pro+i!er o, reo%rce&g%i!e ,or the

t%!ent0 o.n $earning. $s for the students, they are encouraged to take responsibility

for their o#n learning, to study independently and act as autonomous learners, less

dependent on the teacher in organising their learning.

BBB

The present course-book in ELT methodology is dra#s largely upon the communicative

approach, being focused on illustrating the principles and general methodology

underlying communicative teaching and language learning practice. "f course, as the

methodologist 8hillip 8ro#se contends, one of the most #idespread myths in the field of

language teaching and learning is the myth of the ideal methodology. >e #arns that no

methodology should be adopted uncritically, as the teacher should constantly test and

refine his1her methods in terms of #hat #orks best in a particular educational culture,

teaching situation and kind of learners or learner needs. >o#ever, since communicative

teaching comes closest to training the kind of communicative competence and skills

necessary in the contemporary conte2t of globalisation, this approach imposes itself as an

informed choice. *n an increasingly globalised #orld of education and #ork, training our

students for efficient, meaningful communication and cross-cultural understanding

constitutes a goal #orth pursuing.

Chapter

TEACHING GRA##AR


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INTRODUCTION

The importance of grammar in foreign language teaching and learning need hardly be

argued for. To begin #ith, grammar provides the only systematic frame#ork for

organiing the teaching and learning of the language, since a kno#ledge of grammatical

structures and rules provides useful generalisations #hich enable learners to formulate

and generate correct sentences. *t also represents the basis for syllabus and course design,

as it helps teachers and course-book #riters to organie content and plan #hat structures

to present at the various stages of language learning. The ruling organiing principle

should be that of structural comple2ity, that is #e should proceed from simple to more

comple2 structures, progressing according to the learners: age and language level. $s far

as learners are concerned, grammar rules are reliable milestones guiding their learning

and providing them #ith a sense of security.

"f course, in a balanced teaching approach, aimed at both linguistic competence

and proficiency ; such as the communicative approach ; grammar teaching only

represents a means to an end, that is an indispensable starting point, a foundation or

ground#ork to build for language ac%uisition and skills practice, rather than an end in

itself. That is #hy, #hile granting grammar its proper place in our teaching, #e should

not overemphasie the importance of grammar #ork and grammatical accuracy.

E2clusive focus on accuracy has its do#nside, too, as it may inhibit the students: progress

to#ards communicative fluency.

"vercorrection may affect the learners: confidence in their performance and

ability for free communication and self-e2pression. *n this case, the teacher runs the risk

of ignoring the student:s preferred style of learning. 3e should not forget that, in our

mother tongue, #e learn to communicate effectively even if our grammar is not entirely

accurate.

$t the same time, devoting too much time to accuracy-based grammar e2ercises

entails an artificial limitation of the e2posure to the language, #hich can only be

monotonous and thus de-motivating, as it deprives the learner of valuable stimulus to use

the language in a variety of conte2ts. *f #e overemphasise the primacy of rules, our


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students #ill be psychologically ill-prepared to accommodate the inevitable e2ceptions to

grammatical rules.

PRINCIPLES IN GRA##AR TEACHING

P$anning an! organi2ation

*n devising a grammar syllabus, the teacher or materials #riter should order the structural

items to be taught in terms of the follo#ing principles and criteria0

Co"p$e3it- o, ,or"

This criterion has already been enounced above and is based on the commonsensical idea

that #ith young learners or at beginner level, structural items are ordered according to

their degree of comple2ity. For instance, !imple Tenses are taught before

Continuous18rogressive Tense forms, or the 8ast !imple is presented before the 8resent

8erfect, because they are more comple2 in form.

Teacha*i$it-

The %uestion of teachability derives from the comple2ity of form criterion mentioned

above, but also refers to the comple2ity of meaning. $gain, the problem in %uestion

relates to adapting structural content to the learners: age and level. )eedless to say,

simpler forms, e2pressing basic or everyday meanings and functions are more easily

understood ; and thus more teachable ; than more comple2 structure, such as the

!ubunctive.

Co""%nicati+e %e,%$ne

$n important %uestion related to the ordering structural items for teaching and learning

purposes should be0 9*s the structure useful1necessary1indispensible for everyday

communicationD: The ans#er to this #ill tell us #hich structures should be given priority

in our grammar course planning.

Linear or c-c$ica$ ,ra"e.or)

This criterion is related to the teaching of a structure in all its aspects (range of meanings

or functions, or to the teaching of structural synonymy, i.e. presenting all the structures


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#ith a similar meaning. For e2ample, there are several structures #hose meaning and

communicative function is 9making a suggestion:0 Let:s infinitive, !hall #e

infinitiveD, >o#13hat about ing-formD, 3hy don:t #e infinitiveD 3e could verb.

*n a linear frame#ork, all these structures #ill be presented at the same time. "r, if #e

think of structures #ith multiple meanings, such as various tenses, all the meanings #ill

be given from the beginning. $ cyclical approach #ould mean that a particular structure

or function is revised cyclically and taught gradually, focusing on one meaning, form or

function at a time. "ur approach is likely to depend on the learning conte2t, age and level

of students. >o#ever, for the sake of clarity and effectiveness, the golden rule #ould be

to teach one thing at a time.

#eta$ang%age

&etalanguage is the specialised grammatical terminology used to define1describe

language structures. >o# much or ho# little metalanguage #e use in the classroom

depends on the learners: age and previous e2perience of grammar in L + or foreign

language learning. *t goes #ithout saying that #ith (very young learners, using

metalanguage is irrelevant and counterproductive, #hile #ith mature, advanced students,

metalanguage can be used as an aid to organiing learning, to clarifying and

distinguishing bet#een grammatical categories, meanings and functions. Even in the

latter case, it should be used #ith moderation, as overusing metalanguage and rules can

distract attention from the meaningful practice of language in use.

Staging

The main stages of a grammar lesson or se%uence are0 84E!E)T$T*") ; 84$CT*CE ;

84"


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At each stage consider

the Teachers role

the students role

control over language

error correction

the aims of each stage

Teaching trateg-

'rammar teaching strategies relate to our approach to presenting1introducing a ne#

structural item or rule. $ccording to ho# directly or indirectly #e present the ne#

grammar structure or rule, presentations can be o+ert&e3p$icit&!e!%cti+e or

co+ert&i"p$icit&in!%cti+e .

Gra""atica$ tr%ct%re an! co""%nicati+e ,%nction

'rammatical structures are linguistic forms conveying a certain meaning, used to fulfil a

communicative function. $ grammar syllabus can be based either on the teaching of

structural items proper or on communicative functions such as Suggesting, Inviting,

Refusing, etc. The aspects to be considered #hen teaching a structure are listed and

defined belo#0

4or"0 the actual #ords (#ritten or sounds (spoken used to e2press something in

language, as opposed to meaning or use. Form is often synonymous #ith structure.

#eaning0 The conventional or literal meaning of a particular form0 for e2ample, that past

tense form means past time. The purpose of traditional grammar books is to e2plain form

and meaning.

Uage0 4efers to e2amples of the generally accepted #ay of using the language in

conte2t, especially in order to sho# the differences bet#een %uasi-synonymous

structures, #hich are related in terms of meaning but are used in different #ays and

conte2ts.

Ue0 The #ay in #hich a speaker uses a particular language form to communicate on a

particular occasion. The use of a form may be described in terms of its function or

communicative purpose.


