DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

1

DESPRE UN SISTEM REPUBLICAN DURABIL

„Asadar orice invatatura sistematica trebuie sa porneasca de la o definitie, ca sa se inteleaga despre ce anume se discuta.”

O republica este un sistem constituit de un popor pentru a atinge un scop stabilit de el, in pofida unor evenimente intamplatoare ce pot perturba sistemul republican de-a lungul timpului. In general, un sistem este compus din o structura de elemente care de-a lungul timpului coopereaza pentru a exercita functii necesare atingerii unui scop, iar stemul functioneaza cu o performanta direct proportionala cu un grad de realizare a scopului. Deci, sistemul este caracterizat printr-o structura, o functie si o performanta.

Scopul care determina un popor sa constitue o republica este de a-si asigura o libertate perpetua.1

Evenimentele intamplatoare ce pot perturba sistemul republican sunt atat de natura externa cat si interna, multe dintre ele imprevizibile atat in timp cat si in amploare. De exemplu, cele externe pot fi razboaie sau calamitati naturale iar cele interne pot fi atat erori inocente cat si acte deliberat malitioase (coruptie) ale cetatenilor sai.2

Poporul republicii este format dintr-o comunitate compusa din cei mai multi membrii ai republicii si dintr-un guvernamant alcatuit dintr-un numar relativ mic de cetateni3 imputerniciti de cetatenii comunitatii sa conduca republica, nu dupa voia lor ci conform unui act rational superioar tuturor celorlate legi ale republicii4 – o constitutie arepublicii. Poporul detine o puterea suverana5 constituanta de facto, iar guvernamantul republicii detine o puterea constitutita de jure definita in constitutie.6

Un model sistemic simplificat al unei republici durabile este prezentat in Fig.1 in forma de sistem adaptiv alcatuit din o structura de doua elemente – o comunitate si un guvernamant. Modul de operare (cooperarea elementelor structurale) al sistemului republican durabil este iterativ de-a lungul timpului, pe un circuit inchis de o bucla de reactie negativa (feedback): guvernamntul actioneaza cu stimuli asupra comunitatii pentru a mentine de-a lungul timpului, in prezenta perturbatiilor o performanta direct proportionala cu o diferenta cat mai mica intre scopul poporului si raspunsurile comunitatii la acei stimuli. Evenimentele perturbatoare sunt aleatoare in timp si in amploare si, ele pot modifica atat raspunsurile comunitatii cat si stimulii creati de guvernamant.

Constitutia este un proiect de arhitectura,7 constructie si operare a unui guvernamant care defineste:8 (a) arhitectura guvernamantului formata din o structua de institutii, (b) proceduri de constructie a institutiilor din membrii ai guvernamantului desemnati prin alegere de catre popor sau prin numire de catre alti membrii,9 (c) functii(puteri necesare si suficiente) exercitate10 de guvernamant pentru atingerea scopului, (d)metode (algoritmi) de cooperare a institutiilor pentru realizarea functiilor11 si (e) functii

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

2

Fig. 1 O republica durabila are o structura formata din doua elemente: o comunitate si un guvernamant. Modul de operare al republicii durabile este iterativ de-a lungul timpului, pe un circuit inchis de o bucla de reactie negativa: guvernamntul actioneaza cu stimuli asupra comunitatii pentru a mentine de-a lungul timpului, in prezenta perturbatiilor o diferenta cat mai mica intre scopul poporului si raspunsurile comunitatii la acei stimuli.

interizise de a fi exercitate de catre guvernamant pentru a proteja libertatea cetatenilor sai.

Constitutia unei republici este un act prin care fiecare cetatean cedeaza o parte a parte a libertatii sale si o depune intr-un deposit public (rei publica). Guvernamantul republicii este investit de catre popor cu puteri necesare si suficiente pentru a realiza scopul poporului in prezenta perturbatiilor imprevizibile dar, in acelasi timp, cu puteri limitate pentru a nu incalca libertatea fiecarui cetatean -- portiunea cea mai mare din libertatea individuala pe care fiecare membru al comunitatii nu a depus-o in depositul public. Notam ca, experienta istorica milenara a demonstrat ca membrii guvernamantului vor abuza de puterea lor prin felurite acte deliberat malitioase (perturbatii interne) pentru a uzurpa depositul public. 12

Libertatea (dreptul) fiecarui cetaten este prescrisa in articole de constitutie scrise sub forma de propozitii afirmative (drepturi pozitive) sau negative (drepturi negative). Drepturile pozitive obliga guvernamantul sa actioneze asupra comunitatii in vederea realizarii scopului stabilit de popor, pe cand, drepturi negative limiteaza puterileguvernamantului si-l obliga sa nu incalce libertatile individuale care nu au fost delegateguvernamantului de catre popor. Atat drepturile pozitive cat si cele negative al

Comunitate

FeedbackRaspunsuri Stimuli

Scopstabilit de popor

Guvernamant

Referinta

EvenimentePerturbatoare

EvenimentePerturbatoare

Republica durabila

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

3

cetatenilor atrag dupa sine o obligatie a guvernamantului de a aloca resurse necesareinfaptuirii acelor drepturi.13

Constitutia unei republici nu este un act al unui guvernamant ci este un act al unui popor cu putere suverana, act antecedent constructiei unui guvernamant cu o autoritate limitata de popor si, orice actiune a guvernamantului care depaseste acea autoritate limitata este un abuz de putere indreptat impotriva poporului; si, daca, un guvernamant abuzeaza de puterea sa, atunci, poporul are dreptul sa reziste; si, orice fel de rezistenta a poporului impotriva abuzului de putere al guvernamantului este indreptatita.14 In consecinta, asa cum constitutia este un act creeat de popor, tot asa si o modificarea a constitutiei trebuie sa fie un act initiat de o adunare constituanta compusa din membrii alesi din popor si aprobata de popor, iar modificarea unei constitutii de catre un guvernamant creeat de constitutie, nu de o adunare constituanta si aprobat de popor, este un abuz de putere al acelui guvernamant.15

Constitutia unei republici nu este un contract16 intre o comunitate si un guverna-mant pentru ca un contract se incheie cu un consimtamant al ambelor parti pe cand constitutia este un act creeat de puterea suverana a unei majoritati ai cetatenilor republicii care se aplica si unei minoritati ai cetatenilor care nu a consimtit.17

Constitutia nu este o lege ci este un act creeat de popor, superior toturor celorlate legi ale republici. Daca constitutia ar fi o lege atunci, conform principiului juridic lex posterior derogat legi priori, legile republicii ar anula actul poporului (constitutia). 18

Un model sistemic al unui sistem republican durabil, mai detailat decat cel ilustrat anterior, este prezentat in Fig. 2. Structura sistemului este comupsa din o comunitate si un guvernament consitutit din trei elemente: un (a) sensor, un (b) ordinator si un (c) actuator; fiecare element este alcatuit din un numar de institutii.19

Un sistem republican durabil functioneaza in doua moduri. Cat timp perturbatiile din sistem sunt relativ mici acesta functioneaza in un mod “normal”, iar in momentul in care apar evenimente perturbatoare atat de mari incat ameninta insasi existenta republicii, atunci, sistemul se comuta din modul “ normal” in un mod de functionare in “avarie”.

Modul de functionare normal al sistemului se desfasoara iterativ de-a lungul timpului pe un circuit inchis de o bucla de reactie negativa (feedback) in felul urmator: (a) sensorul exercita o functie de monitorizare a raspunsurilor comunitatii si initiaza atat propuneri de legi cat si propuneri de sanctiuni bazate pe acele raspunsuri, (b) ordinatorul creeaza atat legi (acte normative) cat si pedepse (sentinte judecatoresti) si (c) actuatorul pune in lucru legile si pedepsele si le aplica aplica asupra comunitatii. De exemplu, in Roma republicana aceste trei elemente corespundeau aproximativ cu, respectiv, (a) institutia tribunilor (poporului) care exercita o functie de sensor pentru ca mai intai ea identifica dolentele (raspunsurile) plebeilor si apoi ea propunea sau anula (veto) legi, (b) institutia senatului care creea propuneri de legi ce deveneau legi (lex) numai dupa ce erau aprobate de popor si (c) institutia consulilor care actiona asupra poporului punand in aplicare legile.

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

4

Stimuli si raspunsurile comunica intre guvernamant si comunitate cu atat mai eficient cu cat organizarea comunitatatii are o structura mai, respectiv, controlabila si observabila. De exemplu, controlabilitatea si observabilitatea relativ scazuta a comunitatii Romei republicane, in perioada tarzie a republicii, formata din numeroase provincii raspandite pe un teritoriu relativ mare si conduse din Roma la comanda senatului, a fost una din principalele cauze ale tranzitiei violente de la republica la imperiu. Pe de alta parte, controlabilitatea si observabilitatea unei comunitati al unui sistem republican cu o structura federativa este mai ridicata decat cea a unui sistem republican centralizat ca cel al Romei republicane. Elvetia este un sistem republican federativ cu trei nivele de organizare: local, statal (cantonal) si federal. Structura fiecarui nivel este sub forma de sistem republican compus din un guvernamant si o comunitate. La nivelul local, pentru a rezolva probleme de interes ale localitatii, guvernamantul comunica cu comunitatea compusa din un numar relativ mic de membrii, deci, controlabilitatea si observabilitatea comunitatii locale sunt mai eficiente decat daca guvernamatul statal ar avea atributii de a rezolva probleme pe care le-ar putea rezolva fiecare localitate a sa si mult mai eficiente decat daca guvernul federal ar avea atributii de

EvenimentePerturbatoare

Republica durabila

Raspunsuri Stimuli

Guvernamant

Scop stabilit de popor

Referinta

Acte executive si politienesti

Alarma de avarie

Propuneri de legi si sanctiuni

Legi si pedepse

Sensor

ComunitateEvenimente

Perturbatoare

Fig. 2 Structura guvernamantului este consitutita din trei elemente: sensor, ordinator si actuator. Fiecare dintre cele trei elemente este compus din un numar de institutii care coopereaza pentru a exercita, in mod normal, trei functii esentiale: (a) observarea raspunsurile comunitatii pe baza carora sensorul initiaza propuneri de legi si sanctiuni, (b) legiferereaza si adjudeca in limta constitutiei, (c) aplica asupra comunitatii acte executive si politienesti limitate de constitutie si legi pentru a controla comportamentul comunitatatii. Functiile sunt exercitate pentru a realiza, in prezenta perturbatiilor, o performanta cat mai ridicata. Un mod special de functionare este o stare de “avarie” in care sensorul observa raspunsuri ale comunitati care indica prezenta unor perturbatii ce ameninta insasi existenta republicii; in acest mod, sensorul transmite o alarma de avarie direct actuatorului pentru ca acesta sa actioneze cu stimuli care sa salveze republica de la pieire.

Actuator

Ordinator

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

5

a rezolva mai toate problemele statale si locale, asa cum este cazul unui sistem republican centralizat.

Comutarea modului de functionare din normal in cel de avarie se face de catre sensor atunci cand acesta identifica prezenta unor evenimente perturbatoare extreme care ameninta insasi existenta republicii. In Roma republicana, sistemul adaptiv functiona in modul normal similar cu cel prezentat in Fig. 2, pe cand in modul de functionare in avarie sistemul adaptiv controlat cu feedback de legi creeate de ordinator (senatul era un elementul deliberativ relativ lent) era inlocuit intr-un timp de tranzitie relativ scurt prin decizia elementului cu functia de actuator (intitutia celor doi consuli) cu un sistem de comanda (sistem fara feedback) format din un singur element -- un dictator (magistratus extraordinarius) care suspenda pe o durata de cel mult sase luni legile si activitatea tuturor magistratilor si senatorilor. (Au fost si cazuri cand senatul declara prin senatus consultum o stare de urgenta si autoriza pe cei doi consuli sa numeasca un dicataor).

