ANNALES UNIVERSITATIS APULENSISPaedagogica - Psychologica

Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Responsabilitatea pentru conţinutul studiilor şi pentru calitatea reprezentărilor grafice revine

autorilor

MINISTERUL EDUCAŢIEI ŞI CERCETĂRIIUNIVERSITATEA „1 DECEMBRIE 1918” ALBA IULIA

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

ANNALESUNIVERSITATIS

APULENSISSeries

Paedagogica – PsychologicaNr. 9

ALBA IULIA2009

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisANNALES UNIVERSITATIS APULENSIS

Series Paedagogica – PsychologicaNr. 9/2009

EDITORIAL BOARD

Founding Editor:Dr Florea VOICULESCU, Professor, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of

Alba Iulia

Editor-in-Chief:Dr Ioan SCHEAU, Lecturer, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba Iulia

Executive Editorial Board:Dr Liviu ANTONESEI, Professor, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi

Dr Franco BOCHICCHIO, Professor, Universita del Salento, Lecce, ItalyDr Marcela CIORTEA, Lecturer, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba

IuliaInspector (H) Pierre-Louis GAUTHIER, Revue Internationale d

′Education Dr Mariana MOMANU, Associate Professor, Alexandru Ioan Cuza

University, IaşiDr Nicola PAPARELLA, Professor, Universita del Salento, Lecce, ItalyDr Angela PERRUCA, Professor, Universita del Salento, Lecce, Italy

Dr Dorian STOILESCU, Asistent, Toronto University, Canada

Editorial Board:Drd Bogdan MARINA, California State University Sacramento, USA

Dr Gabriel BĂRBULEŢ, Lecturer, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba Iulia

Dr Mircea BREAZ, Lecturer, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-NapocaDr Venera COJOCARIU, Associate Professor, Bacau University

Dr Liliana EZECHIL, Professor, University of PiteştiDr Dorin HERLO, Professor, Aurel Vlaicu University of AradDr Anton ILICA, Professor, Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad

Dr Daniel MARA, Associate Professor, Lucian Blaga University of SibiuDr Vasile MARCU, Professor, Oradea University

Dr Mirela MAZILU, Associate Professor, Craiova UniversityDr Mihaela Păişi-Lăzărescu, University of Piteşti

Dr Viorel PRELICI, Professor, West University of Timisoara Dr Mihai STANCIU, Associate Professor, USAMV of Iaşi

Dr Ioana TODOR, Lecturer, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba IuliaDrd Pasquale Luigi Di VIGGIANO, Professor, TELMA University, Roma,

Italy

Copyright © Universitatea „1 Decembrie 1918”RO – 510009 ALBA IULIA

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisStr. N. Iorga, nr. 13

Tel: 40-58-811512; Fax: 40-58-812630E-mail: auapp@uab.ro

ISSN 1582 – 5558

EDITORIAL

The Values of Modernity, Education and the Competition Spirit

Liviu ANTONESEIAl. I. Cuza University of Iaşi

Abstract: In the present paper I shall try to deduce the competition spirit of the Western civilization within the value frame launched by the Modernity and the role of education on cultivating and perpetuating it. Taking into account the approached perspective I hereby apologize myself for a certain bibliographic scrupulosity, maybe even a sort of academic aridity, which I have tried to avoid but it seems I have not been fully successful. When one wants to bring arguments too, and not only establish a certain position, the stylistic effects are not sufficient, evidence is also needed, the proof as a famous would-be academician would utter in front of the martial court… As far as I am concerned, I hope I have gathered some evidence, some proofs.

Keywords: values, modernity, education, competition.

At the very beginning there used to be the valuesIn an epoch we may situate between Cromwell’s Revolution

and the promulgation of the Human Rights, the Modernity started a journey it has not reached an end even nowadays. What makes it different from the epochs before? First, through the extension of the frame of values it proposes to the humanity. For more than a millennium and a half, the western humanity had been living within the frame of values of the classical Humanism, enriched by Christian values. It had lived, more or less, more intensely or more laxly around the values proposed by the Greeks, and taken by the Romans, i.e. Truth, Good and Beauty.1 From the very first 1 These values were seen by the Greeks as being in an indissoluble interrelation, cf. the compound term kalokagathia. In order to suggest the same thing, the Romans created the maxim mens sana in corpore sano.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiscentury, new values were added to these, i.e. The Christian Feeling of the Sacred.1 This happened not without difficulties if we take into account the fact that the liberal Rome, which had massacred its pantheon by accepting the gods of all the conquered populations, could accept it could not fight against those who claimed to belong to Jesus Christ and spoke for Him. By history’s irony, the city where Christians had had to find shelter in catacombs in order to escape persecution became the capital of Christianity. To the dawn of the modern epoch, this frame of values continued to expand geographically, through expansionist wars, crusades, colonialism, missionaries, forced Christianization, i.e. with the sword, sometimes with the Book and the Cross, sometimes with both, on land but also at sea. Anyway, for more than a millennium and a half, the most stable and intense multi-continental system of globalization was on the run.

Towards mid-17th century, this pre-modern frame of values started to show its own limits, to become insufficient. There are multiple causes, interferential and in direct relation, more a co-evolution than, as Marxism considered, a mechanical determinism. Anyway, we may mention: the geographical expansion, the invention of modern science, the first industrial revolution, the intellectual and mentality mutations, the appearance of institutionalized education as a mass phenomenon. We must not forget that modernity had been heralded and accompanied by profound philosophical revolutions, including political philosophy - from Machiavelli and Descartes to the English liberal economists or the French encyclopedic scientists, a huge intellectual unrest had taken over the spirits, making a revolution in the field of values unavoidable.2 This revolution of the order of values, of the institutions became effective through the three modern political revolutions: the English Revolution, The American Revolution and The French Revolution. The main role of these revolutions was to synthesize the new frame of values. It is interesting nevertheless that the change did not occur by dissolution of the old frame of values, but by completing it. Certainly Modernity marks a fracture, but a fracture with multiple continuations. The classical values were not abandoned, but new values appeared, those values the Modernity did not only

1 The Greek-Roman foundations of the Western Civilization are finely analyzed at the end of World War I by Paul Valéry in his conference The Crisis of the Spirit. See Paul Valéry, Criza spiritului şi alte eseuri, Editura Polirom, 1996, pp. 260-272.2 About the crisis that prepared or, in order not to be fatalistic, announced the Modernity, see Paul Hazard, Criza conştiinţei europene: 1680-1715, Ed. Univers, 1974.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensispreserve but also proposed. It is about legality, arrived together with the Anglo-Saxon revolutions which were rather peaceful and the three statute values derived from the French Revolution, i.e. liberty, equality and solidarity. The Anglo-Saxon revolutions also refer to the emblematic values promulgated by the French Revolution. Let us not forget that the initial purpose of Cromwell was reducing the prerogatives of the absolute monarchy, and that the first English colonists had gone to the New World in the name of equality and Christian fraternity. Nevertheless, in their case one may notice the pregnant legalist mark, which may seem paradoxical in the case of a revolution, but not les evident.1 On the other hand, maybe the Terror from 1794, which followed the Declaration… from 1789, apart from the event happenings and the temperament of the Revolution protagonists, may also be accounted for a non explicit legality as a fundamental value in the body of the famous declaration.2 This is quite weird if we consider the fact that the Declaration had, nevertheless the character of a constitution. And the importance of legality is multidimensional. From a philosophical point of view, this takes the issue of righteousness from an almost exclusive divine level to the level of human relationships and the relationships between people and the institutions they created, which may by legally regulated, first through the supreme law, the Constitution and then through the system of laws. From Moses’ famous Decalogue, which has been adopted by Christianity, to the dawns of Modernity, the normative dimensions of culture – that is, religion, morale and the law – were always confounded with sin – guilt – transgression of the law. On the other hand, legality is a fundamental value, without which the target values of Modernity have neither a legal base nor consistency. There is no freedom, equality or solidarity without a constitutional basis, without legal guarantees. As a conclusion, we may assume that the Christian feeling of the sacred has become relative because of the laicization of the statute, because of an increased acceptance of ecumenism, because of the acceptance that the sacred has different ways of manifestation. According to an Arab proverb: “God is a mountain and there are a lot of routes and paths this may be climbed”. For almost two hundred years the tendencies to Christianize through force have continuously diminished until they have disappeared. Freedom also means the freedom of the mind and of faith. This does not exclude the fact 1 V The Declaration of Independence and The Constitution of The United States, Penguin Books, New York, 1995.2 V. Jean Morange, La Déclaration des droits de l`homme et du citoyen, PUF, Paris, 1993.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisthat, different religions, no matter of their age, how universal they are, have been seeking for new members, and missionaries still exist. Excepting some fundamentalist trends, nowadays Islamic mainly, the phenomenon develops smoothly most of the time.

The expansion of the European cultural modelIt is certain that, in the last two hundred years, this European

cultural model, whose centre hosts the hard nucleus of the frame of values which is formed of the eight fundamental values, has not stopped to expand, proving real universal virtues. As a matter of fact, the eight values irradiate at the level of all the cultural dimensions and if the distinction remains still pertinent, they also irradiate at the level of civilization. We acknowledge a cultural product or a civil manifestation as belonging to the western cultural area, thus as being European1 when we find the characteristic frame of values. Everywhere we find the effective manifestations of these values we may be sure it is about the European, Western culture, no matter the geographical position. And where these values are invoked, even demagogically we shall consider them just Europeanizing tendencies, we shall be dealing with transitions, phenomena of acculturation, enculturation, counterculturation and interculturation. The reasons this cultural model, also called democratic capitalism, expands are various difficult to understand but some of them might be clearly specified: a. the economic performance of capitalism, founded on private property and the free market, but also on the power of scientific knowledge which gets to have results through competition, too2; b. the political performance of democracy, founded on political pluralism, i.e. the free expression but also on the whole range of rights and liberties, of the man and the citizen, all being in close competition3; c. the anthropological performance 1 We marked this in inverted commas in order to be more explicit. The term does not have anything geographic in itself. Japan belongs to the Western civilization because in the last one hundred years it has joined the Western system of values. On the other hand, The USA, a former European colony has succeeded in overtaking its genitors. Australia also belongs to the Western space, where other countries from Asia also try to integrate. At the same time Romania has been constantly missing, for almost 17 years the re-modernization and re-Europeanization process in spite of the fact that geographically speaking it is situated within the promontory called Europe. 2 The property and the free market are economic expressions of the value of liberty, and scientific knowledge belongs to the classical truth and the modern free will. 3 The liberal democracy is the expression of norm liberty, that is of liberty within the boundaries of cultural dimensions: religion, morale and the law. Through the adoption of The Universal Proclamation of the Human Rights by UN and the Declaration of the Child Rights, the ensemble of rights and liberties that

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisof the system of liberal democracy, founded not only on the free market and the rights and liberties mentioned above but also on the virtues of a public education, at the beginning progressively generalized and afterwards transformed into a permanent one.1

Accordingly, wherever we come across the association between individual liberalism and a traditional religious ethics (Christianity, Buddhism, Shintoism even Islam etc) we shall situate ourselves within the frames of Modernity, i.e. the liberal democracy. Nevertheless, this system would not have expanded to its contemporary dimensions and would not be about to universalize if there were not for a certain specificity of the human being. Unlike the rest of the beings, which are natural in the proper sense of the word, the human being is different, i.e. a cultural being. And a cultural being is also educable, that is, it allows cultural contacts, dialogues, influences and idiosyncrasies. As a matter of fact, what we call globalization only refers to the whole economic dimension – the globalization of multiple markets characteristic to the contemporary developed capitalism – a process that started more than two hundred years ago by launching a new frame of values, of a new cultural model – the liberal democracy – and anthropological – the citizen – that is the free human being open to knowledge and inter-knowledge, able to take risks, initiatives, enter a competition in all the socio-cultural domains. But globalization does not only have economic dimensions2 but also political dimensions – through the creation of the UN in 1945 but also the European institutions in continuous expansion – the most eloquent signs are of course the UNESCO, UNICEF etc. From this perspective, the new horizons opened by satellite tv, by the computers, the Internet, the Cyberspace are huge. A lot of activities have already moved to people’s homes, including a good part of the educational activities, censorship seems impossible, and communication between geographically represent the modern juridical values has received a universal extension, including the geo-cultural spaces that have not officially adhered to these, and this allows the UN to intervene to defend them by any means, including military means. 1 This is the relevant evidence that these values were not invented by Modernity, but merely discovered by the human substance itself and endowed with the norm virtues mentioned above. From God or from nature, freedom and the other values potentially exist in us and education just updates them, gives them substance.2 About the analysis of economic globalization see Daniel Dăianu, Globalizare şi fenomenul financiar internaţional, în Încotro se îndreaptă ţările postcomuniste?, Ed.Poliom, 2000, pp.73-98. A virulent criticism of economic globalization in George Soros, Criza capitalismului global. Societatea deschisă în primejdie, Ed. Polirom/Arc, 1999.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisseparated areas has become instantaneous, in real time, and not only regarding the sound, the moving images or spatial projections. Last but not least, at a more superficial level, we have the globalization of the consume models, from the food products to the multural products.1

The adoption of German clothing preceded the adoption of European values when it comes to the young, Romanian boyars. A similar case is that of the young people coming from the former communist countries who adopted blue jeans, long hair and rock music, which was in fact a phenomenon of counter-culture, a riposte to the official culture, therefore they were designated as followers of a culture of freedom. Moreover, in the west, at least initially, before becoming a profitable business, these models were a phenomenon of counter-culture, a reaction to the establishment’s ossification.