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4%nction0 The function of a structure is the communicative purpose of that structure on a

particular occasion ; #hat the speaker is trying to do through language. For e2ample,

9>ave you read this bookD: is present perfect interrogative in form but the speaker may be

using it to make a suggestion, to suggest that the listener read the book ; suggesting is the

function of the structure here. The use of a form can often be e2pressed in terms of

functions.

Reflection task: Grammatical structure or function? What are the differences? Provide

eam!les" Should #e teach $oth? Wh%?

Attit%!e to error

Considering #hat #e kno# about ho# language learning takes place, #e should treat

errors as steps to learning or partial learning rather than frustrating indications of non-

learning. *n this light, errors provide information about the learners: progress and our

teaching priorities, as they signal areas that need re-teaching or remedial teaching.

!tudents should be made a#are of the areas of difficulty in English grammar and

fre%uently provided #ith opportunities of self-correction, peer-correction and error

correction e2ercises in general.

PRESENTATION STAGE

$ good grammar presentation is supposed to introduce the ne# structure in a conte2t

#hich clearly illustrates its meaning (and communicative function. >ere is a checklist

for effective, memorable presentations0

Preentation

need to conte2tualie the ne# language in a it%ation

need to have +i%a$ for ma2imum impact (blackboard dra#ings, realia (i.e.

real obects, pictures, actions1mime

need to use language #hich is appropriate ,or the t%!ent0 age an! $e+e$

need to make sure there is no ne. +oca*%$ar-, #hich can be distracting ; if

necessary, #e can pre-teach any ne# le2ical items

need to be generati+e, i.e. able to generate many e2amples of the structure


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need to be hort; no longer than 5 minutes

$s already stated above, grammar presentations can be o+ert&e3p$icit&!e!%cti+e or

co+ert&i"p$icit&in!%cti+e5 "ther terms used for these t#o approaches are giving and

guiding. Givingdescribes the process #hereby the meaning of a structure is 9transmitted:to the students in an overt #ay, and they are relatively passive recipients of ne# content.

Guidingdescribes the process #hereby students are involved in #orking out the meaning

for themselves or in deriving a rule from conte2tualised instances of the use of a

particular language item.

De!%cti+e preentationfirst formulate the rule and then give the e2ample.

The presentation starts from the form to the meaning and use of the structure. !uch a

presentation #ould go as follo#s0 the Present Perfect &ontinuous 'have(has $een )

Present Partici!le* is used to e!ress an activit%(state #hich starts in the !ast and last u!

to($e%ond the moment of s!eaking" +"g"0She has $een $aking cakes for t#o hours"

In!%cti+e preentationintroduce the structure in a conte2t or situation #hich

clearly illustrates its meaning and function. The teacher uses guiding %uestions,

prompting students to comment on the meaning of the ne# structure and infer the rule by

themselves.

De"ontration0 picture of a boy #aiting at the bus stop

Sit%ation0 This is Tom" Where is he? What is he doing? When did he arrive at the $us

sto!? e arrived at the $us sto! at -.".." What time is it no#? Its --".."

$t this point, the students are likely to have inferred the "eaningof the structure (i.e. an

activity or state #hich starts in the past and lasts till the moment of speech. The form of

the target tr%ct%re(i.e. the structure to be taught is then presented by the teacher in

both spoken and #ritten form in an e2ample sentence, called #AR6ER SENTENCE

(#S, #hich normally comes at the end of the presentation.

#S0 Tom ha *een .aiting at the bus stop for an hour.

The #AR6ER SENTENCE is also used after the presentation, for the repetition

practice meant to reinforce the form of the structure in terms of pronunciation1#ord

order1contractions.


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G%i!e! !ico+er-presentations combine elements of the deductive and inductive

strategies. !tudents are elicited to formulate the meaning of a structure or a grammatical

rule, #hich they are helped to reach by means of relevant guiding %uestions.

E.g.0

Teacher0 9*n the dialogue on the board, both the verbs underlined refer to the

future. >o#ever, there is a difference in meaning bet#een the t#o future forms.

Think of the moment #hen the decision #as made:0

$0 3hy do you #ant the corkscre#D

60 *:m going to open that bottle of #ine * bought yesterday.

$0 3e drank it last night.

60 "h. Then *:ll open a beer.

Reflection task:

/eductive or inductive? Which is $etter? Wh%?

&an #e use $oth of them?

What are the advantages(disadvantages in either case?

To sum up, the presentation of a ne# language structure has to cover the follo#ing

aspects0

84E!E)T$T*") G &E$)*)', F"4&(!, 84"))C*$T*"), F)CT*") (!"C*$L

C")TEHT C"&&)*C$T*"). For e2ample, the "eaning of the 8resent 8erfect

!imple in the %uestion 9>ave you read this bookD: is asking if an action has been

performed at any time up to the moment of speaking, #hile its ,%nctioncan be to suggest

that the subect read the respective book.

15 PRESENTATION TECHNI7UES

Sit%ation

This has already been illustrated above. The situation and conte2t chosen should be

relevant to everyday life, and, as already stated, appropriate for the students: age, level,

interests and life e2perience. First and foremost, it should provide a meaningful conte2t

that #ill make the meaning (and function of the structure clear and easily understandable

to the students.


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Task:

What situation can %ou think of to introduce the follo#ing language items?

going to0 used to0 -st 1 2rd&onditionals0 counts 3 uncounts0 offers 3 acce!tances0

invitations 3 refusals

Co"pare an! contrat

This techni%ue #as illustrated above in the guided discovery presentation based on

comparing and contrasting the meaning of t#o future forms ; the going to *nfinitive vs.

the Future !imple. *t is very useful in teaching tenses #ith the same time reference, but

#ith certain differences in meaning and use ; past time forms, future time formsI aspect ;

simple and continuous1progressive forms, conditionals, unreal past forms, subunctives,

etc. *t lends itself to guided discovery presentations, in #hich the students are involved in

the compare and contrast e2ercise. >ere are some e2amples of structures #hose meaning

can be illustrated by comparison and contrast0

* remembered locking the door. 1 * remembered to lock the door.

!he lived in London for + years. 1 !he has lived in London for + years.

!he didn:t need to cook the meet. 1 !he needn:t have cooked the meat.

They have been picking apples for several hours. They have picked ten basketfuls.

Storie

Even a briefly outlined situationmay be a story in itself, but sometimes #e can make up a

very short story to introduce a structure. >ere is a story introducing the JrdConditional0

4esterda% afternoon, 5ar% #ent to the li$rar% to $orro# $ooks for an essa% she had

to #rite for her histor% class" She consulted the catalogue and found a ver% good

$ook on the su$6ect, $ut #hen she asked for it, the li$rarian told her that someone

else had lend the $ook half an hour $efore" 5ar% thought:

MS: If I had comea little earlier, I would have gotthe $ook"

!tories add an element of fun and make memorable presentations, especially if they are

accompanied by visuals0 flashcards, dra#ings, pictures, cartoon strips, etc.

E3a"p$e gi+ing a "o!e$ entence or "o!e$ !ia$og%e


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"f course, these are an essential part of any presentation. The model sentence1dialogue

can come to the end, as &arker !entences, but they may also be given at the beginning,

as support for an inductive1guided discovery presentation.

Ti"e($ine

Time-lines represent a very effective #ay of illustrating meaning visually in the case of

tene, apect/the e8%ence o, tene. E.g.0

!he left * arrived

8astKKKK2KKKKKKKK2KKKKKKKKKKKK)o#KKKKKKKKKKKKFuture

+.J +./5

!he ha! $e,t#hen * arri+e!"

off

8astKKKK KHKKKKKKKKK)o#KKKKKKKKKKKKKKFuture

* .a rea!ing#hen the lights .ent o%t.

he gave up

8astK222222222MNKKKKKKKKKKKKKK)o#KKKKKKKKKKKKKFuture

>e %e! tosmoke.