Performanta guvernamantului este cu atat mai ridicata cu cat sensorul, ordinatorulsi actuatorul mentin in prezenta perturbatiilor de-a lungul timpului o diferenta cat mai mica intre scopul ideal al poporului si raspunsul comunitati.

Durabilitatea unui sistem republican este cu atat mai mare cu cat structura si modul sau de operare sunt mai apropiate de cele ale unui sistem adaptiv caracteristic organismelor vii. Notam ca in organismele vii exista doua proprietati naturale, una de a evolua pentru a se adapta la perturbatiile cauzate de mediului inconjurator si cealata de a continua sa functioneze in prezenta acelor perturbatii, conscute in o teorie a sistemelor dinamice sub numele de, respectiv, homeoresis si homeostatis.20

Modul de functionare a unui sistem republican durabil se apropie cu atat mai mult de cel al unui sistem homeoresic ideal cu cat guvernamantul sau creeaza legi si actioneaza asupra unui numar cat mai mare al cetatenilor sai cu stimuli care faciliteaza progresul cunoasterii de catre ei a unor mijloace cat mai eficiente pentru a se adapta la perturbatii neprevazute si necunoscute de nici o persoana.21 In consecinta, un sistem republican este cu atat mai durabil cu cat este mai eficient invatamantul si educatia cetatenilor sai. 22

Modul de functionare al unei republici durabile se apropie cu atat mai mult de cel al unui sistem homeostasic ideal cu cat, in prezenta perturbatiilor, guvernamantul sau este mai capabil sa: (a) previna o diminuare a performantei republicii, (b) mentinaneintrerupta functionarea republicii chiar si atunci cand performanta ei este serios degradata de perturbatii, (c) comute intr-un interval de timp cat mai scurt trazitia din starea normala de functionare in starea de avarie (durata in timp a modului de functionare in starea de avarie va continua numai pana cand pericolul va fi eliminat),23 (d) revina intr-un interval de timp cat mai scurt dintr-o stare de functionare cu o performanta relativ scazuta la o stare de functionare cu o performanta relativ ridicata si (d) sa elimine nu numai perturbatiile dar si evenimentele ce au produs acele perturbatii.24

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

6

O analiza a istoriei republicilor durabile, antice si contemporane, arata ca, adesea, o relatie intre un efect (eveniment) important din viata acestor republici si cauza acelui efect nu poate fi stabilita cu certitudine, ceeace demonstreaza ca o republica durabila esteun sistem complex. Spre deosebire de un sistem simplu in care relatiile dintre cauza siefect sunt intotdeuna deterministice (exprimate prin legi fixe), intr-un sistem complex aceste relatii pot fi descrise numai pe baza unor principii empirice.25

O constitutie a unui sistem republican durabil este un proiect de arhitectura si constructie a unui sistem complex, deci, aceasta poate fi creeata numai pe baza unor relatii empirice, uneori numite doctrine, principii sau maxime, deduse din o analiza a exemplelor istorice ale unor state durabile antice si contemporane ale caror organizare afost validata si verificata de o experienta istorica indelungata (multe sute de ani) ca a asigurat libertatea cetatenilor sai. Orice propunere de organizare a unei republici durabile, oricat de logica ar parea ea, daca nu este bazata pe astfel de doctrine, principii, sau maxime, atunci, ea va fi o solutie experimentala al carui rezultat va fi incert.26

Doctrine, principii si maxime de organizare a unei republici durabile se pot deduce din o analiza si examinare critica a istoriei atat a unor state antice ca. de exemplu, Sparta si Roma republicana care si-au mentinut libertatea timp de cel putin sase sute de ani cat si a unor republici contemporane durabile cum ar fi Elvetia si Statele Unite ale Americii care au asigurat libertatea cetatenilor lor pe o perioada continua de mai mult de doua sute de ani.

Constitutia unui sistem republican durabil poate fi creeata prin un proces de proba-si-experienta de-a lungul timpului de multe generatii de oameni, asa cum a fost cazul constitutiei Romei republicane27 sau, poate fi rezultatul unui proiect al unei adunari constitutante formata din delegati alesi de popor, asa cum a fost creeata cea a Statelor Unite ale Americii in 1787.

Guvernamantul republicii durabile este un subsistem imbricat in republica, constitutit din o structura de elemente (institutii) care coopereaza pentru a exercita functii necesare atingerii scopului stabilit de popor. Sistemul de guvernamant este construit de popor pe baza “planurilor de arhitectura si constructie” definite in constitutie si, la randul lui, sistemul de guvernamant este investit prin constitutie cu puteri pentru aexercita functii prin care sa proiecteze, construiasca, functioneze si intretina un numar de subsisteme ale republicii, ca de exemplu, un subsistem de invatamant, un subsistem financiar, un subsistem militar, etc. Asadar, fiecare din aceste subsisteme poate fi considerat la randul lui un sistem imbricat in guvernamant si, mai mult, fiecare din aceste subsisteme este un sistem complex.28

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

7

REFERINTE

Citatul din deschiderea capitolului este din: Cicero, Despre indatoriri, [I:II]

PLATON, Legile, (-348?), --„Nu in vederea celui mai mare bine face legiutorul legile? [I:45] ... intelepciunea [cetatenilor]

este singurul scop catre care orice legiuitor bun trebuie sa-si indrepte legile sale [III:106] ... grija de capetenie a legiuitorului trebuie sa

fie de a face sa domneasca intelepciunea in statul pe care-l organizeaza si de a alunga din el nestiinta [ignoranta]. ... Numesc asadar

ignoranta, dispozitia aceasta a sufletului, care face ca el sa se revolte contra stiintei, judecatii, si ratiunii ... Asa ca hotaram, ca cetatenii

atinsi de aceasta nestiinta nu trebuie sa fie parte din guvernamant; [III:107] ... statul nostru guvernat astfel va dainui mult timp.

[VI:165] ... Credeti oare ce spun traditiile vechi? ... Ca neamul omenesc a fost distrus de mai multe ori de potopuri, molime si alte

prapaduri asemanatoare, care n-au crutat decat un numar foarte mic de oameni. ... Dar cine organizeaza un stat, va intocmi viata mai

mult in vederea razboiului din afara, ori in vederea acestui razboi launtric numit revolutie, care se iveste din timp in timp inlauntru

unui stat ...? [I:45] ... toti oamenii sunt rai fara voia lor [IX:270] ... natura nemuritoare a omului va impinge totdeauna pe om sa

doreasca sa aiba mai mult decat ceilati si sa nu se gandeasca decat la interesul sau personal [IX:284] ... nici un om ... nu e instare sa-ii

guverneze pe altii cu o autoritate absoluta fara ca el sa decada in desfrau si in nedreptate [IV:132] ... in orice guvernamant ar fi,

monarhic, oligarhic [aristocratic] sau democratic, daca acela care comanda are sufletul robit de o multime de dorinte si patimi, pe care

se sileste ... sa le satisfaca, ... fiindca raul care il roade este nesatios si fara leac, un asemenea om, ori ca ar conduce pe un particular

sau ar conduce un stat, va calca in picioare toate legile; si nu se poate ... ca vreun om sa fie fericit sub un asemenea conducator.

[IV:132] ... Cea mai grava dintre bolile sufletesti ale omului este un defect, innascut la cei mai multi, ... asa numitul amor propriu

(egoism), care zice-se este natural, legitim si chiar necesar. Dar nu e mai putin adevarat ca, daca amorul propriu e prea viu, el devine

cauza tuturor pacatelor. Cel ce iubeste, se orbeste singur relativ la obiectul iubit. El judeca gresit despre drept, bine si frumos cand

crede ca trebuie sa prefere interesul sau inaintea adevarului. ... Din cauza acestui defect, nestiutorul crede despre el ca este intelept in

propriii sai ochi; el crede ca stie totul, desi nu stie, ca sa zicem asa, nimic; si nevrand sa incredinteze altora conducerea afacerilor pe

care el nu e capabil sa le administreze, cade in nenumarate greseli inevitabile. [IV:148] ... In ce consta, deci, mijlocul acesta de a

pastra siguranta statului si a legilor, si cum trebuie sa procedam? ... trebuie sa instituim in cetatea noastra un consiliu mai intai

compus din zece pazitori ai legilor, cei mai batrani dintre ei, la care sa se asocieze toti cei ce au fost distinsi cu premiul bunului

cetatean ... [XII:366] ” Nota: Exemple de perturbatii externe sunt atat calamitati naturale: “potopuri, molime si alte prapaduri

asemanatoare” cat si “razboiul din afara”, iar dintre perturbatiile interne sunt amintite atat acel “razboi launtric numit revolutie” cat si

faptul ca “toti oamenii sunt rai fara voia lor”. Cea din urma perturbatie interna provoaca in o republica un fenomen de coruptie care se

manifesta cel mai pregnant in randul cetatenilor care, desi au fost imputerniciti de popor sa conduca treburile si sa pazeasca averile

statului, uzurpa depozitul public.

ARISTOTEL, Politica, (-330?) -- „Constatam ca fiecare cetate [stat] este o comunitate determinata •i ca fiecare comunitate

a fost alcatuita cu un scop bine determinat, caci toti actioneaza in numele a ceea ce li se pare a fi bine. De aceea, este clar ca toate

comunitatile tind spre un bine determinat, si mai ales cea [comunitatea] care le intrece si le contine pe toate celelalte tinde catre binele

cel mai ales dintre toate. Aceasta este asa-numita cetate si comunitate politica [1252a] ... De asemenea, cauza finala si scopul sunt

binele maxim, iar autarhia este atat un scop cat si un bine maxim. ... ... Astfel, comunitatea naturala formata in vederea <vietii>

cotidiene este familia ... Comunitatea prima a mai multor familii, realizata dintr-o necesitate care nu este efemera, este satul. ...

Comunitatea deplina, pentru a spune astfel, formata din mai multe sate, este cetatea, care atinge limita totalei autarhi [suficienta de

sine] si care se creeaza in vederea vietii, desi dainue in vederea vietii bune. De aceea intreaga cetate are un caracter natural, chiar daca

si comunitatea prima este astfel. Caci cetatea este scopul acestor <comunitati prime>, deoarece natura este scop. [1252b] ... De

asemenea, cauza finala si scopul sunt binele maxim, iar autarhia este atat un scop cat si un bine maxim. Din aceasta rezulta ca cetatea

este naturala si ca omul este in mod natural un vietuitor politic... [1253a]. ...Dar pentru ca o cetate sa se pastreze in continuare este

necesar ca toate partile ei sa-si doreasca existenta si persistenta ei. Regii au avut in vedere acest lucru din cauza onoarei aduse lor [prin

participare la conducerea cetatatii] ...apoi membrii elitei sunt interesati de persistenta cetatatii datorita [institutiei] gerousiei, pentru ca

investirea in cadrul ei reprezinta o rasplata a virtutii lor, iar demosul, datorita [institutiei] eforilor, in care isi gasesc cu totii

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

8

locul.[1270b]. ... Exista insa o anumita putere potrivit careia sunt stapaniti cei care sunt egali ca neam, precum si cei care sunt liberi.