It is clear therefore that the process of modernization, the expansion of modernity is the most important phenomenon of interculture, of acculturation and enculturation with application to a large, social, political and cultural community – and not that of individuals or small groups – known by the history of mankind until today. Undoubtedly the success of modernization was more solid, faster and more stable as the communities were more cultured, better educated therefore, including the intercultural dimension.2 Certainly, the expansion of modernity is not a uniform and rectilinear phenomenon. Different countries, even the Western European ones, have reached at various intervals the modernity, there were hesitations in the processes of modernization, even surpasses in extra-modernity such as communism, fascism or different variants of civil or military authoritarianism.3 The phenomena of re-tribalism, dictatorships installation or military regimes, which appeared in several of the former colonies of Western powers after decolonization, indicate very clearly that a modernization made by force has very little

1 A term that has been created by Mihai Vasilescu in order to denominate the elements of mass culture, mainly those belonging to the multi-media domain, in order to separate them from higher cultural products. 2 EU could not be imagined without the historical reconciliation between France and Germany, politically inaugurated by President De Gaulle and Chancellor Adenauer but supported for decades by the programs of mutual de-demonize of former enemies. It was a very instructive example of intercultural education, which we might follow along with our neighbors the Hungarians.3 Such experiences are extra-modern or pre-modern, because they give up or at least they distort the values that define modernity. Let us reflect what is left from legality, freedom, equality and solidarity in political regimes such as communist or fascism.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensischance of success, that it cannot go beyond surface, so that it is superficial, and remains at the level of forms without substance. Modernization is successful only when its values are not only embodied in institutions and laws, but when, through repeated procedures there are assumed and understood by most of the people, so when the forms manage to stimulate the Fund, to oblige it to give them content. Superficial modernizations not only do they have any chance of survival, but also they cause very serious psycho-social trauma such as different forms of xenophobia, conspiratorial mentality, and especially the fatal rupture between the western elites and mass population which remained rather traditionalist. Often, otherwise even these elites are themselves only superficially Europeanized and moreover infused with the mentality of prizewinning scholars, wishing to please more their European teachers than to convince their own fellow citizens in problems of superiority and suiting the cultural and valuable European model, which causes consternation for the first and opacity of the abyss for the latter. Such processes not only show the precariousness of the educational systems from such geo-cultural spaces but also the failure of educational functions they have, by definition, true elites. Beyond the cultural capital which it treasures beyond their capacities of expertise, the various elites are, among other things, excellent providers of real, alive cultural behavior. Paradoxically, instead of becoming agents of a consolidated modernization, these elites become the blocking agents even saboteurs, more or less involuntary and innocent of it. In fact, for the school to support the process of modernization, for elites to act as models in the cultural sense, a fundamental need is required- namely the assumption of modernity not as a random set value but in their quality of universal cultural which modernity has endowed with normative virtues.

Romania - the failure of the first modernizationAs we have already brought arguments upon, the modernity is

being defined in the first place through a specific value frame, formed of the eight protected and invented values by the modern epoch. And where these values are running, we find ourselves in the modernity. Romania had experimented for the first time the modernization in an idealistic way since 1821 until 1848, and in a practical way, approximately since 1859 until 1864. In 1923, after the national issue was resolved and once the universal voting was set, the land was appropriated to the peasants, the generalization of the public education and the geographical extension of the collegiate education took place, we can say that we have entered into an acceptable modernity. This, unfortunately, had last only

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisuntil 1938, meaning fifteen years. Why is that? What is the reason for that? Well, partially because of the international context that was very inclined to totalitarian solutions or at least authoritarian ones. But, especially because of some vice of the modernization process itself. Let us not forget the fact that we have introduced the universal vote to a population, in her majority, illiterate, reason that permitted the explosion of the demagoguery and the populism in the political life. We had begun pretty well our first modernization, we have managed to install it in about one hundred years, but we have missed the modernization in just fifteen years. It was obviously the right thing to happen. On one way, because we have witnessed a progressive deterioration of the political class and the public discourse, in other words we attended the dissolution of the elite. The participants in the revolution from 1848 in the Romanian countries and their successors, those that created the modern Romania, were not just some people educated in the European style, but they were suspiciously generous, for these places. They were inclined to take measures against the class interests and their own interests. To propose the land to be appropriated to the peasants, it was necessary to have it, to own it. Or, the land was actually in their parents’ estate, in their brothers’ estate and in their own estate. To be able to propose, in the same time, the transition from the electoral qualification to the universal vote you must have given up some historical privileges. They were inclined to make these kind of courageous concessions, these kind of personal sacrifices, and because of this, I think they deserve no doubt to be called the Founding Fathers of the Modern Romania. Unfortunately, these kinds of qualities like culture, generosity, courage, have been diluting catastrophically in time, so that the interwar political class was just a pale copy of that of the Founding Fathers. The adhesion to the values of the modernity was often just a monkey-like imitation, just pretence. Our first modernization had never surpassed certain superficiality.

But this is just one of the reasons. And there are at least two more essential reasons. The first one is referring to the conflict between the elites, to the breach between them. From the cultural point of view, it has been registered an impossibility of dialog between the elites transformed by the European style and the nationalist-aboriginal ones. This breach taken place at the level of cultural elites had had evident political echoes, by determining the organisation of parties and of the political extremists who made a larger group in the extreme right-wing than the extreme left-wing. Under the impact of the analogous

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisphenomena from Germany, Italy, Spain, but from other countries too that discovered the virtues of the totalitarianism, even if some of them had had their own share to the effects and transformations brought by the modernisation which were apparently successful, the cultural-political polemics had easily been transformed into the recourse to the arguments brought by the force: the political assassinations, palace attacks, coups d’état attempts etc. In the offensive, having adversaries in the extreme left-wing and also in the extreme right-wing, the liberal democracies from Europe were in defensive, they seemed weak, and they were not a row model for the others any more. For the followers of the liberal democracy, politics means political competition, but the extremists work by the logic of extermination. As so, toward 1940, Romania, beyond her intern conflicts between the elites, she officially oriented toward the powers of the Axes. As we can observe, the intercultural movement, especially in politics, has not always and compulsory just pomp effects. The other reason is even more inmost, because it refers to the population state. Getting beyond the tendency of idealising the situation of Romania before the war, we can not pass without observing the fact that over three quarters of the country’s population is rural, meaning that it is less opened to modernism of any kind1, and approximately eighty percent was illiterate. And that exists in spite of the reforms and the exceptional efforts carried on by the Sociology School of Gusti and by the Romanian Social Institute. And then, when even the elites and even the population were in reality unprepared for the modernization there would have been a great wonder for them to reach a success, especially when the external relationships were so unfavourable. Probably, a better context would have leaded us to a modernization relatively acceptable, but incomplete and superficial, toward a consolidated one. Unfortunately, since 1938, we have entered in the circle of those three or four dictatorships which had not stopped until December 1989-so, for better than fifty years from the emergence out of the modernity, of extra-modern adventures, of the most varied overtones: from the dictatorship called of operetta applied by King Carol the second at the legionary-Antonian interlude and at the military regime of the

1 I want just to remind the fact that the simple reformation of the calendar in 1923 provoked in the rural parts incredible turmoil: revolts, the transition to the old style etc., fact that denotes the natural traditionalism of our peasants but also the bad organization of the reformation by the civil and religious authorities. Actually now, like then, it is the same custom that the reforms to be unprepared, unexplained and bad applied.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisMarshal, and beginning from 1948, with the support of the soviet occupants we have experienced also the other extreme, just because of the symmetry spirit! The democratic interlude between 1944 and 1947 was not anything else but a relaxation pause, necessary to the change of the extra-modern register from the extreme right-wing to the extreme left-wing.

We are trying againIf Japan, which has missed as well her first modernization,

resumed the process immediately after the war, we have been wandering four decades, not necessarily on its own will, through other forms of extra-modernism which certainly left traces, mental sequels, distress idiosincrazii, habitudes very difficult to remove in a short period of time. We started the first modernization relatively well and we ended it wrong. The second one we have started in a rather unfortunate way but perhaps through some kind of symmetry, we will be able to complete it successfully. This time, the international context it is rather favorable. On the other hand, the population is mostly urban or in the process of urbanization, almost wholly alphabetized, and moreover educated in the dimension of general culture and different professional cultures, maybe less in terms of civic culture, but even in this respect the situation is not hopeless. Unfortunately, this potential has been insufficiently used, firstly, because of the quality of elites, political and non-political, and on the other hand, because of the rapid degradation of the public culture. In this respect, the liberalization after 1989, based on the frustrations coming from the communist times made room to a culture of consumption of an extremely low level. Paradoxically, the relative education and literacy of the population were used to lead in directions rather vicious, related to the superficial modernization and the epiphenomena of the occidental civilization.

As for the actual political elites - that have showed up after fifty years of dictatorship, out of the communist prisons, from the secret police and the Communist Party’s laboratories, from the socialist factories, that have often and for good reason, faced bankruptcy – these are either a paler copy of those in the inter-war period, or heritage of the late communist era. Of historical origin, or national-communist these elites prove the same inadequacy to the reality. For this reason, their liability to the values of the modernity was rather superficial, if not simulated. On the other side, this political class, as a whole, represents us; we created it in almost seventeen years of ideological and political pluralism, after three changes of political power and even

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Annales Universitatis Apulensismore in governments. It is not and it could not be very much different from us. Besides, the majority of the politicians, deep down, do not think differently from the rest of the population – we say it as they do (the Europeans) and we act our way (the Romanians) – except that, being more versatile, they have learnt to hide their thoughts and their feelings behind a certain European political cant, feigning a modern rhetoric. Finally, everything that goes on around us is in accordance with the level of culture in Romania, a general education that includes, in the same time economic pathology phenomena – CARITAS Pyramidal Game, FNI, bingo games – cultural phenomena – from Sandra Brown’s success at the beginning of the past decade up until today’s soap operas and manele, going through the kind of humor that Vacanta Mare creates – political phenomena – Vadim’s success at one point and the gigantic success of his party and recently that of Becali’s – and even sexual phenomena – the pink mobile phone’s popularity and the resistance of the church to the legalization of prostitution go very well together, because, paradoxically, the follow the same logic. This is the level of public education and then we realize we have no reason to wonder at the results. We could, maybe, be amazed that things aren’t going slower and harder than they seem to do now. All these phenomena show us clear enough that our cohesion to the values of the modernity, that mean, in the same time, capitalism and democracy, is very superficial, if not purely formal. We will be modern when these values will be functional, namely, integrated in laws and institutions that actually work and are to the majority of the population, as essential as air. For now they represent only shapes without substance. I know very well that the shapes are necessary, that they mould the substance, but, for that to happen, they should be good on the one hand and on the other hand, they should not roam about decades in a row in search for the substance that must fill them up. The solution is, as a matter of fact, a political one. A reform of the political class is necessary and that will not be made without a reform of the political and electoral system that was set up in 1990 and acknowledged by the Constitution of 1991, insufficiently and superficially revised in 2003. As a result, the actual political class should dig – at least partially – its own grave. For that to happen, proficiency and generosity are required. However, if these qualities would have existed, we would not face today’s situation. We are in a sort of vicious circle that could only be cut by a Gordian solution, through an intervention coming from outside the political field. It is the moment of the civil society to finally be born. Because, due to the

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisunconditional support of the different powers, the Romanian civil society, already weak and lacking in structure, has given up on her own to the role of critical instance of the political field. As a result, the failure of the political class went hand in hand with the failure of the cultural-civic elites, which have not been able to find the language required in the process of social dialogue. Together with the independent media, otherwise decreasing, but part of the civil society, the cultural-civic elites should function like a constant pressure factor, so that, once every four years, we could vote if not something else, then at least in a different way. But the reform of the political class and the reinvention of the civil society are necessary, but not sufficient conditions for the success of the second transition to modernity. In fact, the fundamental condition is the authentic retrieval of the values of modernity, their incorporation in the masses of people, which can not be accomplished without a reform of the educational system that is at least equally profound. Here is one of the phrases we hear often enough, starting with the 1990’s, without visible effective results. In almost twenty years, we kept on starting the reform of the educational system, but we never got to finish it! On January 1st 2007, we have joined the European Union, which despite its excessive regulations, still represents a world of generalized competition. Will we be partners in the competition or just in the training? I do not know, for now, I am rather skeptical. But, instead of feeling sorry for ourselves, it is more profitable to train in order to be able to face the competition there and the larger competition caused by the globalization. We have chosen the adherence and the globalization cannot be avoided. It is neither bad, nor good, it is inevitable! It’s coming to us just like a Truman tank and it depends on us, on our spirit of competition and of our competence, whether we will be crushed, whether we will be able to duck or, whether felicity moment, we will be able to ride the hood. I have said competence, but that can only arise from a good education! The history of humanity itself is a continuous competition starting with the first two tribes of hominids that have discovered their neighborhood and ending with the great empires and superpowers. And a contest always has winners and losers. It depends entirely on us to see which side we will be on, given the extremely convenient conditions of the present historical conjuncture, maybe more propitious than any other time since we lived here. He who has eyes will see. He who has ears will hear. The one who has a mind too, he will understand.