Concept 8%etion

Concept%uestions are meant to clarify the meaning of a structure. They are a useful tool

for checking the students: understanding of the meaning and use of the structure. To

create concept %uestions, #e reduce the conceptual description of the target tr%ct%reto

-J simple statements #hich essentially describe its "eaning. 3e then turn these

statements into Oes1)o13h-%uestions for the students to ans#er.+"g.0 * ha+e $i+e!here for three years. (8resent 8erfect

This "ean0

* started living here three years ago.

* still live here.


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The concept 8%etionare0

T0 3hen did you start living hereD

!!0 J years ago

T0


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!he can play football.

>e can ride a bicycle.

>e #orks at the To#er of London.

6ob is a postman.>e delivers the mail at . every morning.

Ta*$e&chart on the *$ac)*oar!

>o# "%ch breadsugar

milk

butter do #e

needD#antD

haveD

>o# "an- eggstomatoes

oranges

bread loaves

cartons of cereal

have to buyD

Rea$ia 9rea$ o*:ect;

The term realia refers to real obects #e can use in presenting ne# structures, i.e.

classroom obects, the students: belongings, stationary, toys, etc.

+"g"0

This red pencil is $onger than the black pencil. The green one is the $ongetof all.

Tom:s satchel is hea+ierthan 6ob:s. This flo#er pot is the $argetand this one is the

"a$$et.

#i"e an! !e"ontration

This techni%ue lends itself to easily demonstrable classroom actions. *t can be used to

present such structures as the 8resent Continuous, the 8resent 8erfect ust, &anner

$dverbs, etc.

Gra""atica$ r%$e an! tate"ent


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This is a rather deductive techni%ue, though %uite useful #ith some#hat more comple2

grammar points like verbs follo#ed by the 'erund or the *nfinitive. 'iving students the

rules governing Perb Complementation #ould make a more effective and time-saving

presentation.

Gra""ar e3p$anation

This is a deductive techni%ue #hich can save time #hen time is at a premium. !o it is up

to the teacher to decide #hen and ho# to use it. The e2planation has to be clear and

concise, giving the necessary information about the meaning, form and function of the

structure.

Task: +!lain the grammar of 7used to

Tran$ation

There are situations in #hich the recourse to the mother tongue in presenting structures

can be illuminating, especially in conte2ts #here L+ interference (differences from

structures in the mother tongue #hich can create confusions. Translation, usually also

involving a compare and contrast approach bet#een the t#o languages, is useful in

highlighting and disambiguating such areas. 4omanian learners, for e2ample, should be

#arned that the 8resent the 8resent 8erfect and the 8resent Continuous, #hen used #ith

for and since, correspond to the present tense in their mother tongue. The 4omanian

QimperfectR can be rendered in English through both the 8ast !imple (#hen #e refer to

habitual actions in the past and the 8ast Continuous (for activity in progress at a time in

the past.

Finally, here is a list of criteria and %uestions teachers should consider in gauging

the effectiveness of grammar presentations, to be asked both before and after the

presentation0

Chec)$it ,or gra""ar preentation0

The target tr%ct%re. To be presented in both speech and #riting, both form and

meaning.

E3a"p$e. Enough e2amples of the structure in a meaningful conte2t.


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Chec)ing %n!ertan!ing0 concept %uestions, clarification of the meaning.

Ter"ino$og-. se the grammar-book name of the structure1or other grammatical

terminologyD 3hich #ould be1#as more usefulD 3hyD

Lang%age. E2plain the structure in the target language1the students: mother

tongue1in a combination of the t#oD 3hich #ould be1#as more effectiveD

E3p$anation. *nformation given at the right level0 concise, accurate not too

detailed. $ny comparisons #ith the students: mother tongueD 3ould this be1#as

this usefulD

R%$e. 'ive e2plicit ruleD 3hy13hy notD E2plained by the teacher or elicited

from the studentsD 3hich #ould be1#as the best #ay to do itD

De$i+er-. !peak and #rite clearly at an appropriate speed

5 PRACTICE STAGE

The aims of this stage are to allo# the students to practice the ne# language. The practice

e2ercises are graded from very controlled, accuracy-oriented drills to less and less

controlled activities, #hich gradually increase the students: control over the language to

the level at #hich they can use the target structure freely and independently so as to

engage in fluency-oriented communication activities. $ccording to the control over

language allo#ed students at each sub-stage of the practice, #hich serves the aims of

gradual progression from accuracy to fluency in using ne# language items, the practice

stage is comprised of three main sections0 controlled, semi-controlled and free-

practice1production.

5 15 Contro$$e! practice

The first sub-stage aims for practice under controlled conditions, in #hich the students

are asked to repeat e2amples of the structure correctly via a variety of oral drills. The

teacher, #ho has full control over the language practised, focuses on accuracy and uses

immediate correction. The predominant type of interaction is Teacher ;7 !tudents. The

typical drill activities are0


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Repetition !ri$$

The aim of repetition is to reinforce the structure in terms of pronunciation and #ord-order. The drills should replay the #S(&arker !entence from the presentation, e.g.0

He0 *een $i+ing in the "o%ntain ,or t.o "onth. The marker sentence is repeated

first #ith the #hole class ; chora$ repetition; then by individual students ; in!i+i!%a$

repetition. "ne useful repetition techni%ue is *ac)(chaining, in #hich the students are

helped #ith difficult areas by repeating one item at a time, starting from the end of the

sentence, and adding a ne# item each time until the #hole sentence is reconstructed.

4epetition drills should be done at a ,at pace; speed is important since drills are

inherently boring. To maintain interest, the teacher should also be %npre!icta*$e in

selecting individual speakers.

$n interesting and entertaining alternative to classical repetition drills are


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&y friends

&ary and 6ob have

*:ve

3e:ve

sleeping in a tent

looking at the stars

climbing the mountain

cooking on an open fire

fishing trout

#ashing in the river

several days

nearly a year

Progrei+e %*tit%tion(gradually generating a ne# sentence by varying + item

each time0

&!0 He0 *een $i+ing in the "o%ntain ,or t.o "onth

T0 They

!!0They:ve been living in the mountains for t#o months

T0 !leeping in a tent

!!0 They:ve been sleeping in a tent for t#o months

T0 $lmost half a year

!!0 They:ve been sleeping in a tent for almost half a year

Retate"ent %*tit%tion

E.g.0 Let:s verb

T0 Oou #ant to play football.

!!0 Let:s play football.

The substitution of one item for another is based on c%e or pro"ptoffered by the

teacher. 3e can use +er*a$ pro"pt(#ord1phrase spoken by the teacher or #ritten on

the blackboard or prompt cards or +i%a$ pro"pt(dra#ing, picture, mime and gesture,

#ords on.

Further e2amples

Sing$e(.or! pro"pt

E.g.0 Let:s verb

T0 Cinema

!!0 Let:s go to the cinema.

T0 8ia


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!!0 Let:s eat a pia.

Pict%re pro"pt

E.g.0 Can verb

T0 !!0 >e can ride a bike.

Pro"pt&ta*$e&chart on the *$ac)*oar!

>o# many are thereD Mdesks1ro#s1children1chairs1#indo#s1books1pictures1flo#erpotsN

s#im speak

French

skate

$nna v v P

&aria H v H

&ike P H v

Lucy P v H

Oou D D D

E.g.0 &aria can speak French, but she can:t s#im or skate.