Aceasta este puterea politica, iar pe aceasta o invata un conducator atunci cand este condus ... De aceea se si spune pe buna dreptate ca

nu exista buni conducatori daca nu au fost <si ei> condusi. [1277b] ... Constitutia unei cetati reprezinta organizarea diferitelor

magistraturi si mai cu seama a celei supreme. Aceasta functie suprema este reprezentata pretutindeni de conducerea cetatii, iar aceasta

conducere reprezinta constitutia. [1278b] ... guvernarea si constitutia semnifica acelasi lucru, deoarece guvernarea reprezinta

conducerea cetatii [1279a] ... detin puterea cei care schimba constitutia. [1292b] ”

POLYBIOS, Istorii, (-120?) -- „Ceea ce este cu adevarat educativ si util celor doritori de invatatura se obtine prin cercetarea

istorica atat a cauzelor ce au provocat evenimentele cele mai importante cat si a binelui produs de decizii intelepte. Constitutia unui

stat trebuie socotita ca cel mai insemnat mijloc prin care acesta a reusit sau nu orice actiune intreprinsa de el; caci din ea, ca dintr-un

izvor, nu numai ca decurg toate planurile si succesele actiunilor sale, dar tot din ea i se trage si sfarsitul. [VI:2.462]” Nota: Constitutia

Romei republicane nu a fost scrisa la intamplare ci a fost conceputa pe baza unor principii empirice deduse din istoria altor state.

Vedem ca „invatatura”, adica, o colectie de relatii empirice intre scop si mijloc necesare pentru a constituti un stat glorios ca cel al

Romai republicane, se „obtin prin cercetarea istorica” a relatiilor intre cauza si efect. De asemenea, forma de organizare a unui stat,

specificata in constitutia sa, este nu numai cheia succesului „actiunilor sale” dar si cauza „sfarsitului” sau.

CICERO, Despre stat (De Re Publica), (-51?) -- „[d]upa informatiile din analele grecesti, Roma a fost intemeiata in al

doilea an al celei de a saptea olimpiade [circa -750], deci Romulus apartine unei generatii in timpul careia Grecia era plina de poeti si

cantareti, iar povestile, cu exceptia celor privitoare la evenimentele din vechime, nu se mai bucurau de nici o apreciere. Conform

datei celei mai recente, Homer [circa -914] a trait cam cu treizeci de ani inainte de [regele Spartei] Licurg [circa -884 i.e.n.]. De aici

se poate trage concluzia ca Homer a trait foarte multi ani inaintea lui Romulus...[II:18]... Asadar statul, adica ‘lucrul public’ (re

publica), spuse [Scipio] Africanus, este lucrul poporului, dar poporul nu este orice ceata de oameni adunati la intamplare, ci o multime

unita intr-un sistem juridic intemeiat printr-un acord comun in vederea utilitatii comune [utilitas communio]. Cauza [scopul]

primordiala a unirii oamenilor nu este atat slabiciunea, cat un fel de tendinta naturala a oamenilor spre unire. [I:39]... .... Asadar,

orice popor care s-a constituit intr-o asemenea colectivitate, ca ce de sus, orice stat, care este, dupa cum am spus, re publica, trebuie

guvernat a fi durabil, dupa un anumit principiu. Acesta trebuie raportat la cauza originara [scopul] a intemeierii comunitatii

cetatenesti. [I:42]...El [Cato cel Batran] afirma deseori ca statul nostru este superior in organizare tuturor celorlalte state, dat fiind ca

acestea din urma fusesera intemeiate de catre o persoana care a promulgat legi si a infiintat institutii dupa propriile sale criterii: astfel

au procedat Minos in Creta, Licurg in Sparta, iar la Atena, care si-a schimbat adesea constitutia, Theseus, Dracon, Solon, Clisthenes

si multi altii, pentru ca in cele din urma prea invatatul Demetrius din Phaleron sa readuca statul slabit si neputincios pe linia de plutire;

dar statul nostru nu-si datoreaza existenta unei singure persoane, ci multora, el n-a fost intemeiat in rastimpul unei singure vieti, ci s-

a format in decursul mai multor epoci si generatii. Cato spunea ca nu exista pe lume un om atat de inteligent incat sa nu-i scape

niciodata nimic si nici macar toate inteligentele concentrate intr-o singura persoana nu pot avea o capacitate de previziune atat de mare

in cursul unei singure epoci, incat sa cuprinda totul fara o experienta politica indelungata.[II:2]”

MACHIAVELLI, Discursuri, (1517) -- §1 „Considerind ... cata onoare se atribue lucrarilor de arta antice, si cum de multe

ori, ... un fragment al unei statui antice a fost cumparat la un pret mare, ... si cum multi artisti se straduie sa le imite pe acestea in toate

operele lor ... ; si vazand, pe de alta parte, ca cele mai mari realizari politice ale regilor, conducatorilor, cetatenilor, legiuitorilor si altor

patrioti ce s-au sacrificat pentru monarhiile si republicile din antichitate sunt mai degraba admirate decat imitate, nu ma mirara faptul

ca din acea virtute antica contemporanii nostri nu cunoscut multe lucruri si asta, in acelasi timp, ma uluieste si ma intristeaza. ... Cu

atat mai mult, in constituirea republicilor, in mentinerea statelor, in guvernarea monarhiilor, in comanda armatelor ... nu se afla vreun

principe sau vreo republica care sa fi recurs la exemple din istoria antica. Asta, cred eu, .... este din cauza faptului ca nu au cunostiinte

adevarate despre istorie ... asta pentru ca un numar infinit de mare de oameni citesc cu placere despre evenimentele istorice fara a se

gandi ca acestea pot fi imitate, crezand nu numai ca ar fi dificil ci chiar imposibil de imitat ... Voind, deci, sa educ oamenii, am crezut

necesar sa scriu ... ceace eu, bazat pe cunostintele mele de istorie antica si moderna, am judecat necesar sa scriu in aceste randuri,

pentru a le facilita celor ce le vor citi sa beneficieze de pe urma exemplelor istorice. Desi acest proiect e dificil, oricum, ajutat de cei

ce m-au incurajat sa-l accept, cred ca-l voi duce destul de departe incat va ramane numai un drum destul de scurt unei alte persoane sa-

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

9

i duca pana la locul destinat. [I:Pb] ... Deci, fericita se poate chema acea republica, in care a aparut un om asa de capabil incat, a

constituit-o cu legi aranjate in asa fel incat, fara sa fie nevoie de a le corecta, se va putea trai mult timp in siguranta. … spun ca el

[principele] rebuie sa examineze mai intai ce vrea poporul, si va descoperi intotdeauna ca vrea … libertaea sa… [si, principele]

trebuie sa examineze care sunt cauzele care il face [pe popor] sa doreasca sa fie liber; si va gasi ca o mica parte din ei doreste sa fie

liberi pentru a comanda; iar toti ceilati, care sunt infinit [mai multi], doresc libertatea pentru a trai in siguranta. Pentru ca in toate

republicile… la nivelul de a comanda nu ajung mai mult de patruzeci sau cincizeci de cetateni… Toti ceilati, care se multumesc sa

traiasca in [libertate si] siguranta, sunt usor de satisfacut [de principe], facand ordine si legi, care … sa cuprinda securitatea universala

[a tuturor cetatenilor]…[I:16] ... [e]ste necesar ca cel ce constitue o republica si dispune legi in ea sa presupuna ca toti oamenii sunt

rai, si ca ei intotdeauna vor manifesta rautatea lor, ori decate ori au libertatea de a face acest lucru [I:3]... pentru ca natura i-a creeat pe

oameni sa doreasca sa posede orice lucru, dar, aceast deziderat ne fiind posibil de realizat si, pentru ca acea dorinta a lor de a poseda

este intotdeuna mai mare decat ceeace pot ei achizitiona, rezultata o nemultumire si o disatisfactie cu ceea ce poseda. ... pentru ca

oamenii dorind, unii sa posede cat mai mult iar altii sa nu piartda ce au achizitionat, asa incep neintelegerile intre ei si

razboaiele...[I:37] ” Nota: Machiavelli a pus bazele unei metode moderne, radical diferita de cele al inaintasilor sai, ce poate fi

considerata o schimbare de paradigma, de a trata organizarea a unui stat durabil (Sparta si Roma republicana) ca un sistem complex.

Observand din studiul exemplelor istorice ca intr-un stat durabil atat relatiile dintre cauza si efect cat si cele dintre scop si mijloc nu

sunt intotdeuna deterministice, Machiavelli a sperat ca se va gasi un legiuitor care va utiliza noua sa metoda de identificarea a

mijloacelor necesare reailizarii unui scop pe baza unor relatii empirice a caror validitate poate fi demonstrata cu exemple istorice

pentru a constitui o noua Italie. Nu este suficient ca un legiutor, promotorul unei oranduiri noi, doar sa arate defectele vechiului

guvernamant, ci, pentru ai convinge pe sustinatorii sai, el trebuie sa demonstreze ca noul guvernamant propus de el este superior celui

vechi prin faptul ca principiile de organizarea ale celui nou au fost verificate printr-o indelungata experienta istorica. Demonstratia,

scrie Machiavelli, legiutorul o poate face cu ajutorul exemplelor de organizare a statelor antice si moderne. Deci, Machiavelli propune

ca un „principe” legiuitor care „constitue o republica” sa „beneficieze de pe urma exemplelor istorice” nu numai pentru a „admira”

organizarea statelor antice si contemporane ci pentru a le „imita”. Cu alte cuvinte, el propune o noua metoda de a identifica de catre

un legiuitor existenta unor relatii empirice intre un scop stabilit de o putere suverana si un mijloc de realizare al scopului. Mijlocul

poate fi descris in articolele unei constitutii ca fiind un sistem de guvernamant organizat pe baza unor relatii empirice al caror

validitate este demonstrata cu exemple istorice. Se poate spune ca, aceste relatii empirice pot fi numite maxime, reguli, principii, sau

doctrine, in functie direct proportionala cu durabilitatea in timp, mai putin sau mai mult ridicata, a statului analizat.