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PARCE 2009

Paradigms in Religious Education

Mariana MOMANUAl. I. Cuza University, Iasi

Abstract: In this study, we are trying to explore some aspects of religious education in the context of the contemporary Romanian school and society. After a period of tradition recovery and affirmation within the school framework, the issue of religious education is still present in the Romanian society. It's still room enough for queries on the need to achieve it in schools, the specific teaching principles or the ways of affirmation of religious values in school. In this context, we will examine three paradigms: the Instructional paradigm, the Christian paradigm and the Spiritualistic one, and we will discuss the particularities and relevance of each of them for the Romanian school.

Keywords: religious education, instructional paradigm, Christian and Spiritualistic paradigm.

Religious Education in SchoolReligious education is one of the traditional components

of education, and religiosity is a fundamental dimension of developing and affirmation of one’s personality. Its goal is to develop a spiritual being, capable of understanding the profound sense of the world and his spiritual needs.

The reintroduction of religious education in schools, in 1990, was seen as a necessary thing to do, in order to recover an old tradition in the Romanian schools, tradition that was interrupted by the communist regime upon their arrival to power; it is also seen, to a certain extent, as a way to diminish the effects of the communist indoctrination, which emphasized on a materialistic education to the detriment of a spiritual one, promoted by the religious education. Eighteen years later, the status of this discipline in the Romanian schools is uncertain. The most severe critics of religious education in schools argue that this reintroduction replaced the old political indoctrination by a new religious one. The Pro Europe League published a report

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Annales Universitatis Apulensison religious education in Romanian public schools, signaling, between other things, ambiguities with regard to the legal status of the discipline and the teachers that are teaching it, discriminative practices against pupils and teachers from religious minorities, irregularities in the elaboration of the curriculum and the textbooks used to teach this discipline, and the use of the religious education classes to do religious indoctrination. The last one is also the dominant of a report called Research on Religious Education in Romanian Schools issued by the Solidarity for Freedom of Conscience Association, as well as of the campaign STOP Religious Indoctrination in Schools, initiated by the Romanian Humanistic Association. Aside from identifying or interpreting some cases as religious indoctrination, the main issue is the opportunity of doing religious education in school. Is religious education a process of indoctrination? By approaching the learning process from an authoritarian point of view, in which the reality is seen from the perspective of only one doctrine, teaching religion in school could become indoctrination. There are a few ideas, presented by the French philosopher O. Reboul (1977, pp. 14-24), that could apply to teaching religion in school: using an education system to propagate a particular ideology; favoring mechanical learning; presenting a doctrine as the only one possible; selecting all facts in favor of a doctrine, and eliminating the ones against it; distorting the facts to support a doctrine; promoting hatred in school; imposing an idea through the use of violence etc.

We can easily see that circumstances as those presented above can be met when teaching any discipline, including science, in school. They are equally found in atheistic campaigns, usually based upon the idea of religious freedom, sustained in an aggressive, authoritarian way, basically refusing the access to culture and the values of religion. It seems perfectly justified the opinion of A. Plesu (2008), saying that without religious education, you cannot really become an atheist; freedom and ignorance exclude each other. Indoctrination is not necessary an attribute of a particular discipline (except for those disciplines that are a direct expression of a totalitarian thinking, like the ideology

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisof a totalitarian politic regime), but is more likely to happen when approaching that discipline in a particular teaching way, with a misconception about pupils and their role in the education process. Indoctrination implies cancellation of critical thinking; seeing the pupil as a non-reactive object in the process of education encourages indoctrination, and makes him tolerate exterior influences without filtering those through the active sieve of thinking. Some isolated cases which can be interpreted as indoctrinations cannot serve as an argument for banning a discipline from school; on the other hand, it is important to well define and understand that discipline’s status, goals, and ways of achieving those. The religious education must be understood as an answer to the religious needs of humans, and adjusted to their comprehensive abilities, and not as a way of imposing a set of values belonging to a certain religion. This makes its presence in school a necessity, and religious education becomes one of the important components of education. C. Cucos (2006) identifies the most important reasons for implementing religious education in schools: cultural: religion is an important source of knowledge, leading to a variety of cultural experiences; psychological: religion invites to self-exploring, to the discovery and enhancement of superior human sentiments; ethical: any religion is based upon a set of moral values, and contributes to interiorizing those values; sociological: religious values contribute to developing solidarity between people, and a sense of community; historical: religion, through church, have had profound implications in many important historical events; ecumenical: inter-confessional dialog is not possible without a good knowledge of its own religion, and other religions or beliefs; theological: implementing religious education in schools contributes to increasing faith and interiorizing religious values; pedagogical: religious education is an efficient way for someone to perfect intellectually, morally, esthetically, civically, etc.

Goals of Religious EducationThe goals of religious education are closely tied to those

of intellectual, moral, esthetic, or physical education. Religion is, before anything, a way of life. This is why it

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisbecomes increasingly important when it comes to initiate somebody in life; initiation implies a long way from knowing to doing. In this context, we can identify the following goals for the religious education: accumulating knowledge on various fields, such as history, the philosophy of religion, the sociology of the religious phenomenon, the psychology of the religious person etc.; awakening the sense of religiosity, which is different from the usual sense of religion. Religiosity is a spiritual dimension which transcends the limited space of a specific culture, or of a single religion. A person with a sense of religiosity understands the multiple ways of spiritual enrichment, corresponding to the numerous facets of spirituality; the multitude of the religious experiences share, in the end, a common depthness. It’s not the infinite diversity of religious experiences that matters, it’s what they have in common that’s important, because the same spiritual act is revealed through the manifestation of sacrality in an ordinary object, a stone or a tree, or in the supreme hierophany for christians, the embodiment of God on earth through Jesus Christ (Eliade, 1992); developing spiritual attitudes, which are the side effects of the religious education at a deep level of a spiritual being, reflected in everyday life and not only in the religion area. A spiritual attitude proofs the religiosity existing in a human being, and goes beyond the usual moral rules of a single religion. The simple fact of contemplating an object has its sacrality, becoming, through its significance, a spiritual experience.

Paradigms in Religious EducationWe are presenting now three ideas that could set the

foundation of religious education in school, accompanied by a brief analysis on the specific and relevance of each one of them for the Romanian school: the instructional, the christian, and the spiritualistic paradigm.

The Instructional ParadigmFrom this perspective, religious education is understood

as an implementation of a set of values that belongs to a religious doctrine, which restricts the spiritual freedom of the pupil; somebody is choosing for him, before he is old and mature enough to do this himself; this is why religious education should offer knowledge rather than indoctrination.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisThe role of the school should be to inform and explain, when it comes to religious education. The Durkheimian sociology is one of the most important sources for the instructional paradigm. Durkheim aimed at accomplishing a pedagogic revolution through foundation of a secular, rationalistic education. The school should not inoculate norms, rules, and values, but to explain morality and religion. In Romanian culture, V. Parvan supported this point of view; he considered that interfering christian doctrines with school’s curriculum is not only a mistake, but also a big naivete (1919, p. 24). The advocates of the instructional paradigm do not contest the presence of the religious education in the curriculum, when there is an interest toward this subject, but they support a neutral approach to it. History, philosophy of religion, sociology of the religious phenomenon, religious anthropology, ethnology, ethics, psychology of the religious person are all trying to provide answers or to raise new questions regarding human conscience; considering their contribution to the development of the culture, the contents of those disciplines should be found in school’s curriculum. The religion itself must be explained as a facet of humanity’s culture; the responsibility for explaining religion belongs to the teachers of a specific discipline, such as literature, history, psychology, sociology, ethics, etc. They will not impose anything, letting the religious idea to grow naturally, organically in the young person’s soul (Parvan, 1919, p. 24). This attitude toward religious education should not be mistaken for atheism because is not about denying God, it only helps separating school from church (the school offers religious instruction, critically analyzes the religious phenomenon, as opposed to the church, which builds up a religious being through ritual and faith).

The Christian ParadigmFor the christian philosophy and pedagogy, the true

revolution is of spiritual nature, and the authentic spiritual revolution is the right path to the christian life. The main reason in favor of a christian education is referring to the importance of the christian religion in understanding and maintaining our historical and cultural identity; the christian

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiseducation is needed when the school wants to promote certain values and spiritual traditions. The christian education is based upon the christic model and image. C. Narly identifies the fundamental values of the christian view on education (1935, pp.16-23): perfecting the human being, value that confirms the pedagogical vocation of the christian religion; an active attitude in assuming the values of a christian life, since self-perfecting is not a given, but an aspiration, an ideal that requires the achievement of the supreme good through an interior struggle; interior freedom as an expression of human dignity, since is not being determined by any exterior constraint, but is rather caused by a rich and equilibrated interior life; valuing children, as a prototype of virtue; the child is not an adult to be anymore; he is closer to perfection than an adult, which requires a great responsibility when it comes to his education. The childhood is rather a state of spiritual perfection than an age; this idea originates the christian optimistic view on education.

The goal of the christian education, as D. Calugar said (1946-1947), is developing the personality through love, trust, and freedom. While the secular education wants to transform the child into a human, the christian education wants him to resemble to God (Miclea, 1942, p. 42). Love is the most important factor in the christian education, is the soul of education, the bridge between educator and educated, connecting master and apprentice. School and universiy become con-sacrated to knowledge, sacred places of initiation in the mysteries of learning through the ways of science. The teacher is the one who initiates, his behavior is the norm, example; the lesson is/should be a ritual.

The Spiritualistic ParadigmIn the spiritualistic view, the term religion is emptied of

its traditional content; the state of religiosity is independent of the believe in the existence of a divinity in a usual meaning. The aspiration for truth and understanding, and the trust in the power of reason are, to Einstein, of religious nature; therefore, a real scientist can only be a religious person. The image Einstein suggested for understanding the relation between science and religion is important for the

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisspiritualistic perspective on education: science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind (1992). The fundamental sources for this paradigm are the spiritualist philosophy and the oriental religions. The advocates of the spiritualistic view on education are against confessional barriers and support the idea of spiritual unity and reconciliation. Religious education should not be mistaken for indoctrination, having as goal the transformation of the human being so he understands the world and himself in a particular way. As a fundamental and definitive structure of the conscience, religiosity builds and expresses itself in relation to individual conscience, it is the creation of this conscience (Hubert, 1965, p. 447). The religious human is the human with a sense of sacred, who admits the power of sacred in all things and beings. He sees sacred in everything, understands the world in terms of symbols, and every human act as a ritual. Whoever achieved the conscience of religiosity understands and respects all the ways of spiritual expression, since he admits that human beings connect to spirituality in a unique way, according to their unique human structure. This is why he easily communicates with people from different religions and cultural spaces, respects values coming from a different religion, and respects all paths to achieving spiritual enrichment. He also understands the unity in the diversity of all religious manifestations, when evolving spiritually, as Th. de Chardin said: everything going up converges.

The finality for religious education in a spiritualistic view is the ability to discover the transcendent in immanent, to recharge with sacred the material world.