4ree %*tit%tion

>ere students make up their o#n sentences, e.g.0 Let:s go fishing.

7%etion An.er !ri$$ = S%*tit%tion 9*ae! on the Preentation;

This S1$ drill is based on the situation used in the 8resentation. E.g.0

$0 3hat:s he been doing for the last t#o monthsD

60 >e:s been Mliving in the mountainsN.

The substitutions are those used in the initial simple substitution drill. They can be

introduced by pict%re&.or! pro"pt0 camping in the forest1drinking fresh

#ater1#atching the bears1sleeping in a tent1gaing at the stars1climbing the

mountain1cooking on an open fire1fishing trout1#ashing in the river, etc. The teacher


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should model the interaction and then put the students into pairs to practise #ith the

substitutions. The use of pair #ork changes the pattern of interaction to !-7!.

7%etion an! An.er !ri$$ 9*ae! on pict%re&.or! pro"pt;

The drill is done in pairs. The teacher provides picture1#ord prompts of activities atime period0

picking apples1several hours doing chores1three hours

cleaning #indo#s1about half an hour #riting an essay1t#o days

#aiting for the bus1ten minutes studying French1t#o semesters

$0 >o# long has he been #aiting for the busD

60 >e:s been #aiting for the bus for ten minutes.

4in! o"eone .ho

This activity is a more challenging kind of %uestion and ans#er drill. !tudents are given a

list of actions1activities related to routines, habits, past e2perience, etc. They have to go

about the class asking their peers Oes1)o-%uestions based on the prompts on the list and

involving the target structure, e.g. ave you (ever....D The aim of the

game is to get the most positive ans#ers. *f they get a positive ans#er, they ask for the

person:s signature ne2t to the respective %uestion. The #inner of the game is the one #ho

gets the most positive ans#ers in the shortest time. E.g.8ind someone #ho0

- goes to bed earlier than + pm

- has a full breakfast on #eekdays

- goes ogging every morning

- reads English books

#o!e$ !ia$og%e

ere is one model for the

8resent 8erfect Continuous0

$nn0 >i &ary. >o#:s it goingD


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Lucy0 )ot too bad. 3hat have you been doing latelyD

$nn0 3ell, not much, really. *:ve been cramming for e2ams. 3hat about youD

&arry0 "h, *:ve been reading War and Peace.

!ubstitution cues0 #orking as a #aitress1going to the gym1teaching myself French1#riting

a play, etc. $lternatively, students can provide their o#n e2amples.

Dia$og%e chain&S)e$eton !ia$og%e

This is slightly more comple2, as students create their dialogues by follo#ing a 9dialogue

map: or 9script instructions: for the interlocutors to flesh out.

A >

'reet 6 4eply. $sk about recent activities

$ns#er. $sk 6 about recent activities 4eply. !uggest meeting for a drink this

evening

$gree. !uggest a time and place agree #ith place but suggest another time.

'ive

a reason

$gree. !ay goodbye 4eply

Creati+e gra""ar practice "o!e$ poe"

This is a concept developed by 'nter 'erngross and >erbert 8uchta, in #hich grammar

practice activities based on substitution provide a springboard for verbal creativity and

activating 9the right side of the brain: ('erngross and 8uchta, +J. The students are

sho#n a model poem focused on a particular recurrent grammar structure. !ometimes

they have to #ork on the model itself ; putting umbled #ords in order, for e2ample, but

usually they have to reflect on the poem:s topic and ideas, and ho# these are relate to

themselves. sing the skeleton of the original, structure -based poem, they create their

o#n, personalised version, by substituting the #ords or phrases in the model #ith their

o#n. >ere:s the frame of a Senoria$ Poe"for practising the ndConditional, by

referring to a person they like1love0


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*f he1she #ere a colour, he1she #ould be ........

*f he1she #ere a sight, he1she #ould be a1the........

*f he1she #ere a sound, he1she #ould be a1the........

*f he1she #ere a smell, he1she #ould be a1the........

*f he1she #ere a taste, he1she #ould be a1the........

*f he1she #ere music, he1she #ould be a1the........

*f he1she #ere food, he1she #ould be a1the........

The value of the above e2ercise resides in #hat $drian


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C%e! Repone Dri$$

*n this drill language learners are provided #ith a cue before or after the %uestions.

E.g.0

T0 3hat did the man buyD ($ book

!!0 The man bought a book. Re:oin!er Dri$$

*t is similar to the cued response drill, but in this drill language learners are given

instructions of ho# to respond in terms of style1register.

E.g.0

T0 come to my house (be polite

!!0 3ould you like to come to my houseD

Retate"ent !ri$$

Language learners rephrase an utterance and address it to somebody else, according to the

content of the utterance.E.g.0

T0 $sk your friend #hat he has for breakfast

!!0 3hat do you have for breakfastD

Co"p$etion Dri$$

Language learners are told to supply a missing #ord in a sentence or statement.

E.g0

T0 * bring my cakes and you bringU.

!!0 * bring my cakes and you bring%our cakes.

E3panion Dri$$

Language learners build up a statement by adding a #ord or phrase.

E.g.0

T0 &athematics

!!0 3e study mathematics

T0 everyday

!!0 3e study mathematics every day.

Contraction Dri$$

Language learners replace a phrase or clause #ith a single #ord or shorter e2pressions.

E.g.0

T0 * didn:t mean to hurt the dog

!!0 * didn:t mean it.

Integration Dri$$

Language learners combine t#o separate statements.

E.g.0

T0 * kno# that lady. !he is #earing a blue shirt


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!!0 * kno# the lady #earing a blue shirt.

Para$$e$ .riting

This e2ercise offers controlled #riting practice based on a model te2t. !tudents have to

re#rite the te2t by making certain structural changes, e.g. change the subect from I to

he(sheso as to use the 8resent !imple form for the Jrdperson singular (hurries, goes,

tries, put 8resent Tense verbs into the 8ast !imple or simply personalise the te2t content

by #riting about themselves.

5 5 Se"i(contro$$e! practice

This stage consists in structural practice based on a #ide range of e2ercises, commonly

found in most grammar books. These e2ercises are less teacher-controlled, but do not

offer complete student control over language, as students have to use the structure

correctly in a given sentence or te2t, #ithout actually producing language themselves.

They have the advantage of also being suitable for individual independent study, in class

or at home, orally or in #riting, for reinforcement or consolidation purposes. The most

common semi-controlled e2ercises are0

>rac)ete! +er*&a!:ecti+e

This is one of the most fre%uently used e2ercise type, e2tremely useful for tense practice,

adective comparison forms, etc. !tudents operate #ith such categories as Tense, $spect,

Poice, *nfinitive1'erund complementation, !ubunctives, having to choose bet#een t#o

alternative forms ; !imple18rogressive tense forms, 'erunds1*nfinitives, etc, #hich

al#ays involves a compare and contrast approach.

D%a$%$tip$e choice

This e2ercise offers t#o or four items to choose from0 verb forms, prepositions,

singular1plural nouns, modal verbs, time adverbs, etc.

Gap(,i$$

These consist in sentences or te2ts containing gap or blank spaces to be filled in. *t is

used for practice #ith verbs, prepositions, determiners, adverbial modifiers, etc.

C$o2e paage

$ cloe is a te2t from #hich every 5thor ?th#ord has been removed so that the students

#ill fill in the blanks. $ grammar cloe devised in this #ay is a good #ay of testing


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general grammar (and vocabulary kno#ledge. $lternatively, teachers can tailor a cloe

for practice in a specific structure, by removing only the items related to the target

structure (infinives1gerunds, prepositions.