§2“Asadar, in concluzie, eu spun ca in acele republici in care pericolele urgente nu sunt date pe mana unui dictator sau a

unor autoritati similare, intotdeuna ele se vor ruina din cauza unor pericole extreme. ... dictatorul era desemnat in baza constitutiei ...

autoritatea de a desemna dictatorul revenea consulilor ... dictatorul era desemnat pentru o perioada de timp limitata, nu perpetua ...

autoritatea sa cuprindea toate masurile pe care el le considera necesare pentru a elimina pericolul urgent care el trebuia sa-l remedieze,

sa faca acel lucru fara a se consulta cu altcineva si sa aplice pedepse fara drept de apel ...dar, el nu putea diminua autoritatea senatului

sau al poporului[I:34]... Trebuie sa se ia in consideratie modul in care se da autoritatea si pe ce durat de tim se da ea. Daca se da [unei

persoane] autoritatea [de dictaor], pe un tip indelungat, adica, pe un an sau mai mult, atunci e periculos, si poate avea efect bun sau

rau, depinde de persoana... [cand] se creeaza dictaorul, tribunii, consulii si senatul raman cu autoritatea lor iar dictatorul nu le-o poate

lua. ... astfel senatul, consulii si tribunii, ramanand cu autoritatea lor, devin paznicii dictaorului, fortand-ul sa nu devieze de la directia

lui.[I:35]” Nota: Machivelli considera ca experienta istorica a Romei republicane demonstreaza ca una dintre institutiile care a

contribuit la salvarea statului a fost ce a “dictatorului” (magistratus extraordinarius). Deci, in constitutia Romei republicane era

prevazut ca in cazuri de primejdie extrema, cei doi consuli numeau un dictator cu puteri discretionare pe o perioada de timp relativ

scurta (de cele mai multe ori sase luni) pentru a indeparta acea primejdie. Sistemul de guvernamant al Romei republicane avea o

structura compusa din trei institutii: (a) una democartica formata din o adunare a poporului reprezentata in guvernamant de tribunii

plebei, (b) o alta aristocartica reprezentata de senatori care proveneau (majoritatea dintre ei) din randul padricienilor si (c) inca una

compusa din doi consuli care, de cele mai multe ori, proveneau din randul aristocratilor. In general, cele trei institutii erau separate

intre ele pentru ca o persoana era membra numai a unei singure institutii si exercita numai functii atribuite acelei institutii, desi,

dealungul existentei republicii au fost si exceptii. Desi, in Roma republicana nu erau decat doua clase sociale, functiile principale ale

guvernamantului erau distribuite in asa fel incat, prin constitutie institutiile se echilibrau una pe cealata, adica, cel putin o institutie

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

10

putea sa opreasca si sa corecteze erori sau acte malitioase ale alteia. De exemplu, tribunii plebei aveau drept de veto asupra legilor

elaborate de senatori, iar, pe de alta parte, consulii (uneori la indemnul sau cu aprobarea senatului) erau imputerniciti prin constitutie

sa declare o stare de urgenta si numeau un magistratus extraordinarius (numit si “dictator”) pe o durata limitata de timp, intre sase si

douasprezece luni, care avea puterea sa suspende anumite legi pentru a actiona cu scopul de a salva republica. Timp de circa sase sute

de ani, poporul din Roma republicana nu a recurs la revolutie (desi au avut loc revolte ale plebeii) pentru a schimba regimul, in mare

masura si datorita organizarii guvernamantului sau pe baza principiului separatiei si echilibrului puterilor in stat.

BODIN, J., Sase carti despre Republica, (1576) -- „Republica este un guvernamant legal al unei multimi de familii cu

putere suverana si cu cele ce le este a lor in comun. ... Noi am spus in primul rand, guvernamant legal, pentru a diferentia intre

Republici si bandele de hoti si pirati, intre care nu exista, nici comert, nici aliante, asa cum este in toate Republicile bine organizate. ...

Suveranitate este acea putere absoluta, perpetuua si independenta pe care latinii o numeau majestas...… Poporul nu moare nici

odata…dupa sute sau chiar mii de ani el inca este acela-si Popor… Poporul este immortal prin succesiunea persoanelor…”

BOLINGBROKE, The Works of Lord Bolingbroke, (1735) -- “By constitution we mean, whenever we speak with

propriety and exactness, that assamblage of laws, institution and customs, derived from certain fixed principles of reason, directed to

certain fixed objects [a determined scope] of public good [the scope is a public good], that compose the general system [of

government] according to which the community have agreed to be governed.”

MONTESQUIEU, Despre spirtul legilor, (1748 ) -- „[t]oate statele au in general acelasi obiect [scop], care este de a se

mentine [XI,5.1] ... Libertatea politica a unui cetatean este acea liniste sufleteasca care provine din convingerea fiecaruia ca se afla in

siguranta; si, pentru ca fiecare sa simta aceasta libertate, trebuie ca guvernamantul sa fie alcatuit in asa fel incat unui cetatean sa nu-i

fie teama de un alt cetatean. [XI:6.3] ... “…din experienta milenara e stiut ca orice om care detine o putere va abuza de ea; si va

continua asa pana va atinge limitele. De necrezut! Pentru ca unu sa nu abuzeze de putere, trebuie ca, prin organizarea lucrurilor,

puterea sa opreasca puterea. [XI:4]”

BECCARIA, Despre infractiuni si pedepse, (1764) -- „Legile sunt conditiile sub care oamenii -- independenti si izolati,

satui de a trai in o continua stare de razboi si de a se bucura de o libertate devenita nefolositoare, ... s-au unit in societate. Ei au

sacrificat o parte din aceasta libertate pentru a se bucura de rest in siguranta si liniste. Suma tuturor acestor portiuni de libertate

sacrificate binelui tuturora formeaza suveranitatea unei natiuni, iar suveranul este depositarul legitim si administratorul lor. Dar nu era

de ajuns sa se constitue acest deposit; trebuia ca acesta sa fie aparat de uzurparile private, ale fiecarui om in parte, care incearca

mereu sa ia din deposit nu numai portiunea cedata de el, ci sa uzurpe si pe cele cedate de ceilati. ... Nici un om nu a cedat in mod

gratuit o parte din libertatea sa in vederea binelui public: aceasta himer nu exista decat in romane. Daca ar fi cu putiinta asa ceva,

fiecare dintre noi ar vrea ca acordurile ce ii leaga pe altii sa nu-l lege si pe el; orice om se considera centrul tuturor celor ce se petrec

pe pamant.” [I:12]

WOOD, E., Town Meeting Resolution, (1776 ), Massachussetts -- “At a meeting of the Inhabitents of the Town of Concord

being free and twenty one years of age and upward, met by adjournment on the twenty first Day of October 1776 to take into

Consideration a Resolve of the Honorable House of Representatives of this State on the 17th of September Last, the Town Resolved

as followes - Resolve 1st. That this State being at Present destitute of a Properly established form of Goverment, it is absolutly

necesary that one should be emmediatly formed and established - Resolve 2d. That the Supreme Legislative, either in their Proper

Capacity, or in Joint Committee, are by no means a Body proper to form and Establish a Constitution, or form of Goverment; for

Reasons following. first Because we Conceive that a Constitution in its Proper Idea intends a System of Principles Established to

Secure the Subject in the Possession and enjoyment of their Rights and Privileges, against any Encroachments of the Governing Part -

2d Because the Same Body that forms a Constitution have of Consequence a power to alter it. 3d Because a Constitution alterable by

the Supreme Legislative is no Security at all to the Subject against any Encroachment of the Governing part on any, or on all of their

Rights and privileges. Resolve 3d. That it appears to this Town highly necesary and Expedient that a Convention, or Congress be

immediately Chosen, to form and establish a Constitution, by the Inhabitents of the Respective Towns in this State, being free and of

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

11

twenty one years of age, and upwards, in Proportion as the Representatives of this State formerly ware Chosen; the Convention or

Congress not to Consist of a greater number then the House of assembly of this State heretofore might Consist of, Except that each

Town and District shall have Liberty to Send one Representative or otherwise as Shall appear meet to the Inhabitents of this State in

General. Resolve 4th. that when the Convention, or Congress have formed a Constitution they adjourn for a Short time, and Publish

their Proposed Constitution for the Inspection and Remarks of the Inhabitents of this State. Resolve 5th. That the Honorable House of

assembly of this State be Desired to Recommend it to the Inhabitants of the State to Proceed to Chuse a Convention or Congress for

the Purpas abovesaid as soon as Possable. A True Copy of the Proceedings of the Town of Concord at the General Town meeting

above mentioned. atts. Ephraim Wood Junr. Town Clerk “

HAMILTON, Federalist, ( 1787) -- „Istoria ne invata ca dintre oamenii care au rasturnat libertatile republicilor, multi

dintre ei si-au inceput cariera proclamandu-si dovotamentul lor poporului. Ei urcau treptele puterii curtand poporul si au terminat ca

tirani.[1] …oamenii sunt invidiosi, razbunatori si lacomi de catig. A te astepta la o armonie continua intre un numar de oameni, … ar

fi sa nu tii seama de mersul istoriei …oamenii au abuzat mult prea frecvent de increderea [puterea] pe care le-a acordat-o poporul

folosind pretextul ca ei vor binele comun dar de fapt sacrifica linistea natiunii urmarit avantaje si satisfactii personale.[6]” Nota:

Hamilton a fost unu dintre principalii autori ai constitutiei SUA, care a publicat numeroase articole de ziar, reproduse in cartea The

Federalist, pentrru a explica concetatenilor principiile care stau la baza acelei constitutii.

MADISON, Federalist, (1788) -- “Daca oamenii ar fi ingeri, n-ar fi nevoie de guvernamant. Daca ingerii ar guverna

oamenii, n-ar fi nevoie de nici un fel de supraveghere [a ingerilor, de catre oameni]… [51] “

CONSTITUTIA S.U.A. , Preambul, (1787) -- „Noi Poporul Statelor Unite, în vederea realiz•rii unei uniuni mai strânse,

a•ez•rii drept••ii, asigur•rii lini•tei interne, înzestr•rii pentru ap•rarea ob•teasc•, promov•rii prosperit••ii generale •i asigur•rii

binecuvânt•rilor libert••ii pentru noi în•ine •i descendentii no•tri, decret•m •i promulg•m constitu•ia de fa•• pentru Statele Unite ale

Americii.”

PAIN, Rights of Man, (1792) -- “A constitution...define[s] the relationships between them [the institutions of the

government] and the public. A constitution is not the act of a government, but of a people constituting a government, and a

government without a constitution is power without right. ...A constitution is a thing [a project] antecedent to a government; and a

government is only the creature of a constitution...codes of rules .. to regulate functions poweres and duties among the...offices

[institutions] of government, and define the relationships between them and the public.”

JEFFERSON, T., Writings, (1816) -- "Indeed, it must be acknowledged, that the term republic is of very vague application

in every language. Witness the self-styled republics of Holland, Switzerland, Genoa, Venice, Poland. Were I to assign to this term a

precise and definite idea, I would say, purely and simply, it means a government by its citizens in mass, acting directly and personally,

according to rules established by the majority; and that every other government is more or less republican, in proportion as it has in its

composition more or less of this ingredient of the direct action of the citizens. ... governments are more or less republican as they have

more or less of the element of popular election and control in their composition; and believing, as I do, that the mass of the citizens is

the safest depository of their own rights, and especially, that the evils flowing from the duperies of the people, are less injurious than

those from the egoism of their agents, I am a friend to that composition of government which has in it the most of this ingredient.”

CLAUSEWITZ, Despre razboi, (1832) -- „Exemplele istorice lamuresc totul si, in plus, au, in stiintele empirice [al

sistemelor umane complexe], cea mai mare putere demonstrativa....Este incontestabil ca cunostintele ce stau la baza artei razboiului

apartin stiintelor empirice. ... din prezentarea [analiza] amanuntita a unor evenimente istorice... se poate deduce o teorie [doctrine si

principii] a carei valabilitate e demontrata de chiar acele evenimente. ... analiza critica a evenimantelor istorice are ca obiectiv

stabilirea unor relatii intre cauza si efect ... cu toate ca, adesea adevaratele cauze nu se cunosc ... examinarea critica a evenimentelor

istorice ... se face cu obiectivul de a deduce relatiile dintre scop si mijloc... Sarcina criticii este de a descoperi ce efect e rezultatul unei

cauze si daca un mijloc folosit a corespuns scopului... nu blama [condamna] un mijloc, fara sa fii capabil sa propui unu mai bun...