ConclusionsEach one of these paradigms offers valid arguments,

which cannot be ignored in a responsible approach to the religious education. Building a strong religious culture is essential in diminishing ignorance which often leads to aggressiveness. Affirming that the role of the school is to offer knowledge, the advocates of the instructional point of view consider that religious education should be limited to learning this culture, without interiorizing its values or forming religious attitudes. Even though we agree that

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiscultural enhancement is the main goal of the religious education, we cannot agree that it can be separated from assuming certain values or attitudes, as it cannot be done in any other field, for that matter. The instructionalist argument against religion in school refers to an important risk: indoctrination. The Romanian school was not untouched, unfortunately, by this risk; the cases of indoctrination signaled in schools reflect rather the lack of an authentic religious culture of those who generated them than the role of the religious education itself. From this point of view, promoting christian values in schools, and integrating those in a bigger picture of an impartial cultural and historical approach could offer a way toward knowledge and respect of other values, and could favor dialogues between various cultural and religious areas. Only an exaggerated and biased interpretation of the christian values, in which love is privileged, could lead to denial and rejection of other religious doctrines, but such an interpretation is not according to the spirit of the christian religion; we could even say that is not in the spirit of religion, in general. Accentuating and exaggerating the differences between religions are not profitable either for the idea of religious education, since they generate rejections and conflicts, as it points out the spiritualist paradigm. A plausible model of religious education for the present Romanian school must take into consideration advantages and risks emerging upon analyzing the three paradigms; such a model cannot be develop unilaterally, but accordingly to an interdisciplinary and intercultural approach, leading to viable contents, objectives, principles of religious education and formation of religion teachers. BibliographyCĂLUGĂR, DUMITRU (1946-1947), Probleme de educaţie, în Biserica şi problemele vremii.Conferinţe publice ale Facultăţii Teologice Andreiane pe anul universitar 1946-1947, Editura Dacia Traiană, Sibiu.CIORTEA, MARCELA; ALDEA, DELIA; POPOVICI, DUMITRU, (2007), L’éducation religieuse dans les écoles de la Roumanie de la fin du XXème siècle et du début du XXI ième et ses conséquences sur le comportement des élèves, into Éducation Comparée, Actes du Colloque International Education, Religion, Laïcite, vol. 62, tom 2: Regards croisés et enjeux: pays du Sud et du Nord, Association francophone d’éducation comparée, pp. 343-369.CUCOŞ, CONSTANTIN, (1999), Educaţia religioasă. Repere teoretice şi metodice, 1th

Edition, Iasi, Polirom, Collection Ştiinţele educaţiei. Structuri, conţinuturi, tehnici.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisCUCOŞ, CONSTANTIN (2006), Pedagogie, Polirom, Iaşi.DURKHEIM, ÉMILE (1925), L'éducation morale. Alcan, Paris.EINSTEIN, ALBERT (1992), Cum văd eu lumea, Humanitas, Bucureşti.ELIADE, MIRCEA (1992), Sacrul şi profanul, Humanitas, Bucureşti.HUBERT, RENÉ (1965), Traité de pédagogie générale, P.U.F., Paris.MICLEA, IOAN (1942), Principii de pedagogie creştină. Metodologia religiei, Fundaţiunea literară “Mitropolit Vasile Suciu”, Tipografia Seminarului, Blaj.MOMANU, MARIANA (2005), Educaţie şi ideologie. O analiză pedagogică a sistemului totalitar comunist, Editura Universităţii „Al. I. Cuza”, Iaşi.MOMANU, MARIANA (2002), Introducere în teoria educaţiei, Polirom, Iaşi.NARLY, CONSTANTIN (1935), Istoria pedagogiei, vol.I, Publicaţiunile Institutului Pedagogic, Cernăuţi.PÂRVAN, VASILE (1919), Ideile fundamentale ale culturii sociale contemporane, Bucureşti.PLEŞU, ANDREI (2008), Educaţia religioasă, http://www.dilemaveche.ro/index.php, Accesat la data de 29.09.2008.REBOUL, OLIVIER (1977), L’endoctrinement, P.U.F., Paris.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Why do Children go to School - A Study on the Motivational School System

Mihaela Păişi LĂZĂRESCUUniversity of Piteşti

Résumé: Motivaţia constituie factorul care furnizează energia necesară învăţării şcolare şi în acelaşi timp o condiţie a învăţării eficiente, productive. Ea explică nu numai performanţele şcolare ale elevilor la un moment dat ci şi dinamica acestora de la o etapă la alta. Obiectivul studiului îl reprezintă identificarea unei ierarhii a motivelor învăţării şcolare la diferite categorii de elevi. Prin intermediul unui chestionar au fost identificate şi ierarhizate motive sociale, cognitive, afective, profesionale şi de autorealizare care reflectă capacităţile şi aspiraţiile fiecărei categorii de elevi. Cunoaşterea motivelor reale ale învăţării oferă posibilitatea să se intervină în mod adecvat pentru asigurarea succesului şcolar al elevilor la toate nivelele de vârstă.

Mots-clés: l’apprentissage scolaire, hiérarchie de la motivation scolaire, performances scolaires, questionnaire.

The Conceptual Approach of Learning Motivation The current informational dynamics, expressed by the

rapid growth of its volume in all fields of activity, as well as their rapid wear out, the new life rhythm, soliciting man in a more intense measure from social, cultural and professional points of view, the strain imposed by various mass media - press, radio, TV, internet – determine obvious changes in the atitude towards learning generally speaking and mostly towards school learning. The problem that rises in this context is: what determines a student to attend school, to learn, to respond to school demands and rigourousness, and another student no to do all these?

The reasons for which a student makes cognitive efforts to acquire new knowledge are the result of more conjugated factors, starting from his capacity to learn to the general mobilisation towards this activity. Identifying the factors that trigger the activity of learning, that sustain it a long period of time in spite of obstacles more or less difficult to surpass, that orientate it towards certain goals, that allow it to last even if the goals are not immediately reached or that stop it

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisat a given time, presumes ranking the reasons for learning from qualitative and quantitative criteria. Being motivated for school learning expresses, on a behavioural level, a dynamic, mobilising state, directed towards reaching certain goals, which is defined by statements like interested in…, will to learn…, impulse towards….

The student is involved in learning tasks, is oriented towards finalities, most of them consciously. Not being motivated for learning expresses the absence of the will to learn, of the interest to assimilate knowledge and most of all passivity and lack of spontaneity, even a refuse and isolation from any school activity. (Neacşu, I.)1

Researching the educational motivation presumes identifying not only the internal or external reason that triggers a desire, an attraction, an interest, but mostly the mobilisation character, the involvement of the psychical potential in solving or adapting to educational goals, as well as involvement, organising and internal self-adjustment of the student’s personality. Motivation explains the students’ active or less active attitude during the educational process. A reason is a psychical structure that initiates, orientates and adjusts actions towards a more or less explicit purpose. It is the internal cause of students’ behaviour, the mechanisms that explains students’ attitude towards learning2.

The motivation for learning is made of all the reasons that, in their capacity of internal conditions of the personality, determine, orientate, organise and augment the intensity of the learning efforts. Ausubel (Learning in School) considers that in the structure of school motivation we may identify three basic components3. The first component – the cognitive impulse – is centered around the need to know and understand, to master knowledge and to formulate and solve problems an dis manifested under the shape of intrinsic motivation that holds on the student’s need to know. The second component is the strong affirming of

1 I. Neacşu, Motivation and Learning, EDP, Bucharest.2 Idem.3, D.P. Ausubel, , F.G. Robinson, (1981), Learning in School. An Introduction to Pedagogical Psychology. EDP, Bucharest.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisone’s ego and lies at the joining point between intrinsic and extrinsic. A high school yield may satisfy this need, generating in the student’s consciousness the feeling of self-respect, of prestige. It is accompanied (Ausubel) by anxiety, fear resulting from psychical anticipation of losing prestige and self-respect as a consequence of failure. The approval coming from teachers can satisfy the ego as a component of the school motivation, representing a confirmation of the student’s achievements and acting as a source of satisfaction for the results obtained by working. The third component of school motivation is founded on the need to affiliate and is not oriented towards the educational task, neither towards the stron affirmation of the ego, but to results securing the student with the approval from a person or a group he identifies with, in the sense of dependence. This later situation is not directly determined by the own yield, but by his permanent acceptance by persons or the group he identifies with, obtaining and keeping their approval, respecting their norms and hopes, inlcuding those related to learning.

Each on its turn or all the three components may enter the game at any time in the student’s activity, pointing out that they vary from one student to another. Generally speaking, the wish to affiliate is stronger in childhood, when children insistently look for it and benefit from a situation based on identifying with their parents, which is a state of dependence on and acceptance. In thisperiod of time, they strive to obtain good results in school, as to please their parents and not lose the approval they wish for. Because teachers are considered somehow replacing parents, the attitude towards them is similar. During puberty and pre-adolescence, the affiliating impulse decreases in intensity and, at the same time, is reoriented from parents to colleagues of the same age. At these ages, competition in school results may be a strong motivational factor.

The need for approval from peers can yet reduce school yield, if such achievements are negatively appreciated by colleagues. Still, generally speaking, during adolescence the impulse of the strong ego affirmation is the dominant component of the school motivation, as well as during the

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisactive period of time of the individual, maintaining high levels of aspiration. Yet pedagogical observation shows that an excess of such motivation may lead to unpleasant consequences: anxiety, unrealistic, unachievable school and professional goals, followed by failures and losing self-respect, accompanied by extremely low aspirations. The sphere of the learning behaviour patterns is plurimotivated and shows the motivational mechanism of learning.

A superior form of the motivation for school learning is the intrinsic motivation1, consisting of those reasons that do not depend on a reward coming from outside the learning activity (the student learns because learning brings him satisfaction by itself, and the purpose of learning in intrinsic to it, not out of it). The intrinsic motivated learning is manifested by a special interest shown towards school learning, prolonging even during his spare time (lecture, solving problems etc.). Such a learning is much more efficient, because, even if it puts more strai non the student, delays tiredness thanks to the satisfaction it brings and allows the learner to perfom a longer lasting activity and get higher yield.

The extrinsic reasons2 derive from factors that are exterior to the learning activity. The wish to affiliate is an obvious extrinsic reason when the child goes to school and learns thoroughly, mostly to please his family, who is interested in what he does in school, praises and even rewards him. We may include in the same category reasons determined by the desire to lease educators they get attached to and unconditionally admire (which is specific to young students), as well as the desire to get together with colleagues, friends, to generally do everything that their peers do.

Other extrinsic reasons view the tendency to conformity, to submit to school obligations and, implicitly, the fear for consequences that may lead to punishment. Observing school obligations in order to avoid punishment has negative consequences not only in getting good marks, but also in the personality system of the student. If achieved, learning is 1 S.J. Bruner, (1970), For a Theory of Education. EDP, Bucharest.2 Ibidem.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiswith hard efforts and tiresome. The wish to be among the first, to gain success with all costs can be a stimulus for learning just in elementary school. In the absence of this desire, school grades decrease rapidly. The exageration of this reason mat lead to negative feelings of competition, ostility towards colleagues and even teachers and has negative consequences in the relationships.

Another category of reasons for learning, whose functionality is conditioned by the age of the students, of the structure and particularities of their personality, of the socio-affective relationship among class are the stimulative reasons – praise, encouragement, objective assessment, respect of opinion etc. – and the inhibitive reasons – fear from a bad mark, blame, punishment, subjective assessment, indifference, monotony etc.

In the category of social reasons1 we may group those psycho-energetically fueling the entire system of social relationships of an individual, having social purposes (I learn out of duty…, learning…, I contribute to my school class’ prestige…, I want to be as useful as possible…, I like to learn at school because I am together with my colleagues…, when you’re with colleagues, you learn easier, becuase it’s more fun…, you learn more from others than when you learn by yourself…, others know more and you can learn from them…).

They may be general social reasons - the tendency to accumulate knowledge to be place dat the same level with the others – special social reasons, manifested by the interest to get a certain favourable social position, to earn prestige as well as reasons for collaborating, of reciprocity. A fundamental motivational factor of learning is represented by the cognitive reasons2 (in a large sense – curiosity, interest in one field, a certain school subject), that includes the students’ will to know, to find out information from various topics (I learn because I want to know as much as possible, I learn in all school subjects, because they are interesting to me, Physics interesses me mostly etc). In the 1 D. Vintilescu (1977), Motivation for School Learning, Facla Publishing House, Timişoara.2 Ibidem.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensissphere of affective reasons1 are included the predominantly emotional ones, both positive and negative – love and respect of parents, the feeling of duty towards them, the wish the bring them joy, sympathy towards teachers, respect for them, fear from parental punishment, anxiety determined by the rigid attitude of some teachers, regret or shame towards teachers, parents or colleagues.

Professional reasons2 are centered around the aspirations of the students towards professional accomplishment: they learn in order to prepare for a future profession, by the will of proving skillfulness in the chosen profession, out of interest for school subjects involved in the future chosen profession, because they want to attend a certain school/university etc. (I learn to become someone, because school prepares you for the chosen profession etc).

Within this category of reasons a distinct place is occupied by the self-achievement/acomplishment reasons3, which view the aspiration to competence, the desire to self-surpassing and to identify oneself (I wish to become a good teacher, doctor… etc., I learn to have a satisfaction…, to be proud of my own results…, to be happy… etc).

The reasons included in the category of school success-failure4 are grouped around the will to success or to avoid failure. Out of the students’ answers it comes out that the favourable result they wish to obtain views three directions: school grades (good grades, prises, promoting the admission examination etc), prestige in the group of peers (class) and the favourable appreciation from the teachers and, accordingly, parents (the latter depending on achieving the former, closely likned to the self-affirming desire of each student). The same directions are shaped in what concerns avoiding failure; as a consequence, in the category of school success-failure we may include the reasons stated by students in very different ways, yet expressing the same tendencies: I learn in order to get good marks…, I learn because I don’t want to have bad results (bad marks)…; I 1 Ibidem.2 Ibidem.3 Ibidem. 4 Ibidem.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensislearn to be in the first place…; not to plough exams…, I learn because I want to be successful in the high-school admission exams…; I want to surpass other colleagues…; I learn in order to be an example among my peers…; I wish to have my colleagues appreciation…; I wouldn’t give my classmates a reason to despise me…; I want to impress teachers… .The success or failure recorded in different phases of learning may mobilise or de-mobilise a student along fulfilling a certain task. Success encourages, increases the efficiency of the activity and diminishes the effects of tiredness, opposite to failure, that may have contrary effects.

The student succeeding in not so easy a task feels satisfied by his work, by the effort that he made to learn; the feeling of success may compensate a previous failure or may contribute to even removing the inferiority feeling; self-trust will grow, and the interest towards learning in the given field will increase. Conversely, failure, mostly when associated with discontent and parental criticism may generate a negative school motivation. Consequently, the student will reject the idea to learn in that field, because he will feel discouraged by his own failure and by the others’ dissatisfaction.