Tr%e&4a$e tate"ent

These can be organied as pairs of statements or sentences (a, b to choose from, referring

to the meaning or use of a structure (tenses, modal verbs.

#atching ite"

The items to be matched are arranged in t#o columns, in random order. They can be verb

tenses adverbs, main subordinate clauses, verbs gerund1infinitive complements, etc.

Error correction

!tudents are re%uired to discriminate bet#een correct and incorrect forms, and makecorrections #here necessary. These e2ercises have an important formative value, as

thinking of and evaluating structural accuracy helps in developing the students: ability for

self-correction.

6elo# are illustrated t#o game-like activities based on error correction, #hich, by

adding an element of fun and even e2citement, can render dull correction e2ercises more

enoyable.

Gra""ar a%ction

The students #ork in pairs or groups. They are told they are going to participate in a

sentence auction, for #hich each pair1group have V+,. !ome of the sentences are

correct, #hile others #ill contain grammar mistakes. "f course, the students are supposed

to bid for correct sentences. The #inning pair1group has the largest number of correct

sentences at the end of the activity.

Gra""ar ga"*$e

This is a variation on the game above, but instead of buying correct sentences, the

students #ill bet on their o#n correction of sentences containing mistakes. Each group (J

or / students is given +, and a list of incorrect sentences #ith mistakes in grammar,

#ord order, etc. These can be taken from the students: mistakes in their #ritten #ork.

$ccording to the degree of difficulty, each sentence #ill be assigned different odds. *n

their groups, students discuss the corrections they think necessary. The teacher calls out


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one sentence at a time and asks students to place their bets on their corrected versions. "n

the board, the teacher dra#s t#o columns headed 9et and Total, #riting each group:s

stakes and earnings. The #inning team #ill have the largest sum at the end of the activity

(see 'ates, +/.


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are provided #ith opportunities for free self-e2pression. $ graphic representation of the

staging in a grammar lesson ; in terms of activity se%uencing, teacher roles, control over

language and activity aims ; could look as follo#s0

Staging

8resentation Controlled practice !emi-controlled practice Freepractice

1 1 1

8resentation 8ractice

8roduction

Teacher ro$e

T as presenter T giving T organising activitiesso that

of ne# language !! chance to practise language !! can use language

meaningfully

Teacher-centred Learner-centred

Contro$ o+er $ang%age

T -7 ! ! -7 !

T. control over language 7 !! control over

language

*mmediate correction


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types ; In,or"ation Gapand Ro$e P$a-; but the range is in fact much #ider. The most

productive communicative grammar activities for free oral practice are described belo#.

15 IN4OR#ATION GAP ACTIVITIES 9In,o(gap;

sually suitable for pair #ork, but also in group #ork, these activities are based on an

information gap, i.e. the students have different information #hich they have to share in

order to fulfil the given task. *n other #ords, the need to e2change information provides

the need to communicate, usually by means of %uestion and ans#er patterns of

interaction. *n an information gap activity, each student #orking in a pair ($ and 6 is

given a handout containing information his1her partner does not have. The task varies

depending on the grammar focus of the activity. &ost often, they have to e2change

information in order to reach a decision, an agreement, a conclusion, a certain result

(filling in a chart or to create something (a map, a dra#ing, a description, an

obect1handicraft item. $s they are not supposed to see each other:s information, the best

seating arrangement for the pair is face-to-face. >ere are a fe# e2amples of tasks0

Agreeing on a co""on p$an&action5

For instance, in an activity focused on the use of the 8resent Continuous for Future plans

they are asked to agree on a time to meet,based on handouts containing different diary

pages #ith scheduled activities, or, in a freer variation, based on their o#n plans for the

ne2t day1the #eekend1the holidays, etc.

Achie+ing a re%$t0

Pict%re .ith !i,,erence

The students are given %uite similar pictures containing a number of differences

(number1colour of obects, different people1animals1furniture1street1position in space.

They are told there are + differences, for e2ample. To fulfil the task, they take turns to

ask and ans#er %uestions, paying attention to and recording the differences they identify.

*t is useful for practising %uestions such as0 *s1$re there...D13here is1areD prepositions

of placeI 3hat is the girl doingD1*s the boy sittingD ; )o, he is standing.

Chart co"p$etion


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The students are given charts #ith different missing information. To complete them, they

have to ask their partners, #ho have the information they need.

#ap co"p$etion

The students are given handouts #ith the map of a street, village, to#n, oo, store, etc.Each student has elements the other has not, so they have to ask and ans#er %uestions in

order to complete their maps #ith the missing items put in the right place. The activity is

useful for prepositions of place, giving instructions. $nother task can be giving their

partners: directions to their home.

Dra.ing intr%ction

The students are given handouts #ith different shapes1obects1places1people1animals. The

task re%uires that each of them dra#s the picture on their partner:s handout, listening toeach other:s descriptions and instructions. 3ithout handouts, the task can be that each of

them describes his1her room so that their partner can dra# a plan of the room. The

grammar focus is again prepositions of place, spatial directions.

There are also other types of communicative activities and games roughly based

on the information gap principle0

G%eing ga"e' ? 7

This is a popular game. *t can be played either in pairs or #ith the #hole class. *n a pair,

the partners take turns as 9kno#er: and 9guesser:. Each thinks of an activity, person, ob,

animal, country, continent, place, etc. They try to guess #hat the other is thinking of by

asking relevant Oes1)o %uestions (up to focused on structures and topics fit to the

conte2t. 3ith the #hole class, one student is the kno#er, ans#ering the %uestions asked

by his peers.

#i"e&Chara!e

This is another type of entertaining guessing game, also used for amusement at social get-

togethers. The kno#er has to mime the concept he1she has in mind, nodding or shaking

his head in response to the others: %uestions.

7%etionnaire&S%r+e-


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!tudents are asked to collect data about their classmates by devising a %uestionnaire on

various topics0 hobbies, pastimes, sports, holidays, eating1reading habits, likes1dislikes,

etc.

They have to go around the class asking %uestions and recording ans#ers on their report

sheet. $t the end the students process the data collected and present their findings, under

the form of pie-charts, stack columns, graphs or diagrams.

Inter+ie.

The students intervie# each other on a given topic0 future plans1career1holidays, past

e2periences, family, relationships, friends, study or pastime preferences, etc. $t the end

each student produces an oral or #ritten account of the intervie#. *t can be used for

practising tenses and reported speech. The intervie#ers1intervie#ees can act as

themselves or play the role of other people (family members, friends ; an e2ercise in

empathyW, of celebrities or even animalsW This really appeals to their empathic

imagination.

7%i22e

*t can be organied in pairs or groups. Each student or group devises a %ui based on a

structure and topic studied in class (#ildlife, geographical1historical1cultural

facts1films1books1music, etc. *t can be conducted orally or in #riting. *t is more

challenging if organised as a competition bet#een t#o1three teams, in #hich the #inning

team has the most correct ans#ers.

@5 5 ROLE PLA

The principles of role play activities are by and large the same as those for *nfo-gap

activities. The task involves achieving a social and transactional goal, as indicated in the

Ro$e Car! allocated to students #orking in pairs or groups, #hich provide the

information gap re%uired for a meaningful e2change of information. >o#ever, there is a

stronger focus on functions0 persuasion, invitations, refusals, agreeing, disagreeing, etc.

*n designing a role play, #e should think of a conte2t or situation presenting a potential

conflict of interest, opinions or ideas. $t the same time role plays should reflect clear


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social role0 teacher, parent, policeman, driver, ecologist, salesperson, customer, public

figure, artist, etc.