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

12

Din necesitatea de a propune, in locul unui mijloc dezaprobat, unul mai potrivit, a izvorat acel fel de critica ... unii critici considera ca

e numai necesar sa sugereze un mijlocul mai potrivit decat cel dezaprobat fara a demonstra acest lucru ... Demonstratia este necesara

si consta in a determina care dintre cele doua va realiza mai bine scopul.” [V,6] Nota: Vedem ca „analiza critica” si „examinarea

critica” a exemplelor istorice se face, in general, cu obiectivul de a deduce din exemple istorice ale sistemelor umane complexe,

respectiv, relatii dintre cauza si efect si principii rationale si metodice a relatiilor dintre scop si mijloc. Aceste principii stau la baza

proiectarii unui sistem uman complex si „sarcina” unui critic al proiectului este, nu numai de a indica dezaprobarea sa, ci si de a creea

un proiect mai bun si de a-i demonstra, pe baza de exemple istorice pertinete, ca proiectul sau este mai bun.

HAYEK, F., Infatuare Fatala, (1943) --“Adaptarea la necunoscut este cheia oricarei evolutii...intreaga structura a

activitatii tinde sa se adapteze, prin aceste semanale partiale si fragmentare, la conditii neprevazute si necunoscute de nici un individ.

... Nu pot exista inlocuitori planificati deliberat [a priori] pentru un asemenea proces auto-ordonator de adaptare la necunoscut. ... a le

demonstra oamenilor cat de putin stiu de fapt despre ceea ce-si imagineaza ca pot proiecta. ...in conditii complexe, ordinea si

adaptarea la necunoscut se pot realiza mai eficace prin decizii descentarlizate; o divizare a autoritatii va extinde, in actualite,

posibilitatea de a crea ordine, in mare masura. Mai mult, descentralizarea in actualitae duce spre crearea unei cantitati mai mare de

informatie care poate fi folosita.” [V;4] Nota: Se realizeaza prin capacitatea de adaptare a statului la conditii noi si necunoscute. Cu

alte cuvinte, la capacitatea statului de a evolua. Structura descentralizata faciliteaza in mai mare masura adaptarea la conditii noi si

necunoscute decat cea centralizata; prin descentralizarea creste cantitatea de informatie din system-stat, deci, creste probabilitatea de

a lua decizii corecte in fata unor situatii necunoscute si astfel statul va creste durabilitatea acestuia. De exemplu, o republica durabila

poate evolua prin alipirea de noi teritorii, reorganizarea teritoriului existent si revizuirea partiala (amendamente) sau totala a

constitutiei sale.

LORENZ, E., Prof. M.I.T., Predictability: Does the Flap of a Butterfly Wings in Brazil set off a Tornado in Texas?,

(1972) -- “In more technical language, is the behaviour of the atmosphere unstable with respect to perturbations of small amplitude?

The connection between this question and our ability to predict the whether is evident. Since we do not know exactly how many

butterflies there are, nor where are they located, let alone which ones are flapping their wings at any instant, we cannot, if the answer

to our question is afirmative, accurately predict the occurence of tornados at a sufficiently distant future time.” Nota: In sistemul

complex – vremea, o schimbare a vremii este un proces iterativ care incepe cu un eveniment neglijabil (ce ar putea fi cauzat de

zborul unui fluture?) al carui efect asupra vremii poate deveni sesizabil, care efect, la randul lui, devine cauza unui alt efect si mai

sesizabil si, dupa multe iteratii cauza-efect-cauza-efect- …, poate rezulta un eveniment catastrofal – un uragan. De asemenea, o

avalansa este rezulataul unui efect nelinear. Relatiile deterministice sunt caracterizate de faptul ca un anumit efect are intotdeauna

aceiasi cauza cunoscuta si un anumit scop este realizat intotdeauna cu acelasi mijloc cunoscut; mai mult, acest tip de relatii pot fi

descrise analitic, de legi permanente si exprimate de multe ori prin functii matematice. Relatiile dintre cauza si efect ce pot fi stabilite

numai cu o anumita probabilitate, pot fi intelese folosind ca exemplu un sistem natural complex – vremea. Prevederea vremii de catre

meteorologi este o activitate in care se identifica relatii intre cauza si efect. Cauza poate fi cunoscuta numai cu o anumita precizie din

masuratorile, adesea imprecise, a parametrilor atmosferici asa ca efectul poate fi prezentat numai cu un anumit grad de incertitudine –

„vremea probabila.” In acest sistem, schimbari relativ mici ale paramentrilor atmosferici pot cauza efecte ale vremii uneori cu

consecinte grave; vazand ca aceast fel de relatie intre cauza si efect este destul de frecvent intalnita in prevederea vremii, un

meteorolog si-ar putea pune intrebarea: „Oare turbulentele aerului cauzate de zborul unui fluture in Brazilia ar putea provoca un

uragan in Texas?” Acest fel de relatie intre cauza si efect observata de meteorologi in sistemul natural complex al vremii poarta

numele sugestiv de „efectul fluturelui” (“the butterfly effect”). O caracteristica a sistemelor complexe sunt efectele “aparent haotice”,

care nu este un “haos” total, ci un efect observabil din exteriorul sistemului complex al carei cauza este un numar de interactiuni

locale, relativ simple, intre elementele sistemului, care se produc fara a fi comandate, controlate, sau planificate global la nivelul

sistemului. De exemplu, un uragan este un asemenea efect al sistemului complex, vremea. De asemenea, vezi si BARTON, Chaos,

self-organization, and psychology, (1994) –“Auto-organizarea nu are un conducator ci este generata, spontan, de jos-in-su prin

interactiunile dintre indivizi in situatii de amenintare cu exctinctia acelor indivizi. Auto-organizarea echilibreaza ordinea cu haosul si

mentine sistemul “pe muchia haosului” (the edge of chaos) care face ca starile sistemului sa alterneze intre stagnare si anarhie”: si,

vezi: WALDROP, Complexity: The Emerging Science..., (1992) “Auto-organizarea este un fenomen natural -- nu membrii sistemului

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

13

se auto-organizeaza, ci sistemul in sine se auto-organizeaza”; si vezi si KAUFFMAN, At Home in the Universe:The Search for Laws

of Self-Organizing and Complexity, (1995)

WADDINGTON, C., The Evolution of an Evolutionist, (1975) -- “Whereas the process of keeping something at a stable,

or stationary value is called homeostasis, ensuring the continuation of a given type of change it is called homeorhesis” [140] Nota:

Termenul homeorhesis in romana este homeorezie (homais +rhesis) nu este in DEX online dar este in Wikipedia si in lucrarile

stiintifice de pe Internet. Termenul homeostazie (homeostaza, homeostazii) este in DEX si este din franaceza homeosta-sie si in

engleza homeostatis.Homeostazie – o proprietate a organismelor vii de a-si mentine constante anumite marimi fiziologie in diverse

conditii de mediu. Proprietate a unor sisteme de a-si mentine constante anumite marimi caracteristice. In greaca homois => aceea-si

si stasis => stare. Alte lucrari care au preluat de la Waddington terminologia de homeorezie si homeostazie sunt urmatoarele:

JANTSCH, E., Evolution.... (1976) – “Homeorhesis ... [is] the preservation, not of a stationary state [which is homeostasis], but of a

flow process. Disturbances are couteracted so as to bring back the [flow] process not to where it was when was disturbed, but to

where it would have progressed if left undisturbed.” [92] si RAY, A., and PHOHA, S., Homeostasis and Homeorhesis ..., (2005) --

“The objective is to sustain order and normalcy under both anticipated and unanticipated faults and disturbances. ...Homeostasis is the

natural tendency of a living organism to maintain a stable equilibrium, in the thermodynamic sense, among its interacting internal

components, regardless of the interactions with the external environment. For a dynamical system, homeostasis can be viewed as

sustaining internal stability. In contrast, homeorhesis is the natural tendency of a living organism to continue its evolving

development, albeit being possibly different under different environmental conditions. For a dynamical system, homeorhesis is viewed

as maintenance of order and normalcy in the state trajectory under internal and external disturbances by avoiding a potential chaos.”

HOAGLAND, M. B. AND DODSON, B., Prof. Harvard Univ., The Way Life Works, (1995) -- “Feedback is a central

feature of life. The process of feedback governs how we grow, respond to stress and challenge, and regulate factors such as body

temperature, blood pressure and cholesterol level. The mechanisms operate at every level, from the interaction of proteins in cells to

the interaction of organisms in complex ecologies. [99]”

(RESEARCh, Not found on Internet seareches Aol, google, Yahoo, Bing??)

My account of living bodies centers on the concept of a self-instantiating system. Such a system remains identical through

time by making itself at each point in its duration an instance of the same kind of system. It does so by responding to changes in its

internal and external environment in such a way as to maintain its capacity to respond in the same ways to the same kinds of changes.

That is, its continuity through time and change consists in actively retaining its characteristic repertoire of adaptive responses.

Continuing as the same kind of system does not imply that there are any other systems of the same kind or species, but only that each

successive instance of the single system is of the same kind.

Every developed organism can be understood as a self-instantiating system.

This concept is sufficiently general to be applied both to genetic regulation of metabolic responses in a unicellular system,

and to the kind of control exercised by the brain over internal bodily adjustments and external behavior.

In both cases, the organism contains a control system that enables it to detect relevant changes in its internal or external

environment, select responses to these changes, effect the responses, and be guided by the results of its responses (feedback).

However, possessing such a control system is not a sufficient condition for classifying a system as alive.

Many American homes contain a climate-control system that carries out the functions just listed. In one type of thermostat there is a

bimetallic strip anchored at one end, and free at the other end where it is at a small distance from an electrical contact. Because the

strip is composed of two metals with different expansion rates. it will bend as the temperature changes. Thus it can detect temperature

changes. if it bends enough to reach the contact, it will turn on the furnace or air conditioner which then effects the system’s response.

If the effect of this response on the ambient temperature is sufficient, it will cause the bimetallic strip to bend away from the electrical

contact (feedback), terminating the response. The selection of a cooling or heating response is made according to a norm established

by the temperature setting (which, by altering the distance of the strip from the contact, changes the threshold temperature).

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

14

Thus the role of the thermostat, like the role of the genetic material in a bacterium or the brain in an animal, is to monitor

the state of an environment, detect a departure of this state from a norm, and respond by bringing the environment back to the norm.

The components of the thermostat are organized in such a way as to embody the equivalent of a hypothetical prescription: If the

temperature exceeds or falls short of x degrees, then initiate the cooling or heating response. We can refer to this organization of the

thermostat components as stored information (a term which I will explain at length in chapter two). The structure of a bacterium’s

DNA molecule, and the neuronal organization of the brain are also cases of stored information that enables the organism to detect

relevant events and select appropriate responses.

Despite the similarity between a thermostatic system and a biological control system, we are not inclined to think that

something alive is breathing through the household duct work.

The control functions of an organism or self-instantiating system differ from those of a thermostatic system in kind as well

as complexity.

An organism has what can be called an adaptive control system. Its norm is the continuity of the enclosing organism, or

the preservation of the repertoire of responses specific to that kind of organism.

{its scope is to maintain itself}

The disanalogy with a thermostatic system is apparent. Neither it nor the structure enclosing it are self-maintaining.

Suppose that the climate-control system were also capable of monitoring the state of its working parts, and could respond

to changes in its internal and external environment by activities such as cleaning and repairing itself, transforming unfinished

materials into replacement parts, and altering its own temperature setting, all in such a way as to preserve its capacity to do these very

things. It would then be a living, self-instantiating system (whose repertoire included climate-control), rather than just a

servomechanism for human organisms in their self-instantiation.

Given a suitable inner and outer environment, as long as the organism continues to have the same kind of stored

information in its adaptive control system, its responses enable it to persist through time and change as numerically the same

individual.