Study Regarding the Reasons for Learning Starting from the fact that success in school learning is

not only the result of abilitites and skills and that not always students with high intellectual capacity remark themselves in school performance, we intended to investigate the dynamics of reasons for learning at different ages. The ascertaining researsch starts from the hypothesis that ranking the reasons for learning is different along school years. Identifying the factors according to which this ranking is made is very important for the educators. The subjects’ panel has been made of 126 students of ages between 7-18 years old (first grade to the 12th), boys and girls, from different residential environments, both urban and rural. As to achieve a ranking of the reasons for learning in students we have achieved – according to different levels of age – two categories of tests: for subjects in elementary school (where using a questionnaire is irrelevant) we have employed the

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisstructured interview, while for subjects of over 10 years old we have used the choice questionnaire and open questions.

Both the interview and the questionnaire have followed identifying the dimensions of school learning motivation and of the factors mediating the option for such reasons (choice answer items – I like going to school because: I am with my colleagues, to get marks, to have a diploma, to write and read etc.; items with double answers – true or false – I learn because I’m curious to know more, to earn more money, not to upset my parents, I feel good when I’m successful in school, I like being appreciated by teachers etc.

The responses analysis and interpretation has been made taking into consideration the following types of motivation for learning: extrinsic reasons, intrinsic reasons, social, affective reasons, reasons for school success-failure and self-achievement reasons.

At a global analysis of the answers we have identified the interest manifested by students for school activities generally speaking and by school learning especially: 23% of them state that they learn with interest, the school activities agree with their personal expectations and aspiration; 47% put effort in learning, integrate in activities, but they do not correspond to their personal interests; 24% come to school out of obligation, school doesn’t respresent at all their aspirations, they leave it any time they can and avoid as much as possible any school activity, and 6% of the subjects don’t know what to answer, they never thought of this issue. If we consider the first category of students as being motivated, the other ones should be thought as low motivated (they make efforts without manifesting interest) or demotivated (they come to school out of obligation, along with the ones who didn’t know what to answer). As to identify the dynamics of the interest in school activities, we have performed a comparative analysis of answers, according to age. Most of the students showing interest are in the elementary school (all in the first grade like to learn, even when they fiind it difficult; none of them learns to avoid sanctions); just 2% of the 4th grade students come to school without being interested in learning. Starting with the age of 14, statistics change; most of the students learn out of

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisobligation, for fear of sanctions from school or parents and others come to school, try to learn, but without any special interest. The students stating that they do not know what to answer are in the final high-school classes (we may explain it by the specific negativism of the age, but also because a demotivation towards school or any other kind of activity).

Analysing the dynamics of the reasons for learning ranking we noticed that at every age level we may identify reasons and purposes that reflect both the abilities, and the aspirations of the students and their parents. Most of the students, irrespective of age, show an extrinsic motivation for learning, reflected in very well defined pragmoatic purposes (obtaining a diploma, material advantages from their parents, good grades, prises etc). Just 2% of them (students in the 9th and 12th form) learn with pleasure, want to be informed, show interest for some school subjects. If for the elementary school students the motivation has affective and social valences (they wish to be appreciated by their school-teacher, to please parents, to get good assessments), for most of the older students the motivation for learning has negative valences (I don’t want to upset my parents, I want to get high grades in the Bachelor’s examination etc.). The pleasure to learn, the curiosity offered by various school subjects, the ineterst for knowledged gained by learning rank in the last places of the reasons for learning. We found interesting the statements of the 12-13 years old students, that are cognitively motivated the most, comparing to older students.

The first place in boys is occupied cognitive reasons that appear as early as 12 years old and by professional reasons. Girls opt mostly for affective reasons and social reasons (pleasure to learn, avoiding punishment, the others’ approval and esteem, intellectual satisfaction, authority in front of the colleagues etc.). Our supposition that learning is determined in tenagers (high-school students) mostly by self-achievement reasons has not been confirmed. An extremely low percentage, as we consider, show such reasons for school learning (not the school results determine success in life, happiness doesn’t come with learning etc.).

Conclusions

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisThe role of motivation in school learning is extremely

complex. It explains not only the student’s grade record, educational situation at a given time, but also its dynamics from one level to another. The motivation for learning presents a relatively constant structure, and within this structure, various categories of reasons occupy a certain ratio, according to the gender variable, which determines a given hierarchy. Acknowledging the true reasons for student’s learning gives the educator the possibility to adequately and opportunely intervene in order to ensure each student’s school success and allows him to consciously guide the formation process of the different categories of efficient reasons for school learning, whose contents would allow the students an accomplished social integration. References:AUSUBEL, D.P., ROBINSON, F.G., (1981), Învăţarea în şcoală. O introducere în psihologia pedagogică, EDP, Bucureşti.BRUNER, S.J., (1970), Pentru o teorie a instruirii, EDP, Bucureşti.NEACŞU, I., (1978), Motivaţie şi învăţare, EDP, Bucureşti.VINTILESCU, D., (1977), Motivaţia învăţării şcolare, Ed. Facla, Timişoara.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

The In-Service Mentor. A Skills Profile

Liliana EZECHILPetruţa COMAN

University of Piteşti

Abstract: The present paper highlights the partial results of the CNCSIS research –

Quality in the Educational Tutoring, carried out within the Teacher Training Department, Pitesti. The main objective of our research was to identify and validate some criteria, quality standards and psycho-pedagogic profiles that could be used as reference instruments within the in-service teacher training. An essential role to elaborate the design of the research was played by focusing on the concept of professional development tutoring (Clutterbuck, 2001; Clutterbuck & Sweeney, 2003; Hay, 1995; Klasen & Clutterbuck, 2002), which was considered highly relevant during the process of future teachers’ training. The theoretical reference frame is based on the most recent national and international research results and the practical-theoretical frame follows the standards for mentoring programs that have been established by the European Mentoring and Couching Council. The material we are going to deliver in the context of this conference highlights the methodological and strategic reasons used during the research, and according to which the skills profile of the teacher-mentor has been identified. As the research has had an empirical character, it has taken into account both processes and phenomena that are relevant to the future teacher’s development in the organizational context mentioned above and the specific needs of the highlighted professional category – the in-service mentors with which the institution mentioned above collaborates.

Keywords: mentor, in-service, skills, skills profile.

The general hypothesis of the research focused on the comparison of students’ and mentors’ perceptions on the competence profile of the mentoring teacher

We suppose there is a relation between the in situ approach of the problematic related to the learning of professional behaviors of the didactic profession and the perceptions of the main actors involved in this process (mentors and practicing students).

Work hypotheses: There is a significant positive correlation between

students’ perceptions on the importance of psycho-social competences for the mentors’ professional profile and the perceptions of mentoring teachers on the same category of

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiscompetences. There is a significant positive correlation between students’ perceptions on the importance of competences of mentoring teachers’ contextualization of their theoretical preparation obtained during the courses and the perceptions of mentoring teachers on the same category of competences. There is a positive correlation between students’ perceptions on the importance of mentoring teachers’ competences in the counseling of the future teachers and the mentors’ perceptions on the same category of competences. There is a significant positive correlation between students’ perceptions on the importance of mentors’ competences in the field of management of the future teachers’ training process and the mentors’ perceptions on the same category of competences. The students’ perceptions on the mentor’s competence profile (considered through the four competence categories) are sensitively related to the perceptions of mentoring teachers on the same profile.

Used instruments: the focus-group method, the method related to the direct noticing of mentoring teachers’ behavior, the questionnaire method (through the crossed application of two questionnaires for analyzing the perceptions of mentoring teachers - on the one hand - and of practicing students – on the other hand), the methods related to the analysis, statistic processing and interpretation of the data collected by means of the previously applied methods in view of elaborating a competence profile of the mentoring teacher (as resulted from the comparison of the perceptions of the two category of subjects).

Note: The competence categories (used as referential for the work hypotheses) and the analysis questionnaires for mentoring teachers’ perceptions (on the one hand) and practicing students’ perceptions (on the other hand) were drafted/made based on the data collected by means of the first two methods mentioned above.

Research methodologyThe study of students’ perceptions and of mentoring

teachers’ perceptions on the competences of the pedagogical practice mentor was performed during the

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisOctober 2007 – May 2008 period, on a group of 108 IIIrd year students, Bologna series (2007-2008 univ. year), of whom 61 girls and 47 boys and on a group of 92 mentoring teachers, of whom 56 women (25 with a labor seniority comprised between 10 and 15 years, 15 with a labor seniority comprised between 15 and 20 years and 16 with a labor seniority of over 20 years) and 36 men (11 with a labor seniority comprised between 10 and 15 years, 8 with a labor seniority comprised between 15 and 20 years and 17 with a labor seniority of over 20 years). In this investigation, the questionnaire-based investigation method was used. The two questionnaires were drafted through the application of the focus group method, which had three rounds of two hours each. The following persons participated in the debates caused by such method: a moderator (the grant directors), 4 methodicians (pedagogical practice coordinators in the university experienced in the field of mentoring activities), 4 pedagogical practice mentors (beneficiaries of a mentorship training program organized by the British Council), 6 researchers (specialists in the following fields: psychology, pedagogy, sociology). The questionnaire for identifying the perceptions of practicing students on a group of competences relevant for the professional profile of the mentoring teacher has 36 items, of which 34 suppose pre-coded answers and 2 items request certain identification elements from the subjects included in the experimental group. The 34 items relevant for the performed study were associated to a Likert-type five step scale, where the 1st position expresses total agreement and the 5th position expresses total disagreement. The questionnaire for identifying the perceptions of mentoring teachers on the competences relevant for the professional profile of the pedagogical practice mentor includes 42 items, of which 40 suppose pre-coded answers and 2 items request certain identification elements from the subjects included in the experimental group. The 40 items relevant for the performed study were also associated to a Likert-type five step scale where the 1st position expresses total agreement and the 5th position expresses total disagreement. In case certain subjects of the initial group answered in an

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisambiguous manner to more than five items, such questionnaires were classified as invalid and were not taken into account in the performed study. (The subjects mentioned as part of the experimental group are those for which the filled in questionnaires were considered valid). The two questionnaires were applied in a crossed manner on the two groups of subjects (practicing students and mentoring teachers) being focused on the four categories of competences already announced through the mentioned hypotheses1: psycho-social competences (9 items); competences related to the management of future teachers’ training process (9 items); competences related to the contextualization of the acquired theoretical preparation (7 items); competences related to the counseling of future teachers (7 items).

The psycho-social competences highlight the capacities of the mentoring teacher to build relations, the communication skills, his/her empathic skills, the supporting attitude to students in overcoming the difficulties related to the integration in the institutionalized environment of the application school. Competences related to the contextualization of the theoretical preparation acquired by future teachers refer to the skills of mentoring teachers to facilitate the students’ integration in the formalized school environment: the knowledge of the school program and ethos specific to the organizational environment of the application school; the facilitation of the process related to the transfer of theoretical knowledge (acquired in the following disciplines: psychology education, school and didactic pedagogy) in concrete school situations, the creation of opportunities for the direct knowledge by the students of certain modalities to interact with pupils’ parents, the presentation of models for the organization of form master activities and different types of courses. Counseling competences of mentoring teachers refer to: his/her capacity to adopt an open and supportive attitude with regard to practicing students, to efficiently intervene whenever there are different sources of conflict among the 1 Ezechil, L., (coord.), (2009), Ghidul mentorului, Paralela 45 Publication House, Piteşti, p. 43.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensismembers of the students’ group, among students and pupils, among students and the group of teachers, to show trust in the beginners’ potential and chances of success, to offer his/her support whenever students ask for help. Competences related to the management of the future teachers’ training process refer to the mentor’s capacity to offer professional behavior models, to teach the students how to design an educational program, how to manage a concrete training activity, how to select the most appropriate methods and means to achieve training objectives, how to establish the objectives for evaluating school performances and how to elaborate the instruments necessary to perform the evaluative process, how to manage time, how to analyze and self evaluate the performed didactic activities.

Research resultsFor verifying the research hypothesis, the significance of

the difference between the means obtained by mentors and practicing students (respectively, the subjects who answered the applied questionnaires) was established by calculating the value of the signification test (test t, Student). The results obtained by the group subject to investigation are summarized in table 1.

1. Mentoring students’ perceptions on the competences of the pedagogical practice mentor

Mean

Std. Dev.

Signific.

Std. Dev.

Mean

2. Students’ perceptions on the competences of the pedagogical practice mentor

Psycho-social competences

40.29

1.85

p<0,01

1.84

40.05

Psycho-social competences

Competences related to the management of future teachers’ training process

40.85

1.82

P<0,01

1.76

40.81

Competences related to the management of future teachers’ training process

Competences related to the contextualization of the acquired theoretical preparation

31.01

2.28

p<0,01

2.29

30.45

Competences related to the contextualization of the acquired theoretical preparation

Competences related to the counseling of future teachers

31.72

2.26

p<0,01

2.26

31.81

Competences related to the counseling of future teachers

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisTeachers’ perceptions on the mentor’s competence profile

17.59

1.77

p<0,01

1.52

17.21

Students’ perceptions on the mentor’s competence profile.