Ro$e car!are essential in defining profile and goal of the person the student has

to impersonate #hile interacting #ith the others.

E2ample0 Four roommates are discussing ideas for an evening out. They have to agree on

something to do together, even if they have rather different interests and tastes.

Ro$e car! 1'Oou are !am. Oou like eating out and prefer fast-food restaurants. For a

change, ho#ever, you #ould try something more e2otic. Oou like musicals.

Ro$e car! 'Oou are $nnie. Oou like Chinese food, and #ould like to take the V5 eat-as-

much-as you-#ant offer at5r Wu. Oou also like going to the theatre and prefer comedies.

Ro$e car! @'Oou are Lucy. Oou like *talian food and #ould like to have some lasagne at

5ama 5ia. Oou like going to the cinema and prefer romantic comedies.

Ro$e car! B0 Oou are Xohnny. Oou:re fond of cooking curry and #ould prefer to cook a

meal for the others. Oou like dancing, especially Latino dances.

Agon- co$%"n&Agon- a%nt&%nc$e

This popular magaine column in #hich the columnist ; called an agony aunt1uncle ;

offers advice to readers re%uesting advice on a problem can be adapted for role play

focused on the function of asking for and giving advice. *t #orks better in pairs rather

than groups. Each student receives a role card containing a problem (relationships,

school, #ork, career, health, etc. Every student complains about his problem and

receives advice from his partner. $lternatively, both the problem and the advice can be

e2pressed in #riting, #ith each student receiving a problem card to respond to in #riting.

For this version, the role play can be dropped in favour of a self-e2pression e2ercise,

#here the students can #rite their o#n problems on unsigned pieces of paper, #hich the

teacher distributes around the class, asking students to offer advice on the problem in

%uestion. $s students may be sensitive about this self-revealing conte2t, anonymity is

obligatory. $ll the pieces of paper #ill be gathered on the teacher:s desk, so the students

can collect their 9advice letter: at the end of the lesson.

Letter(.riting


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4ole plays can also consist of #riting activities. !tudents can be asked to #rite various

types of letters (invitation, re%uest, advice, complaint, application, etc. from the

perspective of a certain role. "f course, the #riting activity #ill be based on a given

conte2t, specifying the #riter:s purpose, audience and the appropriate style

(formal1informal. The task #ill also include cues about content, such as issues to

complain about in a letter of complaint. &ore imaginative activities can include #riting

letters or diary entries from the perspective of a character in a story, a person they kno#

#ell or a famous person.

@5 @5 4REE DISCUSSION&DE>ATE ACTIVITIES

Pro*$e" o$+ing

This activity can be done either as a role play, #ith students in the group assuming a

given role in a given conte2t, or, for a more realistic conte2t, the students can discuss

issues from their o#n perspective, acting as themselves. The activity consists in asking

the students to discuss and agree on possible solutions to a certain problem. $ real or

imaginary problem is presented by the teacher, orally or on a fact-file handout. This can

be in connection #ith a real problem ; solutions for cleaning a polluted area1reducing

pollution in their area1publicising an event or product1repairing a malfunctioning machine

or vehicle1converting or finding a use for an old building in to#n1refurbishing the school

building1raising funds for a cause1protecting an endangered species1community1area, etc.

$lternatively, the problems can be brain-teasers or pules to #ork out, or more

imaginative problems like being on a space mission and having to deal #ith a technical

problem.

The e2ample belo# is %uite a popular riddle aimed at testing strategic and logical

thinking, called 9Who o.n the 2e*raD:

The students are given the follo#ing cues, and asked to #ork out the ans#ers for

t#o %uestions0 + 3ho drinks #aterD and 3ho o#ns the ebraD The activity can be

used for practising "o!a$ +er* 9"a-&"ight&co%$!&"%t&can0t&co%$!n0t = in,initi+e;

and such functions as e2pressing poi*i$it-/ poiti+e or negati+e !e!%ction&certaint-/

prepoition o, p$ace, etc.


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+. There are five houses in a ro#, each of a different colour and inhabited by people of

different nationalities, #ith different pets, drinks, and flo#ers.

. The English person lives in the red house.

J. The !paniard o#ns the dog.

/. Coffee is drunk in the green house.

5. The krainian drinks tea.

=. The green house is immediately to the right (your right of the ivory house.

?. The geranium gro#er o#ns snails.

@. 4oses are in front of the yello# house.

. &ilk is drunk in the middle house.

+. The )or#egian lives in the first house on the left.

++. The person #ho gro#s marigolds lives in the house ne2t to the person #ith the fo2.

+. 4oses are gro#n at the house ne2t to the house #here the horse is kept.

+J. The person #ho gro#s lilies drinks orange uice.

+/. The Xapanese person gro#s gardenias.

+5. The )or#egian lives ne2t to the blue house.

Chooing can!i!ate

The students are given a list of candidates for a competition, ob, manager, as #ell as

relevant information about them. The candidates: profiles should include details about

their background, %ualities, abilities and skills, e2perience, interests, commitment or

leadership potential. The group has to discuss their suitability and reach a decision about

the most suitable candidate. The functions practiced can be agreeing, disagreeing,

suggesting, persuading, arguing one:s opinion, e2pressing ability, possibility,

positive1negative deduction (using modal verbs.

De*ate

The students are introduced to a controversial issue in the real #orld, relevant for their

age, level and interests. They have to discuss the respective issue, from various

perspectives, arguing their standpoints, giving arguments and e2amples. $ debate can be

organised in groups or #ith the #hole class. 8ossible topics can be0

$re books losing ground in the era of digital revolutionsD


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3ill teachers be replaced by computersD

3ho should take care of the elderlyD

@5 B5 PERSONALISATION ACTIVITIES 9ora$&.ritten;

$ll methodologists agree on the fact that the perona$iation of the content learnt

promotes better retention ; a truism in language learning and learning in general (see r

+@@. $s this makes more sense on a personal and real-life plane, such activities ac%uire

a deeper meaning for the learner, promoting #hat $drian


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task for a specific grammar area ; talking about habitual actions in the past, speculating

about hypothetical situations, etc. 'iving students opportunities to e2press their ideas in

#riting helps them practise the language learnt in a meaningful conte2t promoting

personalisation and self-e2pression, #hich furthers consolidation, retention and a sense of

personal achievement.

"verall, #e should try to make grammar practice more meaningful and realistic

by offering ample opportunities for practice at discourse rather than at discrete (sentence

level, and by providing students #ith conte2ts encouraging real communication and self-

e2pression. "ne should al#ays bear in mind that grammar teaching and learning is not an

end in itself, but a means to an end, #hich is communicative fluency.

Chapter @

TEACHING VOCA>ULAR

THEORETICAL >AC6GROUND TO VOCA>ULAR AC7UISITION

$s in the case of our mother tongue, in foreign language learning #e recognie and

understand more #ords than #e actually use, #hich means that our pai+e&recepti+e

+oca*%$ar-#ill al#ays e2ceed our acti+e&pro!%cti+e +oca*%$ar-.

>o#ever, e2panding our active vocabulary in a foreign language re%uires more

controlled e2posure to and #ork on ne# vocabulary than is the case in our mother

tongue, to #hich #e are e2posed in everyday life. This is because learning and using ne#


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#ords re%uires time and repeated opportunity for use. $ctual use is preceded by an

inc%*ation perio!, during #hich the learner hears or sees the #ord in different conte2ts

before beginning to use it in free e2pression and communication.