This temporal continuity {persist through time} does not depend on the continued presence of any of the individual physical

components which happen to be present in the organism at any point in its duration, As long as these are replaced by the right sorts of

components (either the same or functionally equivalent sorts), and are replaced in such a way as to leave uninterrupted the organism’s

repertoire of adaptive responses, even a total replacement of all physical components would be consistent with the identity of the

organism over time.

It is noteworthy that unicellular systems do constantly decompose internal structures and rebuild them with new materials,

and that most component cells of multicellular organisms are regularly replaced with newly grown cells. As a self-instantiating

system, an organism should be understood not as a collection of physical components, but rather as a persisting repertoire of responses

embodied in an uninterrupted succession of collections of components.

The concept of a self-instantiating system is a development and transformation of Aristotle’s notion of substance. He used

the Greek term ousia (usually translated as substance) to designate what is a basic existent or paradigm case for the application of such

terms as being and individual.

A major purpose of my book is to shift the current ontological paradigm away from the particulate objects which were the

focus of early modern, pre-biological science, and to the kind of system studied in recent biology.

For this purpose, it is appropriate to look back to Aristotle, because he saw as a central phenomenon of nature the sort of organization

and activity characteristic of living systems.

However, my book is not intended to be a defense, or even an exposition, of the metaphysics of the historical Aristotle. Instead, I wish

to acknowledge that I have borrowed and often altered major elements of his theory (as I understand it) in order to gain a

philosophical perspective appropriate to modern biology.

Aristotle’s material substances were composites of what he called matter and form. In a living substance form was an

organizing principle {to shape matter into form}. It endowed a quantity of matter with a set of structures and activities {functions}

that enabled the organism to persist through sequences of allowed changes in such a way as to retain the capacity for its essential

activities.

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

15

In other words, the form of an organism enabled it to continue to exist as that organism by securing its continuity as that

kind of organism. Thus there is a functional resemblance between the form of a living substance in Aristotle, and the information

stored in the adaptive control system of an organism.

Both can be understood as intrinsic components which enable a living system to be what I have called self-instantiating. In my theory,

the correlate of Aristotle’s notion of the form of a living substance will be called self-instantiating information.

The self-instantiating information present throughout the life of an organism typically outlasts a large percentage of the

physical components once present in the organism. As information, it could survive a gradual but complete turnover of all

components, since it is nothing but an ordering of kinds of components, and is not essentially bound to any particular instances of

those kinds. In this sense, it is really distinct from the actual collection of physical components which embodies it at any particular

time in the life of the organism.

Self-instantiating information is an objective, really distinct ingredient of living systems. It is something which is there in

living systems, just as truly as physical components are there. And it is absent in non-living systems. Furthermore, it is the ingredient

which is responsible for the most distinctive characteristic of a living system: adaptive control.

As I will explain at length in the relevant chapters of this book, sentience and thought are evolutionary modifications of the

function of self-instantiating information.

In all organisms, this information is transiently or permanently affected by signals from the environment. These signals elicit adaptive

responses to changes in the environment. This effect of a signal may seem, at first glance, to be inconsistent with the continuity of

self-instantiating information. However, this information is to a great extent the functional equivalent of an array of interrelated

hypothetical prescriptions for which signals mark the actual occurrences of antecedents.

The detection of these occurrences and the effecting of appropriate responses (the consequents of the prescriptions) does not change

the prescriptions themselves. Thus the self-instantiating information would be the same before and after the signals, even if the latter

form lasting records.

Sentience occurs when self-instantiating information is embodied in a brain, and the signals that affect it are patterns of neural events

isomorphic with environmental events.

An organism, by means of its self-instantiating information, does for itself what our concepts must do for inanimate

systems. The informational ingredient of the organism’s adaptive control system, by establishing a zone of control and maintaining a

boundary for that zone, generates the system’s spatial extension. Also, by determining which responses will be given to which sorts of

change, and by doing so in a way that maintains a repertoire of responses, it creates the temporal extension o[ the organism as an

uninterrupted succession of instances of that kind of organism.

Inanimate bodies, by contrast, do not have an intrinsic source of their spatiotemporal unity. They are instead collections which happen

for a time to satisfy the specifications of some concept of an observer. Only living things are natural individuals; inanimate

‘individuals’ are conceptual artifacts.

MACNAUGHTON, J., Prof. Univ. of Pennsylvania, Positive Rights..., (2001) -- “The prevailing view in our courts ..is

that‚ the Consitution is a charter of negative rather than positive liberties. With this absolute astement, judges have dismissed any

claim that citiziens have any positive rights to government services; that is, any claim that the government has an affirmative duty to

ensure that a citizien can actually enjoy their constitutional liberties... The Constitution not only delineate the government’s political

power and limitations; it also decalres the government’s ..obligation not to interfere with its citiziens’ rights.... The negative rights

view also rests upon distiction between obligatory and supererogatory duties.... Positive rights are difined as rights to government

actions.” Footnote: BANDES, S., The Negative Constitution. A Critique, (1990) -- “When a citizien enforces a positive right, he can

compel the government to take action to provide certain sevices. By contrast, negative rights entail freedom from government actions.

To enforce a negative right, a citizien merely insists that the government not act so as to impinge his freedom.”

TIMOC C. C., Logic Desing for Testability, I.E.E.E. Computer Society Press, (1984) – “A computer system...can be

described according to its function, structure, and performance. Function denotes what the scope of the system is; in other words, a

computer system whose design is to accomplish a certain task has this as its function. structure denotes how components are

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

16

interconnected so that the desired function is realized. Performance refers to how fast and accurately the structure accomplishes the

specified function.”

AVIZIENIS, A. et al, Prof. Univ. of California at Los Angeles, Fundamental Concepts of Dependability, (1992) –

“Computing systems are characterized by four fundamental properties: functionality, performance, cost, and dependability.

Dependability of a computing system is the ability to deliver service that can justifiably be trusted. The service delivered by a system

is its behavior as it is perceived by its user(s); a user is another system (physical, human) that interacts with the former at the service

interface. The function of a system is what the system is intended for, and is described by the system specification. ... Correct service

is delivered when the service implements the system function. A system failure is an event that occurs when the delivered service

deviates from correct service. A system may fail either because it does not comply with the specification, or because the specification

did not adequately describe its function. A failure is a transition from correct service to incorrect service, i.e., to not implementing the

system function. A transition from incorrect service to correct service is service restoration. The time interval during which incorrect

service is delivered is a service outage. An error is that part of the system state that may cause a subsequent failure: a failure occurs

when an error reaches the service interface and alters the service. A fault is the adjudged or hypothesized cause of an error. A fault is

active when it produces an error, otherwise it is dormant.... The development of a dependable computing system calls for the

combined utilization of a set of four techniques: fault prevention: how to prevent the occurrence or introduction of faults; fault

tolerance: how to deliver correct service in the presence of faults; fault removal: how to reduce the number or severity of faults; fault

forecasting: how to estimate the present number, the future incidence, and the likely consequences of faults. ... Fault prevention is

attained by quality control techniques employed during the design and manufacturing of hardware and software. They include

structured programming, information hiding, modularization, etc., for software, and rigorous design rules for hardware. Operational

physical faults are prevented by shielding, radiation hardening, etc., while interaction faults are prevented by training, rigorous

procedures for maintenance, "foolproof" packages. Malicious faults are prevented by firewalls and similar defenses. ... Fault tolerance

is intended to preserve the delivery of correct service in the presence of active faults [see homeostasis in WADDINGTON]. It is

generally implemented by error detection and subsequent system recovery. Error detection originates an error signal or message

within the system. An error that is present but not detected is a latent error. There exist two classes of error detection techniques: (a)

concurrent error detection, which takes place during service delivery; and (b) preemptive error detection, which takes place while

service delivery is suspended; it checks the system for latent errors and dormant faults. Recovery transforms a system state that

contains one or more errors and (possibly) faults into a state without detected errors and faults that can be activated again. Recovery

consists of error handling and fault handling. Error handling eliminates errors from the system state. It may take two forms: (a)

rollback, where the state transformation consists of returning the system back to a saved state that existed prior to error detection; that

saved state is a checkpoint, (b) rollforward, where the state without detected errors is a new state. Fault handling prevents located

faults from being activated again. Fault handling involves four steps: (a) fault diagnosis that identifies and records the cause(s) of

error(s), in terms of both location and type, (b) fault isolation that performs physical or logical exclusion of the faulty components

from further participation in service delivery, i.e., it makes the fault dormant, (c) system reconfiguration that either switches in spare

components or reassigns tasks among non-failed components, (d) system reinitialization that checks, updates and records the new

configuration and updates system tables and records. Usually, fault handling is followed by corrective maintenance that removes

faults isolated by fault handling. The factor that distinguishes fault tolerance from maintenance is that maintenance requires the

participation of an external agent. The use of sufficient redundancy may allow recovery without explicit error detection. This form of

recovery is called fault masking. Preemptive error detection and handling (often called BIST: built-in self-test), possibly followed by

fault handling is performed at system power up. It also comes into play during operation, under various forms such as spare checking,

memory scrubbing, audit programs, or the so-called software rejuvenation, aimed at removing the effects of software aging before

they lead to failure. The choice of error detection, error handling and fault handling techniques, and of their implementation, is

directly related to the underlying fault assumption. The classes of faults that can actually be tolerated depend on the fault assumption

in the design process. A widely-used method of fault tolerance is to perform multiple computations in multiple channels, either

sequentially or concurrently. When tolerance of operational physical faults is required, the channels may be of identical design, based

on the assumption that hardware components fail independently. Such an approach has proven to be adequate for elusive design

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

17

faults, via rollback, however it is not suitable for the tolerance of solid design faults, which necessitates that the channels implement

the same function via separate designs and implementations, i.e., through design diversity. Fault tolerance is a recursive concept: it is

essential that the mechanisms that implement fault tolerance should be protected against the faults that might affect them. Examples

are voter replication, self-checking checkers, ‘stable’ memory for recovery programs and data, etc. Systematic introduction of fault

tolerance is facilitated by the addition of support systems specialized for fault tolerance such as software monitors, service processors,

dedicated communication links. Fault tolerance is not restricted to accidental faults. Some mechanisms of error detection are directed

towards both malicious and accidental faults (e.g. memory access protection techniques) and schemes have been proposed for the

tolerance of both intrusions and physical faults, via information fragmentation and dispersal, as well as for tolerance of malicious

logic, and more specifically of viruses, either via control flow checking, or via design diversity.... Fault removal is performed both

during the development phase, and during the operational life of a system. Fault removal during the development phase of a system

life-cycle consists of three steps: verification, diagnosis, correction. Verification is the process of checking whether the system

adheres to given properties, termed the verification conditions. If it does not, the other two steps follow: diagnosing the fault(s) that

prevented the verification conditions from being fulfilled, and then performing the necessary corrections. Checking the specification

is usually referred to as validation. Uncovered specification faults can happen at any stage of the development, either during the

specification phase itself, or during subsequent phases when evidence is found that the system will not implement its function, or that

the implementation cannot be achieved in a cost effective way. Verification techniques can be classified according to whether or not

they involve exercising the system. Verifying a system without actual execution is static verification. Verification a system through

exercising it constitutes dynamic verification; the inputs supplied to the system can be either symbolic in the case of symbolic

execution, or actual in the case of verification testing, usually simply termed testing. An important aspect is the verification of fault

tolerance mechanisms, especially a) formal static verification, and b) testing that necessitates.”