Table 1. Students’ and mentoring teachers’ perceptions on the competences of the pedagogical practice mentor

The obtained results highlight the fact that there are no significant differences between teachers’ perceptions and students’ perceptions on the competences of the pedagogical practice mentor. These results confirm our research hypothesis as there are no significant differences between the mean values of teachers’ perceptions on the competences of the pedagogical practice mentor and those of students’ perceptions. As to the first four work hypotheses, correlations were calculated between the scores of teachers’ perception on the competences of the pedagogical practice mentor and the scores of students’ perceptions on the competences of the pedagogical practice mentor. (The last hypothesis has a special status: it confirms the truth of the conclusions drafted at the level of each of the other four hypotheses).

Statistic interpretation of the research resultsFurther to the application of the questionnaires

presented under Used instruments chapter, a series of data was obtained, which were processed through the SPSS software, version 10 for Windows. Through the verification of work hypotheses (2.1., 2.2., 2.3., 2.4.): There are significant positive correlations between students’ perceptions on the psycho-social competences, the competences related to the management of the future teachers’ training process, the competences related to the contextualization of the acquired theoretical preparation, the competences to counsel future teachers and mentoring teachers’ perceptions on the same categories of competences, the

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisfollowing was established:

Correlations

1.000 .787** .062 -.061 -.071 -.026 -.012 .064. .000 .423 .470 .362 .764 .879 .450

168 141 168 141 168 141 168 141.787** 1.000 -.003 -.102 -.130 .069 .020 .005.000 . .972 .228 .124 .417 .817 .955141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141.062 -.003 1.000 .728** -.032 -.126 -.031 -.143.423 .972 . .000 .684 .137 .691 .091

168 141 168 141 168 141 168 141

-.061 -.102 .728** 1.000 -.141 -.088 -.096 -.160.470 .228 .000 . .095 .300 .258 .058141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141

-.071 -.130 -.032 -.141 1.000 .608** .048 .055.362 .124 .684 .095 . .000 .535 .516168 141 168 141 168 141 168 141

-.026 .069 -.126 -.088 .608** 1.000 .059 -.044.764 .417 .137 .300 .000 . .486 .605141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141

-.012 .020 -.031 -.096 .048 .059 1.000 .684**.879 .817 .691 .258 .535 .486 . .000168 141 168 141 168 141 168 141.064 .005 -.143 -.160 .055 -.044 .684** 1.000.450 .955 .091 .058 .516 .605 .000 .141 141 141 141 141 141 141 141

Pearson CorrelationSig. (2-tailed)NPearson CorrelationSig. (2-tailed)NPearson CorrelationSig. (2-tailed)N

Pearson CorrelationSig. (2-tailed)NPearson CorrelationSig. (2-tailed)NPearson CorrelationSig. (2-tailed)NPearson CorrelationSig. (2-tailed)NPearson CorrelationSig. (2-tailed)N

competente psihosocialestudenti

competente psihosocialeprofesori

competente demanagement alprocesului de formare aviitorilor profesori (st)

competente demanagement alprocesului de formare aviitorilor profesori (pr)competente decontextualizare a pregatiriiteoretice dobandite (st)

competente decontextualizare a pregatiriiteoretice dobandite (pr)

competente de consilierea viitorilor profesori (st)

competente de consilierea viitorilor profesori (pr)

competentepsihosociale

studenti

competentepsihosociale

profesori

competentede

managemental procesuluide formare a

viitorilorprofesori (st)

competentede

managemental procesuluide formare a

viitorilorprofesori (pr)

competentede

contextualizare a pregatirii

teoreticedobandite (st)

competentede

contextualizare a pregatirii

teoreticedobandite (pr)

competentede consiliere

a viitorilorprofesori (st)

competentede consiliere

a viitorilorprofesori (pr)

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).**.

Table 2. Correlations at the level of the four categories of competences of the pedagogical practice mentoring teacher

Further to the correlation of the scores obtained under psycho -social competences within the questionnaires applied to students and teachers, a correlation ratio of r= .78 at a signification interval p<0.01 was obtained. The value of r expresses the existence of a highly significant positive correlation between students’ perceptions on psycho-social competences and mentoring teachers’ perceptions on psycho-social competences. This means that there is a strong relationship between students’ perceptions and teachers’ perceptions on the psycho-social competences category (i.e. the high level of some of them is associated to the high level of the others, and the other way around).

Under competences related to the contextualization of the acquired theoretical preparation, within the questionnaires applied to students and teachers, we

43

Annales Universitatis Apulensisobtained a correlation ration r= .60 at a signification interval p<0.01. The r value expresses the existence of a highly significant positive correlation between students’ perceptions on the competences related to the contextualization of the obtained theoretical preparation and mentoring teachers’ perceptions on the same competences. This means that when the values of a variable are increased, the values of the other variable are also increased and that, therefore, there is a strong relationship between the two variables.

Further to the correlation of the scores obtained under competences to counsel future teachers within the questionnaires applied to students and teachers, we obtained a correlation ratio r= .68 at a signification interval p<0.01. The r value expresses the existence of a highly significant positive correlation between students’ perceptions on the counseling competences of mentoring teachers and teachers’ perceptions on the same category of competences. This means that when the values of a variable are increased, the values of the other variable are also increased and that, therefore, there is a strong relationship between the two variables.

Under competences related to the management of future teachers’ training process, we obtained a correlation ratio r= .72 at a signification interval p<0.01. The r value expresses the existence of a highly significant positive correlation between students’ perceptions on the competences related to the management of the future teachers’ training process and the perceptions of the future mentors on the same category of competences.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Group Statistics

102 18.55 1.12 .1198 18.00 1.06 .11

ESANTIONstudentprofesor

PERMENTN Mean Std. Deviation

Std. ErrorMean

Table 3. Means and standard deviations for the sample formed of students and teachers who answered the applied questionnaires

Table 4. Results of the t test for independent samples

The fifth hypothesis was: The students’ perceptions on the mentor’s competence profile (considered through the four categories of competences) are sensitively related to the perceptions of the mentoring teachers on the same profile. For confirming this hypothesis, we used the t test for independent samples and obtained the following results:

As to the general value of the perceptions on the mentoring activity, the first table (Group Statistics) offers the descriptive statistics of the two groups; thus, a mean (M) of 18.55 and a standard deviation (SD) of 1.12 for the group of students and a M=18.00 and SD=1.06 for the teachers result.

Since the probability associated to the Levene test is higher than p=0.05, in our case .051, the condition related to the homogeneity of the variation of the two groups values is met, so that the result of the t test is read on the first row of the second table. The obtained result is t(198 DF)=3.54 at p<0.001, the difference between the means of the two groups being .55.

Thus, we may conclude that the difference between the means of students’ scores as compared to mentoring teachers’ scores is negligible as far as the perceptions on the mentor’s competence profile are concerned.

Independent Samples Test

3.854 .051 3.546 198 .000 .55

.15 .24

.85

3.550 197.969 .000 .55

.15 .24

.85

Equal variancesassumedEqual variancesnot assumed

PERMENTF Sig.

Levene's Test forEquality of Variances

t df Sig. (2-tailed)Mean

DifferenceStd. ErrorDifference Lowe

rUpper

95% ConfidenceInterval of theDifference

t-test for Equality of Means

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

References:DOUGLAS, C A (1997), Formal mentoring programs in organizations: An annotated bibliography, Centre for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC.EHRICH, L C & HANSFORD, B (1999), Mentoring: Pros and cons for HRM, Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, vol. 37, no.3, pp. 92-107.EZECHIL, L., (coord.), (2008), Calitate în mentoratul educaţional, “Miniped” Publishing House, BucharestEZECHIL, L., (coord.), (2009), Ghidul mentorului, „Paralela 45” Publishing House, Piteşti. GLASS, G V (1977), Integrating findings: The meta-analysis of research, Review of Research in Education, vol.5, pp. 351-379.KRAM, K E (1983), Phases of the mentor relationship, Academy of Management Journal, vol.26, pp. 608-625. KRAM, K E (1985a), Mentoring at work, Scott, Foresman, Glenview, Il. KRAM, K E (1985b), Improving the mentor process, Training and Development Journal, vol.39, no.4, pp. 40-43. LONG, J (1997), The dark side of mentoring, Australian Educational Research, vol.24, no.2, pp. 15-83.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Education and Social Constructivism

Anton ILICAAurel Vlaicu University, Arad

Abstract: I bring into discussion the concepts of education and communication from a postmodern society perspective. The man is educated according to the way the society desires, and the latter shapes him according to the quality of its culture. By the end of the present study which belongs to a speculative epistemology, we have analyzed the new perspectives of the institutes of education and these are provoked by a postmodernist mentality. Our study is a structured essay and it focuses on the meanings of certain concepts that require socio-cultural alterations and adjustments. I am in serious doubt as there still exists the possibility of a national confusion between education and learning. No matter how many definitions we might give, these would not be able to provide a coherent solution to these pedagogic fundamental concepts. Learning hinders my epistemological equilibrium because the psychological, biological and social mechanisms have not been unified into a definition that might represent process. The hypothesis of the present study has been anticipated by previous considerations in order to be represented by a pedagogic terminology: the education of the individual is achieved within, by and for the society while learning is provided in and by institutes of education. The problematic congruence does not challenge the formulation of the hypothesis but requires an explanation which we shall provide at the right moment. Or method is a speculative one, but it gets substance by observing the reality and the objective factor that result from the consequences of psycho-social practice. If a scholar is not an educated person, then, an educated person is not always a scholar. The negative cases do not negate my statement, they might give another shades to it. The educative intervention contributes to the transformation of the personality according to the society’s requirements. Who performs the intervention? Why does it aim at individuals’ transformation? Why does it shape according to the society? The answers to these questions might provide a clear determination of the concept of education. Individual biography interconnects with collective biography. Man is God’s creation but he develops according to the society. The new-born child does not stand as He, because the members of the society impose on him be like us, and us represents the social order. This is education: it socializes the biological individual, making him desirable in a collectivity. Which would the content of education be in order to construct a social being? The questions are answered in our study which beneficiates from a bibliography, focusing on the correlation between keywords/syntagms such as: social constructivism, education and learning, postmodern society, communication.

Keywords: social constructivism, education, learning, postmodern society, communication.

Education in postmodern societyPostmodern society refuses the educational ideal and

its incompatibility with absolutism perfection of individuals. Mass-media, socio-economical and cultural environment propose attitudes incompatible with a classical educational program. Responsible with education are experts, teachers but the informal education has essential effects with regard to inclusion of undesirable elements in the educational ideal.

47

Annales Universitatis ApulensisA coherent educational project can not be implemented without taken into consideration influences from other institutions. It is impossible for an outlook to change without educating all the public institutions responsible for informal education.

Pedagogues accept that educational influence and intervention manifest itself in three states: through specialized institutions (formal and nonformal education) and through unspecialized environments (informal education). Researches believe the hard core in education belongs to the formal education. Unfortunately informal influences (family, peers, society, and media) have a stronger influence over behavior.

Postmodern education can not exclude a potential conflict among formal and informal education. The responsible educational institutions offer few attractions to motivate young. The rigorous program, the bureaucratic administration of schools, subjectivity in assessment, descriptive learning programs, the discrepancy between school and social environment are just few elements that does not encourage trusting educational institutions.

The society is different from school and it offers a different educational perspective. School prepares students for an ideal social environment different from the one students find outside school. The street is dynamic, alive and colored. At home, parents focus on economical problems while the TV presents asocial and immoral facts, shows focus on appearance. Internet is an alternative educational resource.

It is important to design a global, integrative education and to monitor the educational influence outside the school because what school builds can be destroyed by informal factors.

Postmodern mentalityThe parallel between a concept and a reality can lead

to serious misunderstanding if they are incongruent. The learning systems are very rigorous organized and conservatoire. The postmodern mentality breaks the patterns and brings incertitude. In conclusion, two opposite situations coexists. Postmodernism is characterized through

48

Annales Universitatis Apulensisloosing bench-marks. The contemporaneous world has few moments of stability. Not just the future is under the threat of shock (Toffler, 1973) but also the present, and maybe even the past. In the past, communities cultivated their own traditions. Today their identities embed. In an educated and educable world, deconstruction can not be considered a week point. The need to readjust to frequent changes in science and society involves rethinking, reconsidering, and reevaluating the reality.

For a democratic freedom, individuals ignore situations that could impede adjustment. From this attitude derives the lack of scruples and relativism of values. The idols destruction has a strong ontological justification.

A theorist of postmodernism, Vattimo (1993) sustain the idea that is necessary to dissolve the absolute value for allowing the recognition of individual values. Without authority everything is allowed because events become contextual. The lack of value authority leads to the ontological transformation of the objective and subjective world into a huge site for survival. The fight for survival has two faces. On one side, the individual search communalities while on the other side he or she is looking for uniqueness. The swinging between those two faces is a source of happiness.

This is the world we build with democratic freedom. Everything is not forbidden is allowed. Today’s generation ignores the history and focuses on the self. Time lost its three dimensions for them.