$t beginner level #e should %uickly provide students #ith a 9basic vocabulary

kit: ; a limited active vocabulary from #hich students can build their vocabulary at a

natural, unforced speed. *n order to enrich their vocabulary, students should be

encouraged to read #idely outside the classroom, an enoyable activity #hich helps them

pick up ne# #ords in a natural and meaningful #ay.

&oreover, they #ill be #ell-advised to invest in a good monolingual dictionary,

#hich provides collocation patterns and full-sentence e2amples of the #ord in various

conte2ts. Finally, they should be accustomed to store1keep record of ne# vocabulary by

means of various types of data-bases ; #ord cards, vocabulary notebook, semantic field

files, topic-based #ord-sets1#ord-#ebs, idioms, collocations or phrasal verbs portfolios.

Prioritiing&p$anning +oca*%$ar- teaching practica$ criteria

!electing ne# or essential vocabulary to teach for active production should be based on

the follo#ing criteria0

4re8%enc-


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This refers to cases #hen, although a #ord may not occur so fre%uently in everyday

communication, it refers to a familiar obect fre%uently used in everyday life, such as a

toothbrush or comb. Thus, familiarity #ith the obect can be a reason to teach the #ord.

PRACTICAL LINGUISTIC CONSIDERATIONS

$ny$e3ica$ ite"is defined by a number of characteristics #hich should be taken into

consideration in teaching vocabulary.

#eaning an! conte3t

&eaning and conte2t are inseparable le2ical categories, insofar as, more often than not,

the meaning of a #ord is given by the conte2t it occurs in, and even if every #ord has a

core or main meaning, it can ac%uire other meanings if used in different conte2ts. *nconnection #ith meaning and conte2t of a le2ical item, the features #e should consider

highlighting are the follo#ing0

Di+erit- o, "eaning&"%$tip$e "eaning 9po$-e"-/ ho"on-"-;

*n the case of #ords #ith multiple meanings, it is generally advisable that #e should

teach one meaning at a time, according to the conte2t at hand. >o#ever, #ith more

advanced levels, #e can introduce the various meanings of a #ord from the outset. For

e2ample, #e can give e2amples illustrating the meanings of the #ord crane0

a birdI . a type of construction e%uipmentI J. to strain1stick out one:s neck.

Range o, "eaning

This refers to the number of different conte2ts in #hich the #ord is used. For e2ample,

the verbs make, do,goor getappear in a #ide range of conte2ts, in #hich their meaning

may vary according to the collocations (#ord combinations they take.

Deri+ati+e&root

The derivatives of a #ord (root are the ne# #ords #hich have undergone derivation by

means of pre-fi2ation or suffi2ation, thus forming a .or!(,a"i$-, e.g. #ork: #orker,

#orking, #orka$le, over#ork, over#orked.

Co$$ocation


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The collocations of a le2ical item are the various #ord combinations or associated forms

it occurs in. There are different types of collocations0 Perb )oun18reposition, Perb

*nfinive1'erund, $dective )oun18reposition, Perb $dverb. Phraa$ +er*or i!io"

are fi2ed collocations in #hich #ords lose their literal meaning, ac%uiring a

figurative1metaphoric meaning, such as indo someoneinor live from hand to mouth.

Connotation

$part from their denotative meaning (strictly literal, many #ords also have a connotative

meaning (implying emotion, attitude, udgement. The connotation of a #ord can be

positive or negative. Thus, the denotative #ord for an under#eight person can be thin, but

scra#n% andskinn%have a negative connotation, #hileslim,slender,slightorsveltehave

a positive connotation.

L1 inter,erence

This refers to disambiguating the meaning of #ords resembling #ords in our mother

tongue #hich mean something else ; #ords commonly kno#n as false

cognates/friends. For e2ample, speakers of 4omanian or French tend to use li$rar%

instead of $ooksho!, licenceinstead of university degree, etc. $mbiguities may also arise

#ith L+ homonyms #hich are e2pressed in English by different #ords, e.g. canal and

channelfor the 4omanian canal.

Sene re$ation

There are #ords #ith interrelated meanings ; similarities1differences in meaning.

$ccording to the kind of sense relations shared #ith other #ords, le2ical items can be0

S-non-"0 cheerful G oyful

Anton-"(opposites0 beautiful Y ugly

Ite"of a $e3ica$ et(group of #ords #ith the same topic, function or form, e.g.

#ords on the topic kitchen1holidays1crime

H-pon-", i.e. items of a e"antic ,ie$!(a set of #ords #ith close meaning,

referring to a certain notion or class such as colours, animals, parts of the body,

furniture.


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*tems on a c$ine, i.e. a graded se%uence of #ords arranged #ithin a slope to sho#

degrees of intensity, #hose meanings go across a continuum meaning0

E.g.0 blue ecstatic

lo# elateddepressed delighted

miserable cheerful

sorro#ful Y glad

Wor! gra""ar

This concerns the grammatical features of the #ord, such as0

8art of speech

*rregularities of form (irregular verbs or noun plurals

8refi2es and suffi2es used for #ord-derivation

3hat it is follo#ed by (prepositions, 'erund1*nfinitive

Countable1ncountable nouns


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Dia$ect

There are many #ords specific to 6ritish or $merican English, to other varieties of

English (!cottish, *rish or even to 6ritish or $merican regional dialects.


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4ealia can be used to teach #ords such as classroom furniture, school things, stationary,

toys, clothes, etc.

#i"e

&ime is effective #ith #ords describing everyday actions1activities, body posture andmovement, #ays of #alking1laughing.

#o!e$ entence

These are the most common presentation techni%ue. $ good model provides a clear

illustration of the meaning of the ne# #ord, e.g. * have to go to the *%tcher0, as * need

some pork meat for !unday lunch.

Dia$og%e

e #as "a!e re!%n!ant and no# he:s still

%ne"p$o-e!.

E3p$anation

$n e2planation of the meaning in L can be offered to clarify the meaning of a #ord, e.g.

*f a person is %ne"p$o-e!, it means he1she is out of #ork1does not have a ob.

Stor-

$ very short story outline can be used to present ne# le2ical items. E.g.0 Last year he #as

%ne"p$o-e!, so he started to look at the ob +acanciein the paper and app$-for obs.

7%etion

$fter introducing the #ord market, the teacher can ask students %uestions using the ne#

#ord. E.g.0 $ "ar)etis a place #here you can buy fresh food. 3hat do they sell thereD


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C$ine

Clines (illustrated above are an effective #ay of graphically illustrating the place of a

#ord on a slope sho#ing degrees of intensity related to a particular meaning, e.g. the

place of h%geon the scale of bigness.

Tran$ation

$lthough translation has been someho# demoted in favour of techni%ues based on the

use of the target language in illustrating le2ical meaning, it can be, beside conte2tualised

e2planations in L, a %uite effective #ay of clarifying meaning, especially in the case of

idiomatic e2pressions, #hen it #ould be interesting to make correlations #ith idioms

#ith the same meaning in the mother tongue.

Te3t g%eing "eaning ,ro" conte3t

3hen #orking #ith te2ts based on thematic vocabulary, #e can either pre-teach or post-

teach ne# #ords. *f the ne# #ords #ould get in the #ay of the students: understanding of

the te2t or may cause difficulty in solving reading comprehension or ensuing

communicative tasks, the teacher should pre-teach more difficult #ords. >o#ever, it is

#orth training students to guess meaning from conte2t, #ithout being daunted by

unkno#n #ords ; an essential ability of a fluent reader. Thus, after a reading activity #e

can post-teach vocabulary as a follo#-up, by means of inductive techni%ues and e2ercises

such as0

Co"prehenion 8%etionfocused on meaning of vocabulary, e.g.0 +.3hat does

set a$outin line + meanD . Find a synonym for a!!aritionin paragraph .