FREY, B. S., Prof.. Univ. Zurich, Direct democracy for transition countrie, (2003) --“ Ei [politicienii] isi urmaresc

propriile lor interese care constau nu numai din a se imbogati, ci si din renume si prestigiu.… politicienii se folosesc de trei metode de

a castiga ilicit de pe urma cetatenilor…(a) Politicienii pot lua decizii care ei stiu ca nu sunt in interesul alegatorilor…De exemplu,

politicienii prefera in mod sistematic sa intervina direct in economie ca sa controleze preturile, asta pentru ca in felul acesta ei castiga

enorm de mult… (b) Politicienii … se asigura ca ei si partidele lor sa aiba venituri cat mai mari, pensii uriase si alte avantaje cum ar fi

case si automobile. … (c) Exploatarea cetatenilor ia si forma de coruptie, i.e., plati in numerar pentru anumite servicii prestate

ilegal.… Toti politicienii au un interes comun, sa se protejeze unu pe celalat pentru a continua la nesfarsit castigurile ilicite. Aceasta

inseamna ca politicienii au de castigat daca formeaza o organizatie de tip cartel [crima organizata de tip “mafiot”] care sa actioneze

asupra cetatenilor. … Contactele lor se fac numai in interiorul acestei organizatii de tip cartel … Mai mult, aceasta organizatie de tip

cartel e condusa de presedintii partidelor…si orice politician sau partid care indrazneste sa tradeze, e aspru pedepsit … politicianul e

exclus din partid … partidul este lasat sa moara fara a mai fi finantat din bani publici. … nici constitutia existenta, nici legile, nici

procuratura sau tribunalele, nici concurenta dintre partide, nici una dintre acestea nu au avut mare suces in reducerea castigurilor

ilicite… singurul mecanism este referendumul … acesta le da cetatenilor posibilitatea de a lua decizii in favoarea poporului… ”

ASTROM, K. J., and MURRAY R. M., Prof. Princeton Univ., Feedback Systems.., (2008) – “The idea of feedback to

make corrective actions based on the difference [error] between the desired and the actual values of a quantity can be implemented in

many different ways.... One of the key uses of feedback is to provide robustness to uncertainty. ... a control system ... basic elements

[perform the functions] of sensing, computation and actuation ... Uncertainty [due to disturbances] enters the system through noise in

sensing and actuation subsystems, external disturbances that affect the underlying system operation and uncertain dynamics in the

system ... The algorithm that computes the control action as a function of the sensor values is often called a control law. The system

can be influenced externally by an operator who introduces command [reference] signals to the system. ... [a control system] senses

the [environment], compares it against the desired behavior [reference signal], computes corrective actions based on a model of the

[environmet’s] ... and actuates the ... environmet] to effect the desired change. ...This basic feedback loop of sensing, computation and

actuation is the central concept in control....Feedback is reactive: there must be an error [signa] before corrective actions are taken.

However, in some circumstances it is possible to measure [with sensors] a disturbance before it enters the system, and this information

can then be used to take corrective action [with actuators] before the disturbance has influenced the system. ... This way of controlling

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

18

a system is called feedforward. ...The ideas of feedback and feedforward are very general and appear in many different fields. In

economics, feedback and feedforward are analogous to a market-based economy versus a planned economy. ... In biology,

feedforward has been suggested as an essential element for motion control in humans that is tuned during training. ... we will consider

the role of negative feedback, in which we attempt to regulate the system by reacting to disturbances in a way that decreases the effect

of those disturbances. ... In nature, homeostasis in biological systems maintains thermal, chemical and biological conditions through

feedback. At the other end of the size scale, global climate dynamics depend on the feedback interactions between the atmosphere, the

oceans, the land and the sun. Ecosystems are filled with examples of feedback due to the complex interactions between animal and

plant life. Even the dynamics of economies are based on the feedback between individuals and corporations through markets and the

exchange of goods and services.”

BARNETT, R.E., Prof. Georgetown Univ, The Misconceived Assumptions About Constitutional Assumptions, (2008) --

“Constitutions are not contracts. With contracts, all parties must consent to be bound. With a constitution, this is impossible,

Constitutions must necessarily lack the unanimous consent of all persons upon whom they are imposed. ... Whereas contracts are

created to provide a “private law” that binds the parties, constitutions are made to provide a “public law” that binds those who govern

a nonconsenting population. In other wors, unlike contracts that govern the relationship of consenting parties, constitutions are

desighed to govern those who claim the power to rule others who have not consented to being ruled.”

BALKIN, J. M., Prof. Yale Univ., Framework Originalism and the Living Constitution, (2009) -- “[a] theory of

constitutional construction—that is, the process of building [political] institutions of government...to design and build

instituions...Constitutions are designed to create political institutions and to set up the basic elements of future political

decisionmaking...designers use rules to set up the basic framework of institutions...Future generations must build up institutions and

practices to make politics and governance possible and scuccessful in changing circumstances: they must adapt as the country faces

new problems and new opportunities created by changes in foreign therts, technology, economic conditions, culture , and

demographics”

POSNER, A. E., The Constitution of the Roman Republic: A Political Economy Perspective, (2010) – “Constitutions do

many things but all constitutions manage agency costs. The people (the principal) assign government officials (the agents) the task of

supplying public goods [republican government] and redistributing wealth [democarat government]. The agents have intersts that are

not fully aligned with those of the people; the purpose of a constitution is to give agents incentives to act in the interest of the people,

that is, to minimize agency costs. ... One benefit of this approach is that it helps stimulate ideas for constitutional design and evolution

in the United States.The Roman constitution provides a fresh example, which is notable because of its stark differences fro modern

constitutions. ... way of reducing agency costs... (1) methods [procedures] for selecting government officials [members]; (2) division

[distribution] of powers among offices [magistrates] and institutions [senate]; and (3) rewarding and sanctioning governmanet

officials. ... Government agents ... may take decisions that are contrary to the public interest [perturbations] because they lack

competence [innocent errors] or because they have preferences that deviate from those of the principal [deliberate malitios errors].

The Roman constitution addresses this problem in three different ways: (a) qualification rules for office; (b) elections; and (c)

screening by the censors. The major qualification rules were [minimum] age restrictions and the cursum honorum. These rules

ensured that young, inexeperieced people could not hold high office, and thus reduced the risk that an incompetent person might be

elected. The cursum honorum ensured that the people with mainstream preferences became consul, for people with idiosyncratic

preferences were unlikely to win multiple elections. ”

1 PLATON, Legile (-348?), [VI:165];

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

19

ARISTOTEL, Politica, (-330?), [1270b];

CICERO, Despre stat, (-51?), [I:42];

MACHIAVELLI, Discursuri (1517), §1, [I:16];

MONTESQUIEU, Despre spirtul legilor, (1748 ), [XI,5.1], [XI:6.3];

CONSTITUTIA S.U.A., Preambul, (1787)

2 PLATON, Legile (-348?) -- “Credeti oare ce spun traditiile vechi? ... Ca neamul omenesc a fost distrus de mai multe ori de potopuri, molime si alte prapaduri asemanatoare, care n-au crutat decat un numar foarte mic de oameni. ... Dar cine organizeaza un stat, va intocmi viata mai mult in vederea razboiului din afara, ori in vederea acestui razboi launtric numit revolutie, care se iveste din timp in timp inlauntru unui stat ...? [I;45] ... toti oamenii sunt rai fara voia lor [IX;270] ... natura nemuritoare a omului va impinge totdeauna pe om sa doreasca sa aiba mai mult decat ceilati si sa nu se gandeasca decat la interesul sau personal [IX;284] ... nici un om ... nu e instare sa-ii guverneze pe altii cu o autoritate absoluta fara ca el sa decada in desfrau si in nedreptate [IV;132] ... in orice guvernamant ar fi, monarhic, oligarhic [aristocratic] sau democratic, daca acela care comanda are sufletul robit de o multime de dorinte si patimi, pe care se sileste ... sa le satisfaca, ... fiindca raul care il roade este nesatios si fara leac, un asemenea om, ori ca ar conduce pe un particular sau ar conduce un stat, va calca in picioare toate legile; si nu se poate ... ca vreun om sa fie fericit sub un asemenea conducator. [IV;132,133] ... Cea mai grava dintre bolile sufletesti ale omului este un defect, innascut la cei mai multi, ... asa numitul amor propriu (egoism), care zice-se este natural, legitim si chiar necesar. Dar nu e mai putin adevarat ca, daca amorul propriu e prea viu, el devine cauza tuturor pacatelor. Cel ce iubeste, se orbeste singur relativ la obiectul iubit. El judeca gresit despre drept, bine si frumos cand crede ca trebuie sa prefere interesul sau inaintea adevarului. ... Din cauza acestui defect, nestiutorul crede despre el ca este intelept in propriii sai ochi; el crede ca stie totul, desi nu stie, ca sa zicem asa, nimic; si nevrand sa incredinteze altora conducerea afacerilor pe care el nu e capabil sa le administreze, cade in nenumarate greseli inevitabile. [IV;148,149]”

MACHIAVELLI, Discursuri, (1517) – “Deci, fericita se poate chema acea republica, in care a aparut un om asa de capabil incat, a constituit-o cu legi aranjate in asa fel incat, fara sa fie nevoie de a le corecta, se va putea trai mult timp in siguranta.[I;2.1]...[poporul isi ] doreste libertatea pentru a trai in siguranta. [I;16.5]”

MONTESQUIEU, Despre spirtul legilor (1748) – “[t]oate statele au in general acelasi obiect [scop], care este de a se mentine [XI,5.1] … Libertatea politica a unui cetatean este acea liniste sufleteasca care provine din convingerea fiecaruia ca se afla in siguranta; si, pentru ca fiecare sa simta aceasta libertate, trebuie ca guvernamantul sa fie alcatuit in asa fel incat unui cetatean sa nu-i fie teama de un alt cetatean.[XI,6.3]”

HAMILTON, Federalist, ( 1787) [1], [6];

MADISON, Federalist, (1788), [51]

GARSTEN, B., Prof. Yale University, Being Represented (2013) – “Usurpation [perturbatie] occurs when someone assumes the mantle of an authority to which they do not have a legitimate claim. ... Usurpation occurred when leaders seized authority that rightfully belonged elsewhere ... Legislators could usurp the people’s authority just as a king could. ... constitutional provisions such as whether to include a royal veto in the new constitution; ... either an absolute veto or a suspensive veto. ... suspensive veto that would allow the king to send a piece of legislation back to the National Assembly to be reconsidered either

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

20

[1)] by a new set of legislators elected to the next session, or [2)] directly by the more local assemblies of their electors. [Vezi, Propunerea de Constitutie – CCT original – veto absolut de un cvorul al guvernatorilor este similar cu veto al tribunilor din Roma republicana.] ... The suspensive veto was meant to be a way of appealing directly to the people, who would have the chance to either inform their local assemblies more directly about what they thought, or to send new representatives to the National Assembly.... The National Assembly .... chose the third option, a suspensive veto [by the king], and it required that a period of four years go by before a vetoed measure could be taken up by the Assembly again. ... this decision had disastrous consequences: ... The suspensive veto and the long waiting period helped convince the opposition that they could not pursue their objectives inside the constitutional framework or under aking, and left them giving up on reform and turning to the much more radical strategy of revolt. ... to opt for the suspensive veto was “to opt for the Terror [Tuilleries, 1792]. ... Managing usurpation [Title] ... Montesquieu ... had noticed that separating a governing authority into separate legislative and executive powers could ... allow citizens who found one power becoming oppressive to turn to the other for protection. ... In this way it provided citizens with a certain independence; they were never left wholly at the mercy of one power. ... mixed government was designed to manage the problem of usurpation ... In insisting that all three branches, and also all levels of government, local, state and federal, are plausible representations of “the people,” the American system (for example) insures that the government contains a number of different claims to represent the popular will, all of which have an equal claim to procedural validity. This does not eliminate the possibility of usurpation in any particular part of the government. However, by multiplying the sites of possible usurpation, the arrangement makes it difficult for any one part to dominate.”