Art insert in daily life and focus on appearance are other postmodern challenges. Seriousness is abandoned in favor of happy mood. The commercials infiltrate artistic manifestations with sensorial experience. The culture is created at any social level. It is not just the privilege of a specific class. Noise, movement, images, color, pleasure are meanings of daily leaving. Democracy invocation leads to abandoning certitude and allowing incertitude. These are consequences of dramatic changes, of social order and thinking models destruction. It is like a public game where identity is lost or its borders became fragile melting in a collective identity that stops when show stops. The

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisindividual builds its identity based on public events participation.

Education in the new schoolSchool programs propose knowledge (events,

characters, attitudes) that took place in the past. The student is lead to learn the past for gaining competencies in order to consciously participate in building the present world. He or she learns to be. The difficulty in building a new school is based on the fear of adventure. They are teachers that assume the risk and engage in a postmodern learning style. Practical initiatives come before epistemology. The educational philosophy remain a theory while learning experiences are organized based on critical thinking model, educational alternatives, and constructivist options.

A school with a new paradigm brings its attitudes around educability. The teacher became a supervisor helping students discover and construct knowledge. The educational objectives, methods, strategies, assessment forms are important elements in ensuring learning. The change in student – teacher relation attracts change in the entire school related mentality. A new change in paradigm brings the necessity to change the entire educational system. The entire society should held responsibility for quality in education. A new reality needs a new school.References:ABRIC, JEAN-CLAUDE, Psihologia comunicării. Teorii şi metode, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 2002.CAUNE, JEAN, Cultură şi comunicare. Convergenţe teoretice şi locuri de mediere, Editura Cartea Românească, Bucureşti, 2000.DEWEY, JOHN, Trei scrieri despre educaţie, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1977. GAVRELIUC, ALIN, O călătorie alături de celălalt. Studii de psihologie socială, Editura Universităţii de Vest, Timişoara, 2002.HERLO, DORIN, Didactica, Editura Universităţii Aurel Vlaicu, Arad, 2006.ILICA, ANTON, O Pedagogie modernă, Editura Universităţii Aurel Vlaicu, Arad, 2006.ILICA, ANTON, Filosofia comunicării, Editura Universităţii Aurel Vlaicu, Arad, 2007.ILICA, ANTON, O istorie a gândirii pedagogice. Idei, concepţii, paradigme, Editura Universităţii “Aurel Vlaicu”, Arad, 2009.IONESCU, MIRON, Instrucţie şi educaţie, Editura Universităţii, Arad, 2005. PĂUN, EMIL, POTOLEA, DAN, Pedagogie. Fundamentări teoretice şi demersuri aplicative, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 2002. SIEBERT, HORST, Pedagogie constructivistă, Institutul European, 2001.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Consumer Education by Dolceta European Project

Dorin HERLOAurel Vlaicu University of Arad

Abstract: Between The New Educations we can put now Consumer Education also, taking in consideration the tendencies of our world, to consume more and more without a real education of the children, teenagers, students and adults. DOLCETA (Developing On-Line Consumer Education Tools for Adults at the beginning and now, Online Consumer Education) an EUCEN (European University of Continuing Education Network) project for the Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection (DG SANCO) of the European Commission, with 27 participants (each EU State), has the aims to assist in raising the level of awareness and understanding of European consumer rights in the Member States and to develop interactive web-based tools for consumer education to be used primarily by multipliers: primary schoolteachers, secondary teachers, trainers and adult educators in educational institutions, government bodies with consumer responsibilities, consumer associations etc. and secondly by individual consumers, directly. The Consumer Education Project, having until now four module: Consumer rights, Financial services, Food and Product Safety and Teachers’ corner displayed into the public domain www.dolceta.eu, will be followed by other modules: Sustainable Consumption, Services of General Interest and Financial Literacy until 2010, and all of it with the same goal – to be helpful for consumer education in an interactive way. In the mean time a Teacher’s Kit was done under the DG SANCO financial effort, in all languages of EU Member States, very useful for schoolteachers and for adult education trainers, which will be spreaded in the Secondary Education System, Adult Education Institutions and Universities.

Keywords: New Educations, Consumer Education, www.dolceta.eu, Teacher’s Kit, Secondary Education System, Adult Education Institutions and Universities.

Are you a consumer? Am I a consumer? Live we in a consumer society? For sure, yes! But what is a consumer? A consumer is a person who uses any product or service. But do we know sufficient, how to use a product or to profit by a service? Have we enough confidance in how much do we know about consumerism without any specific preparation? (Webster’s Dictionary defines consumerism as the promotion of the consumer's interests or alternately the theory that an increasing consumption of goods is economically desirable. From the other point of view consumerism are the equation of personal happiness with consumption and the purchase of material possessions). What is the solution? The answer is Consumer education. Consumer education is the preparation of an individual

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisthrough skills, concepts and understanding that are required for everyday living to achieve maximum satisfaction and utilization of his resources. It is part of the formal school curriculum in many places and incorporates knowledge from many disciplines, including but not limited to. Well, consumer education in traditional way? Here could be multiple answers. For the beginners (children, pupils, schoolboys or schoolgirls, students) formal education could be the best way. But is not the single way. Non-formal education is another way and, for sure, informal education covers the third way, taking in consideration only the contribution of media! For a discerning consumer, generally speaking for a learner having knowledge, skills and attitude (competences) in a large range of consumption, the better way is e-learning. In nowadays, people wants to learn quickly for applying in the real life. That’s the way promoted by Dolceta Project, an Online Consumer Education.

The project, devised for the 2006-2010 period of time, is lead at European level by EUCEN – European University Continuing Education Network, represented by project director Pat Davies, in cooperation with EAEA – European Association for Education of Adults, represented by curriculum project manager, Marta Lottes.

From each State member of European Union there are National representative organizations who involve representation from a university, a consumers’ association and an adult education organisation. From Romania the two bodies are Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad and the National Association for Consumer Protection and Promotion of Products and Services of Romania – Bucharest. The team leader and contract holder is normally the university. The team leader, Prof. Dr. Dorin Herlo, is responsible for the budget and administrative arrangements, the management of the team members, and the delivery of the work on time, of high quality, legally accurate and appropriate to the

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Annales Universitatis Apulensistarget group of children, teenagers and adult learners (at level 1, 2 and 3 for module 1 and 2).

The project supposed to produce and disseminate on-line learning material, to provide useful information, to develop various skills, and especially to make people aware of their rights and responsibilities as citizens, in terms of consumers. They can access the materials produced and further info on the site www.dolceta.eu where, for the moment there are four modules: Consumer rights, Financial services, Food and Product Safety and Teachers’ corner. All those modules are in Romanian and are under the noble slogan of informing and training consumers at three levels – basic, developed and profound.

Dolceta, designed for the first period 2006-2008 on 4 modules, is meant to provide consumers with the necessary knowledge, the useful information and the appropriate skills in the field. At the same time, it aims to make people aware of their rights and responsibilities as consumers, as well as to educate them in the fields of product safety and financial services. The project’s plan also involves offering attractive, accessible and interactive on-line learning material to teachers in the primary, secondary, and high school, as well to trainers in adult education in Teacher’s corner.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Modules 1 and 2 have already been completed within the Dolceta project and Romanian team have had to do the translation and adaptation to Romanian laws, regulations, structures and realities for application and to be ready for upload under the European Dolceta site.

Module 1 consists in the topics as: Sales contracts, Price labelling, Safety of products and services, Distance selling, Advertising, the Single market, Settling disputes and Particular issues.

The users could find in this module 80 units, which are designed to help them learn about consumers' rights. There are informative articles, quizzes and examples to help users check their understanding. Links to websites and further reading are included also in the units.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisModule 2 consist in the following articles: Managing a

family budget, Consumer credit, Means of payment, Savings and investments, Mortgages, Running a bank account.

In this module, there are 6 topics split into 67 articles which will enable users to find out and learn how Financial Services work in the Romania and within the EU. Each article contains explanatory notes, practical examples and tests to assess understanding of users. Some internet links are also available in each session to provide further reference.

Each topic from Module 1 and 2 have three levels: basic information, more detailed information and specialised information. The users can choose to reach the units either by an individual topic, or by level or by searching using the keyword search facility.

Modules 3 and 4 was developed by all the partners of Dolceta project in their own manner but taking in consideration a common framework, delivered by an international team (for example, from European team for module 3, took part Assist. Prof. Dr. Dana Radu from Aurel Vlaicu University - UAV).

The main page of Module 3 shows two sections: Product Safety and Keep yourself safe. Inside the section Product Safety for example you find Legal aspects of product safety, How product safety is ensured? Product categories, Dangerous imitations and Sources of help and advice. Each of these sub-sections has other sub-sub-sections and articles. On the site page appear four kinds of contents:

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisnormal articles (the main column of the section page); tips (in the right column of the section page) use of a keyword; more information (in the right column of the section page) use of a keyword; exercises (in the right column of the section page) use of a keyword.

The texts that are presented in the articles have different length and developments. In each section there is a space, with text of presentation of the theme. The majority of the texts, in the articles, were based in our own legislation overlap with European legislation in the subject and written in a clear and synthetic way. If we didn’t found in national legislation some of the articles, we have followed the European legislation. Those texts are thought to not very much literate people in the field and, we hope, are clear and divided into small pieces with an appealing title, and didn’t be boring for the consumer. The texts are followed by quizzes, a very interactive way of self-evaluation.

Module 4 - Support for teachers of consumer education – this means ideas, lesson plans, suggestions of how all our resources (Module 1, 2 and 3) can be used in the classroom with also advice and guidance on other sources of materials for teaching and learning, other websites etc. There are 3 mini-modules included in this module, each targeted at a different group of teachers/trainers: for teachers in primary schools, for teachers in secondary schools, for teachers/trainers of adults with or without literacy problems. Module 4 approach questions regarding the methodology of

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisformation and the educational resources necessary for the formation of the concepts pertaining to consumer education. The educational resources were thoughts as a guide for adult education trainers, for secondary school teachers and for primary schoolteachers. In the mean time, could be very useful tools for the adults, teenagers and pupils for learning and evaluating their self about Consumer rights, Financial services and Food and Product Safety.

In fact, there are five main topics: Introduction to consumer education, Finance management, Safe and healthy consumers, Responsible consumers, Services and a Glossary. Each main topic develop, for three kind of age groups (children, teenagers, adults), two competences through Teaching and learning approaches (with Primary, Secondary and Adult education lessons plan), and Teaching and learning tools. The learners could evaluate their understanding taking quizzes which gives them an overview of their knowledge and skills.

We could mention here that it is a selection of the lessons plan, teaching and learning approaches and teaching and learning tools, from the Teacher’s corner located on the site, that we have had done in Romanian for a printed version under the EC, DG-SANCO with ISBN. The publication, untitled Educaţia consumatorului pas cu pas. Secvenţe de învăţare din Modulul 4 – Dolceta having three authors Dorin Herlo, Alina Roman and Anca Petroi, all of them from Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad, contain a general

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisdescription of consumer education and its competences followed by lessons plan for primary, secondary and adult education.

Until 2010, all National Teams will work on other 3 modules: Sustainable Consumption (Module 5), Services of General Interest (Module 6) and Financial Literacy (Module 7) and all of it with the same goal – to be helpful for consumer education in an interactive way.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Each of the four existing module under the public domain and the next three new modules contain also site map, glossary and links through: National and European portal, User’s guide, Trainer’s handbook and European Consumer Center – Romania branch. Because the variety of topics are so large, we involved members of various specializations such as: consumer rights, consumption, food and product safety, sustainability, finance, management, law, science of education, English and IT. Don’t forget, learn and grow up your understanding in consumer education, clicking on the site www.dolceta.eu.

Enjoy your navigation!

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Le curriculum scolaire centré sur des compétences pour la société postmoderne

Mihai STANCIU (1) Doina STANCIU (2)

(1) Université des Sciences Agricoles et de Médecine Vétérinaire, Département de Formation des Enseignants, Iasi

(2) École « Stefan Barsanescu », Iasi

Résumé: Cet ouvrage pose en évidence quelques éléments d`une démarche didactique postmoderne en ce qui concerne l`effort de modernisation du curriculum scolaire centré sur les compétences. Nous avons proposé une approche systémique- cybernétique du processus de l`éducation (Mihai Stanciu, 1999, 2003). Cette vraie logique de la complexité (Edgar Morin, 1990) peut être valorisée aussi pour l`explication du curriculum scolaire. La logique des compétences s`inscrit dans un mouvement critique de la conception censément dominant, selon laquelle, l`éducation / formation vise essentiellement à la transmission de savoirs collectifs formalisés. (Jean-Paul Bronckart & Joaquim Dolz, 2002, In Dolz J., Ollagnier E., Éds). La définition de la compétence peut se faire dans une manière métaphorique (du transférer de connaissances ou de la mobilisation des ressources du sujet dans un moment donné) (Perrenoud Ph., 2002, In op.cit.). La métaphore de la mobilisation suggère une orchestration, une coordination de ressources multiples et hétérogènes du sujet, une recombinaison permanente de ces ressources (ib.). Le Programme de formation de l`école québécoise (2001) pour l`éducation préscolaire et l`enseignement primaire vise le développement de compétences, réparties en deux catégories: les compétences transversales et les compétences liées aux domaines d`apprentissage. Aussi, notre communication présente les implications du cette perspective sur l`évaluation formative (continue), l`articulation du curriculum scolaire et le component évaluative.