#%$tip$e(choice ite" e.g.0 The #ord !re!osterous in paragraph J means0 a

ridiculousI b sophisticatedI c absurd.

#atching .or! an! !e,inition. The #ords are listed in a column and their

definitions1e2planations are given in an opposite column, in umbled order. The

students are asked to match the #ords #ith their corresponding definitions.

S-non-"&anton-" earch. The students are given a number of #ords they

already kno#, for #hich they have to find synonyms1antonyms in the te2t, e.g.0 *n


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paragraph J, find #ords meaning curious,stimulus, am$itiousI find opposites for

$oring, ver% little, meanness.

Dictionar- .or)

!tudents should be trained as early as possible to look up #ords in the dictionary, as thisencourages learner independence and develops good study skills. That is #hy #e should

organie dictionary #ork sessions in class, preferably after reading a te2t ; in the absence

of class dictionaries #e can provide handouts of a page #ith the entries in %uestion. The

tasks can be to look up the meaning of a #ord in the te2tI make a list of do(make ) noun

combinationsI ask each other for the definitions of #ords highlighted in the te2t, if they

have different dictionary pages (info-gap pair-#ork e2ercise.

VOCA>ULAR PRACTICE ACTIVITIES

The principles in organising vocabulary practice are %uite similar to the ones underlying

grammar practice. $fter the presentation, the students practise the ne# vocabulary

through various types of semi-controlled, accuracy-oriented e2ercises. There should also

be a free practice stage, at #hich students are involved in communicative, fluency-

oriented activities involving the ne# #ords.

SE#I(CONTROLLED EERCISES

Tr%e&,a$e !e,inition o, .or!&i!io"

These consist in pairs of definitions (a, b for a #ord1idiom, in #hich one is false.

!tudents may be encouraged to #rite their o#n definitions for their peers to choose from

; one #ill be the dictionary definition, the other #ill be created by the students. $ game

#ith true and false idiom definitions, played in teams1groups is called QCall my bluffR

#atching .or! an! !e,inition

The #ords and their umbled definitions are listed under t#o opposite columns. The

students have to match the #ords #ith the correct definitions. $nother variant #ould be

to distribute #ord and definition cards among the students, #ho have to mill around and

read aloud the items on their cards until they find their 9partner: i.e. their corresponding

#ord1definition.


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Wor!(g%eing ga"e

"ne student stands #ith his back to the board. The teacher #rites a #ord only the class

can see. They have to help their classmate guess the #ord on the board by offering

definitions and e2planations of its meaning. *t can also be played as a competitionbet#een t#o teams, #ith the #inning team guessing the most #ords ; also kno#n as a

tea" !e,ining ga"e.

D%a$%$tip$e choice

This e2ercise offers t#o1three1four le2ical items to choose from.

Gap(,i$$

'ap-filling e2ercises are commonly used to check learning after presentation, and also

very useful as a testing device. The #ords to be used can be given in a separate list, inrandom order.

Voca*%$ar- c$o2e

$ vocabulary cloe is an effective #ay of practising1testing vocabulary, collocations and

appropriacy at te2t1discourse level.

Error correction

!tudents are re%uired to discriminate bet#een correct and incorrect #ord use or

collocations and make corrections #here necessary. !uch e2ercises are useful in that they

get the students thinking about conte2tual appropriacy, collocation and synonymy.

Re.rite&Rephrae entence

These e2ercises raise a#areness about #ords1phrases #ith similar meaning or function.

They usually involve re#riting the sentence by including a #ord given in the margin ;

also called )e- .or! tran,or"ation.

Wor! ,or"ation

This is a #ord derivation e2ercise, consisting of a te2t #ith numbered blank spaces. "n

the left hand margin, ne2t to each line containing a blank, a cue root-#ord is given, #hich

re%uires a prefi2 or1and a suffi2 so as to fit the given conte2t.

Le3ica$ et&Wor!("ap&Wor! ,ie$! co"p$etion


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$ le2ical set can be made more visually effective by means of a #ord-map1mind-

map1#ord-#eb based on a le2ical set. This is not only an e2cellent #ay of systematising,

revising and storing kno#n vocabulary, but also a #ay of involving students in e2ploring

ne# vocabulary #ith the help of the dictionary. 3ord maps also encourage students to

learn #ords associated by topic. >ere is a map for students to complete, by adding ne#

clusters such as appliances, utensils, activities, etc.

Sca$e an! c$ine

!tudents are given cards #ith gradable items to be stuck on a cline dra#n on the board.

$fter arranging the items and discussing issues of meaning, connotation or style, they

may use the #ords or phrases in a freer speaking activity, telling each other of

e2periences or situations related to the respective vocabulary area.

4REE PRACTICE ACTIVITIES


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The communicative activities aimed at practising vocabulary are similar to the ones used

for free grammar practice. "ral practice activities may consist in0

Sentence *%i$!ing

!tudents create sentences of their o#n using the ne# vocabulary. $n important principlein consolidating vocabulary use is perona$iation, i.e. students should be encouraged to

use the #ords in statements about themselves. 8ersonalisation does not only promote

self-e2pression and real communication, but it also aids retention.

Dia$og%e&inter+ie.&e3changing in,or"ation

The activity involves students #orking in pairs, asking each other %uestions and

e2changing personal information on a given vocabulary topic, e.g. travel and holidays,

food, clothes, music, etc. This can be a one-off activity or part of a class survey includingtopic vocabulary.

In,or"ation gap

The tasks based on information gap should involve the target vocabulary. !tudents have

to ask and ans#er %uestions in order to complete their task, e.g. finding a certain number

of differences in t#o pictures of the same room, the map of a place at t#o different points

in time, etc.

Cro.or! p%22$e

Cross#ords can be used as a support for an info-gap activity. "ne group of students are

given handouts #ith a half-completed cross#ord ($, and the other group get the other

completed half (6. !tudent $ also has a list of the missing #ords in 6, and 6 students

have the missing #ords in $. The principle is that students help each other complete their

pule, by offering the definition of the #ord needed. 6efore students are put into pairs

$6, all the $16 students are put together to discuss the possible definitions and

e2planations of the #ords they have to help their partners #ith. 8roviding a dictionary for

students to look up #ords or check definitions #ould be a good idea. They should also be

instructed to asks such %uestions as 93hat:s 5 across1do#nD:

Ro$e(p$a-


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Pict%re !ictation

This is an information gap e2ercise in #hich one of the students is given a relatively

simple dra#ing or picture representing a street map, a room layout, a person:s face, an

obect, etc. "ne student describes the picture #hile the other tries to dra# a close versionof the picture described. The activity may be used #ith vocabulary relating to places and

buildings, furniture, colours, physical appearance, clothes, animals, etc.

7%i2

This may consist of %uestions eliciting either standard or personalised ans#ers, or a

combination of both on various everyday topics such as food, health, education, politics,

public events, sports, entertainment. The %uestions (and ans#ers #ill be based on the

relevant vocabulary area. Writing ta)

3riting tasks are particularly useful for consolidation purposes, since #riting is an aid to

memory. !tudents can practice vocabulary through a range of #ritten tasks and te2t types,

such as letters #ith different functions and topics (invitations, refusals, advice, complaint,

ob applications, letters to the editor, etc. or topic-based1#ord-

suport curs didactica limbii engleze angela stanescu

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