OWEN, B. M., Prof. Stanforn Univ., What Would Madison Say?... (2015) – “This paper conclude with a proposal for the addition of an “umpire” function to the U. S. constitutional structure. Officials performing this functuion would have the power to veto legislation [tribunus plebis] that significantly reduces aggregate well-being or that produces regressive redistribution. ... Congress and much of the federal bureucracy is now thoroughly corrupt in the sense that officials routinely service well-represented elites without regard to adverse effects on the well-being of the people. Corruption has always been a camp follower of political power. ... Explaing the roots of massive corruption requires some discussion of James Madison’s constitutional design and its objectives. What is neede is attention to the performance of the constitutional structure [system] in achieving the Founder’s key objectives [enumearted in the Preamble].

3 ARISTOTEL, Politica – “Cetateanul in sens absolut nu se poate defini in nici un fel mai bine decat prin participarea la o functie de judecata sau de magistratura.” [1275;23]

4 ROZNAI, Y., Towards a Theory of Unamendability (20115), Footnotes: KELSEN, HANS, General Theory of Law and State (2006) -- “ [A] The constitution is the highest positive [?] legal norm.” BROOM, H., A selection of Legal Maxims, Classified and Illustrated (2000) -- “... according to the Lex superior derogat legi inferiori principle , a later norm should prevail over a conflicting earlier norm of the same normative status.”

5 BODIN, Jean, Sase carti despre Republica (1576) -- “Republica este un guvernamant legal al unei multimi de familii cu putere suverana si cu cele ce le este a lor in comun. ... Noi am spus in primul rand,

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

21

guvernamant legal, pentru a diferentia intre Republici si bandele de hoti si pirati, intre care nu exista, nici comert, nici aliante, asa cum este in toate Republicile bine organizate. ... Suveranitate este acea putere absoluta, perpetuua si independenta pe care latinii o numeau majestas...… Poporul nu moare nici odata…dupa sute sau chiar mii de ani el inca este acela-si Popor… Poporul este immortal prin succesiunea persoanelor…”

6 FRIEDRICH, J. C., Prof. Harvard Univerisity, Constitutional government and Democracy (1968)(poporul este o puterea constituanta de facto iar guvernamantul republicii este o puterea constitutita de jure).

7 TURLEY J., Prof. George Washington Univ., Madisonian Tectonics: How Form FollowsFunction in Constitutional and Architectural Interpretation (2015) – “This Article is the first interdisciplinary work exploring architectural and constitutional theories of interpretation. ... the Article explores the role of constitutional structure as a type of “choice architecture” in shaping choices and directing actions within the system. ... nderstanding of form and function can lead to a fading of those distinctions—as it did for modernist architect Mies van der Rohe. ... The primary purpose of this Article is to explore the synergy between legal and architectural theories of interpretation on the role and purpose of structure. ... “form follows function” is the very epigraph affixed to modern architecture, articularly the work of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe [In a system: “form” is the structure and “function” is the scope] ... the purpose [defined in the Preable] of the tripartite superstructure [legislative, executive, judiciary] is liberty[Preamble], and the function of the design is to avoid [by separation of powers] the greatest threat to liberty: aggregation of power. ... The purpose of this system was to ensure liberty by preventing the aggregation of power that leads to tyranny. ... Government was often described by Madison in clinical or engineering terms as a “machine” [system] designed for a specific purpose [Preamble].“

8 MCILWAIN C. H., Prof. Harvard Univerisity, Constitutionalism... (1947) --“That it [the constitution] defines the authority [powers] which the people commits to its government, and in so doing thereby limits it.”.

WHITTINGTON, K.E., Prof. Princeton Univ., Constitutional Theory POL 561 (2012) --“The ‘standard’ view of the Constitution is that is a mechanism for limiting government and protecting minority and individual rights....The constitution is a ‘law’ that is applied against the government.”

9 JEFFERSON, T., Writings: Letter to John Taylor (1816) (“every other government is more or less republican, in proportion as it

has in its composition more or less of this ingredient of the direct action of the citizens”).

10 Dictionar: “Presedintele exercita functia de mediere intre puterile statului...”

11 BOLINGBROKE, The Works of Lord Bolingbroke, (1735); PAIN, Rights of Man, (1792); BALKIN, J. M., Prof. Yale Univ.,

Framework Originalism and the Living Constitution, (2009); JACK M. BALKIN, Living Originalism 20-21 (2011) (“Later

generations have a lot to do to build up and implement the Constitution, but when they do so they must always remain faithful to the

basic framework.”).

12 BECCARIA, Despre infractiuni si pedepse (1764) -- „Legile sunt conditiile sub care oamenii --independenti si izolati, satui de a trai in o continua stare de razboi si de a se bucura de o libertate devenita nefolositoare, datorita nesigurantei conservarii ei – s-au unit in societate. Ei au sacrificat o parte din aceasta libertate pentru a se bucura de rest in siguranta si liniste. Suma tuturor acestor portiuni de libertate sacrificate binelui tuturora formeaza suveranitatea unei natiuni, iar suveranul este depositarul legitim si administratorul lor. Dar nu era de ajuns sa se constitue acest deposit; trebuia ca acesta sa fie aparat deuzurparile private, ale fiecarui om in parte, care incearca mereu sa ia din deposit nu numai portiunea cedata

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

22

de el, ci sa uzurpe si pe cele cedate de ceilati. Era nevoie ... de pedepsele stabilite impotriva celor ce incalca legile ... pentru a tine in cumpana puternicele pasiuni individuale, ce se opun binelui general;... Necesitatea a fost, asadar, aceea care i-a constrans pe oameni sa cedeze o parte din propria lor libertate: ca atare, este sigur ca nimeni nu vrea sa predea depozitului public decat portiunea cea mai mica cu putinta, ata cat este de ajuns pentru a-i determina pe ceilati sa-l apere. Inmanuncherea acestor portiuni, care sunt cele mai mici cu putinta, formeaza temeiul dreptului de a pedepsi: tot ce e mai mult este abuz, nu dreptate; este fapt, nu drept. (Nota: Observati ca notiunea de drept nu este opusa notiunii de forta; dreptul este mai degraba o modificare a fortei, si anume modificarea cea mai utila majoritatii. Iar prin dreptate nu inteleg altceva decat lantul necesar pentru a tine unite interesele particulare, care, fara el, s-ar destrama, cazandu-se in vechea stare de nesociabilitate...) [I,12]”

13 MACNAUGHTON, J., Prof. Univ. of Pennsylvania, Positive Rights..., (2001) -- “The prevailing view in our courts ..is that‚ the Consitution is a charter of negative rather than positive liberties. With this absolute astement, judges have dismissed any claim that citiziens have any positive rights to government services; that is, any claim that the government has an affirmative duty to ensure that a citizien can actually enjoy their constitutional liberties... The Constitution not only delineate the government’s political power and limitations; it also decalres the government’s ..obligation not to interfere with its citiziens’ rights.... The negative rights view also rests upon distiction between obligatory and supererogatory duties.... Positive rights are difined as rights to government actions.” Footnote: BANDES, S., The Negative Constitution. A Critique, (1990) -- “When a citizien enforces a positive right, he can compel the government to take action to provide certain sevices. By contrast, negative rights entail freedom from government actions. To enforce a negative right, a citizien merely insists that the government not act so as to impinge his freedom.”

WHITTINGTON, K.E., Prof. Princeton Univ., Constitutional Thoery POL 561, (2012) (is there a relationship between the negative,

legal constitution and the positive, political constitution?”)

14 PAIN, Rights of Man, (1792); JEFFERSON, T., Writings, (1816)

15 WOOD, E., Town Meeting Resolution, (1776 )

16 ROUSSEAU, J. J., Contractul social, (1762)

17 BARNETT, R.E., Prof. Georgetown Univ, The Misconceived Assumptions About Constitutional Assumptions, (2008) --

“Constitutions are not contracts. With contracts, all parties must consent to be bound. With a constitution, this is impossible,

Constitutions must necessarily lack the unanimous consent of all persons upon whom they are imposed. ... Whereas contracts are

created to provide a “private law” that binds the parties, constitutions are made to provide a “public law” that binds those who govern

a nonconsenting population. In other wors, unlike contracts that govern the relationship of consenting parties, constitutions are

designed to govern those who claim the power to rule others who have not consented to being ruled.”

18 SUBER, P., Paradox of Self-Amendment (2008) -- “The lex posterior derogat legi priori principle allows newer rules in case of

irreconciable conflict, when both are on the same hierachical level. ... it operates as a rule of change.” Nota: lex posterior generalis

non derogat legi priori speciali.

AUTHOR UNKNOWN, Judicial Review and International Law, (?) – “ ... the constitution is the supreme norm [not the

supreme law] of the legal system and that its supremacy can be guarateed only by judicial review of legislation. ... Chief Justice John

Mashall [for the decentralized US legal system] and Hans Kelsen [for the centralized Europeen legal system]. For both men the

institutions of judicial review is thus implied by the hierarchy between the constitution and ordinary legislation ....”

DESPRE CONSTITUIREA UNEI REPUBLICI DURABILE

23

19 ASTROM, K. J., and MURRAY R. M., Princeton Univ., Feedback Systems.., (2008)

20 WADDINGTON, C., The Evolution of an Evolutionist, (1975); Research??

21 HAYEK, F., Infatuare Fatala, (1943)

22 PLATON, Legile (-348?) -- “Nu in vederea celui mai mare bine face legiutorul legile? [I;45] ... intelepciunea [cetatenilor] este singurul scop catre care orice legiuitor bun trebuie sa-si indrepte legile sale [III;106] ... grija de capetenie a legiuitorului trebuie sa fie de a face sa domneasca intelepciunea in statul pe care-l organizeaza si de a alunga din el nestiinta [ignoranta]. ... Numesc asadar ignoranta, dispozitia aceasta a sufletului, care face ca el sa se revolte contra stiintei, judecatii, si ratiunii ... Asa ca hotaram, ca cetatenii atinsi de aceasta nestiinta nu trebuie sa fie parte din guvernamant; [III;107-108] ... statul nostru guvernat astfel va dainui mult timp.” [VI;165]

23 MACHIAVELLI, Discursuri, (1517), §2, [I:34], [I:35]

24 AVIZIENIS, A. et al, Prof. Univ. of California at Los Angeles, Fundamental Concepts of Dependability, (1992)

25 LORENZ, E., Prof. M.I.T., Predictability: Does the Flap of a Butterfly Wings in Brazil set off a Tornado in Texas?, (1972)

26 POLYBIOS, Istorii, (-120?), [VI:2.462]; MACHIAVELLI, Discursuri, (1517), [I:Pb]; CLAUSEWITZ, Despre razboi, (1832)

27 CICERO, Despre stat, (-51?), [II:2]

28 Termenul “imbricat” este cunoscut in engleza sub numele de “embedded”.