Mots-clés : curriculum, postmodérnité, approche systémique, compétence, évaluation formative (continue).

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisLa didactique postmoderne - le paradigme de

l`escalade de la montagne La postmodernité n`est pas la négation de la

modernité, mais elle propose une phase de déconstruction (<monde morcelé>), qui rejette la vue globale de l`histoire comme progrès ou libération. (Morandi F., p. 38)

Le système scolaire a été comparé avec un grand chantier montagneux (Ph. Favre, 1998). La montagne -avec ses pics grandioses, incite à l`escalade. La montée est une affaire difficile. Les difficultés des trajets imposent une préparation spéciale pour ceux qui veulent essayer leurs forces avec les montées, mais aussi ils ont besoin de guides spécialisés (des professeurs). La route peut être parfois commune, mais l`effort n`est qu`individuel. La mission des professeurs (qui travaillent en équipe) est d`offrir des trajets différenciés et personnalisés. Un vieux proverbe chinois disait : Il faut beaucoup de chemins pour que tout le monde arrive en haut de la montagne. La pédagogie postmoderne découvre l`émergence du sujet, qui ne sépare pas le sujet individuel de ses rôles sociaux. (Pourtois J.-P., Desmet H., 1997, p. 34).

L`approche systémique-cybernétique du processus de l`enseignement

L`approche systémique (AS) consiste dans une méthode d`analyse des objets, des processus et des phénomènes comme un tout entier, formé par des sous-systèmes interdépendants, dans le processus de formation et de manifestation comme des systèmes et des structures fonctionnelles.

Dans ce contexte du discours, les contributions de Edgar Morin sont très importantes. Il a proposé une révolution paradigmatique: au paradigme de disjonction / réduction / uni-dimensionnalisation, il faudrait substituer un paradigme de distinction / conjonction qui permette de distinguer sans disjoindre, d`associer sans identifier ou réduire. (Morin, 1990, p. 23) Ce paradigme comporterait un principe dialogique et translogique, il porterait en lui le principe de l`Unitas multiplex, qui échappe à l`Unité abstraite du haut (holisme) et du bas (réductionnisme). (ib.) La démarche proposée par Morin ne veut pas aller du simple au complexe, mais de la complexité vers toujours plus de complexité. (l`hypercomplexité) (ib., p.51) La complexité est pour Morin un défi, ce n`est pas la réponse ( ib., p. 134). La complexité est la dialogique ordre / désordre / organisation. (ib., p. 137)

Du point de vue cybernétique, l`école peut être considérée comme le tout des composantes organisées et interdépendantes

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisqui assurent sa fonctionnalité interne, pour atteindre des objectifs pédagogiques.

La didactique postmoderne, de manière curriculaire, pose en évidence l`interdépendance de ces trois fonctions de l`enseignement : l`enseignement, l`apprentissage et l`évaluation.

Approche systémique-holistique du curriculumLe curriculum est un concept clé de la pédagogie

contemporaine (J.C. van Bruggen). The International Encyclopedia of Educational Research and Studies (Pergamon Press, London, 1985) définit le curriculum comme un ensemble qui réunit les expériences d’instruction des élèves (p. 1145), toutes les expériences qu’a un élève sous l’égide de l’école (1169). Encyclopedia of Educational Research (1960) définit le curriculum comme la totalité des expériences que l’élève a sous la direction de l’école (p. 360).

Dans la pédagogie contemporaine la didactique a été interprétée comme une théorie du curriculum. Tyler, D’Hainaut, Văideanu et Rassekh, V. De Landsheere ont en vue la multitude des composantes du processus d’enseignement, leur articulation dans la perspective de réaliser les finalités éducationnelles. La théorie du curriculum prend en considération le processus éducatif, les événements qui se passent en classe…elle accorde une attention particulière à l`étude et à la mise en valeur des interactions entre les composantes de ce processus: objectifs, contenus, méthodes d`apprentissage, moyens didactiques, formes d`organisation de l`apprentissage, méthodes et techniques d` évaluation. (Rassekh S., Văideanu G., 1987, p. 136).

Les objectifs éducationnels constituent le point de départ qui déclenche une véritable réaction de type circulaire dans le cadre du curriculum: en fonction des objectifs du processus d’enseignement-apprentissage, on sélectionne et on organise les contenus, on choisit les stratégies didactiques, on projette des formes d’organisation, des méthodes et des techniques d’évaluation. L’évaluation constitue la composante et la fonction du processus d’enseignement qui clôt cette réaction circulaire et nous donne la mesure de l’efficience du processus. On ne perd pas de vue l’éduqué avec ses besoins et ses intérêts.

La compétence ou la métaphore de la mobilisation de ressources du sujet

La logique des compétences a envahi le champ d`éducation depuis une décennie et s`inscrit dans un mouvement critique de la conception censément dominant selon laquelle l`éducation /

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisformation vise essentiellement à la transmission de savoirs collectifs formalisés. (Jean-Paul Bronckart & Joaquim Dolz, 2002, p. 27 In Dolz J., Ollagnier E., Éds)

Ils sont connus beaucoup des définitions de la compétence (ib., p. 34 ; DEEF, p. 181). De Ketele (1996) définit la compétence comme un ensemble ordonné de capacités (activités) qui s`exercent sur des contenus dans une catégorie donnée de situations pour résoudre des problèmes posés par celles-ci (apud Roegiers X., 2001, p. 65). Cette définition explicite les trois composantes de la compétence : contenu, capacité et situation.

Compétence = (capacités X contenu) X situations

= objectifs spécifiques X situations

L`apprentissage est à la fois un processus divergent, au niveau des capacités, et convergent, au niveau des compétences. (Roegies, p. 71). Chaque croissement d`une capacité et d`un contenu est un objectif spécifique (ib.).

Les caractéristiques d`une compétence sont les suivantes (ib., pp. 68-70):

a) mobilisation d`un ensemble de ressources ;b) caractère finalisé ;c) lien à une famille de situations ;d) caractère souvent disciplinaire ;e) évaluabilité. La définition de la compétence peut être réalisée dans une

manière métaphorique (du transférer de connaissances ou celle de la mobilisation de ressources du sujet dans un moment donnée) (Perrenoud Ph., 2002, In Dolz J., Ollagnier E., Éds op.cit., p. 45). La métaphore de la mobilisation met l`accent sur l`activité du sujet, qui conduit un ensemble d`opérations mentales complexes, en les connectant aux situations, transforment les connaissance plutôt qu`elles ne les déplacent. (ib., p. 46) Le Boterf (1994) propose ce nouveau paradigme. La compétence ne réside pas dans les ressources (connaissances, capacités […] à mobiliser mais dans la mobilisation même des ces ressources. La compétence est de l`ordre du savoir mobiliser. (Le Boterf, 1994, p. 16, cf. 54) La métaphore de la mobilisation suggère une orchestration, une coordination de ressources multiples et hétérogènes du sujet, une recombinaison permanente de ces ressources (Perrenoud Ph., 2002, op.cit., p. 56). La mobilisation n`a rien de magique, c`est un travail de l`esprit. (ib, p. 57).

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisCe nouveau paradigme laisse de nombreux problèmes ouverts

(ib., pp. 57-58). Cette alchimie de la mobilisation de ressources cognitives reste encore une terra incognita (Le Boterf, 1994, p. 43).

Allal propose un réseau des composantes (dimensiones) qui interviennent dans une compétence : cognitives, affectives, sociales et sensori-motrices (ib., p. 13, 80-82).

Une compétence se construit toujours par un apprentissage <en situation> ce qui implique l`appropriation non seulement de savoirs et savoir-faire, mais aussi de modes d`interaction et d`outils valorisés dans le contexte en question. (Allal, pp. 81-82) La mise en route d`une compétence est possible seulement si les connaissances déclaratives (savoirs), procédurales (savoirs-faire) et conditionnelles sont organisées, hiérarchisées et intégrées en orchestrant ces ressources dans une manière synergique dans des diverses situations pratiques.

Composantes d`une compétenceComposantes cognitives :

Connaissances Déclaratives- les règles, les faites, les lois, les

principes (savoirs) ; Procédurales (savoirs-faire) concernent les

étapes qu`il faut mener pour accomplir une action. (Boisvert, 1999, p. 61);

Conditionnelles (contextuelles) concernant le quand, le pourquoi, quand utiliser telle stratégie, telle ou telle démarche, d`engager telle ou telle action. (M.A. Broyon, 2001). C`est la catégorie de connaissance la plus négligée, en milieu scolaire (Boisvert, 1999), alors que ces connaissances sont responsables du transfert des apprentissages (Tardif, 1992).

Métaconnaissances et régulations métacognitives.

Composantes affectives :Attitudes, motivations …Composantes sociales :Interactions, concertations…Composantes sensoriomotrices :Coordination gestuelle…

Tabel 1 : Composantes d`une compétence (Allal)

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisEtude de cas : Canada – Le curriculum scolaire pour

l’enseignement préscolaire et primaire centré sur les compétences

Comme d'autres pays, le Canada a continué l'effort de synchronisation du système d'enseignement avec les exigences d'une société qui connaît un processus de changements d'une grande complexité. En ce sens, s’y inscrit le rapport Préparer les jeunes au 21e siècle (1994), qui a mis en évidence les grandes tendances qu’il faudra prendre en compte: l'internationalisation, la mondialisation, l'explosion des connaissances, le développement accéléré des technologies et la complexité de la vie en société. Le rapport cherche à définir les compétences générales pour l'enseignement primaire et secondaire.

Une commission d'Etat a établi un rapport sur la réforme du curriculum scolaire canadien Réaffirmer l'école (1997), qui a fondé, à son tour, un document de politique éducationnelle intitulé L'école, tout un programme (1997). Les finalités du système d’enseignement concernent les coordonnées suivantes: la réussite pour tous sans baisse du niveau d’exigence, une formation centrée sur les éléments essentiels, une diversification des parcours scolaires (en particulier dans le cycle secondaire), une organisation de l'école plus souple en accord avec les particularités du développement psychologique des apprenants, dans le respect de l'autonomie institutionnelle des écoles et des enseignants.

Le Programme de formation de l'école québécoise (2001) est le document ministériel qui matérialise cette nouvelle politique éducationnelle de réforme de l'éducation préscolaire et de l’enseignement primaire au Canada. La mission de l'école s'articule autour de trois axes:

a) Instruire, avec une volonté réaffirmée. Même si l'école ne constitue pas le seul lieu d’apprentissage, elle joue un rôle irremplaçable dans la formation intellectuelle de chaque élève.

b) Socialiser, pour apprendre à mieux vivre ensemble. L'école doit préparer les jeunes en tant que futurs citoyens responsables, en diminuant le risque d'exclusion sociale.

c) Qualifier, selon des voies diverses. L'école a le devoir d’assurer la réussite de tous les élèves et leur insertion sociale et professionnelle. À cette fin, le Ministère de l'Education a élaboré un curriculum national de base, qui assure aux écoles une grande marge de liberté d'action pour la conception de parcours scolaires différenciés et individualisés.

Les orientations de base du Programme de formation assurent la continuité du processus de réforme, mais abordent la

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisproblématique complexe du processus d’enseignement dans une nouvelle perspective:

Des connaissances disciplinaires intégrées au développement d’habiletés intellectuelles complexes propres à une société fondée sur la connaissance. L'accent devra être mis sur le développement des processus mentaux nécessaires à l’assimilation des savoirs, à leur utilisation dans la vie réelle et à leur réinvestissement dans des apprentissages ultérieurs.

Des apprentissages fondamentaux et fonctionnels, qui donnent un sens et une portée aux savoirs développés en contexte scolaire.

Des apprentissages qualifiants et différenciés, afin de permettre à chaque élève d’avoir un parcours scolaire efficace qui valorise au mieux le potentiel dont celui-ci dispose.

Des apprentissages actuels et culturellement ancrés, par lesquels est réaffirmée la dimension culturelle de l'école, de chaque discipline séparément.

Le Programme de formation de l’école québécoise se caractérise par le choix de développer des compétences et par l’attention particulière portée à la démarche d’apprentissage. Le fait d’être axé sur les compétences se justifie par le souci de développer des habiletés complexes, qui permettent une meilleure adaptation aux changements du milieu socio-économique et culturel. Le concept de compétence est défini dans ce document comme un savoir-agir fondé sur la mobilisation et l’utilisation efficace d’un ensemble de ressources dont un individu dispose à un moment donné.

De même, le programme de formation est basé sur une conception de l'apprentissage d’inspiration constructiviste, selon laquelle l’élève est le premier artisan de ce processus complexe.

Le document envisagé met en évidence les incidences du programme axé sur le développement des compétences :

a) Favoriser le décloisonnement disciplinaire, afin d’aider l’élève à mieux saisir et intégrer les liens entre les diverses occasions d’apprentissages. Les disciplines ont été regroupées en cinq grands domaines d’apprentissage : les langues, la mathématique, la science et la technologie, les arts, l’univers social, le développement personnel. Dans cette perspective, l’école est appelée à développer les compétences transversales, qui ignorent les frontières disciplinaires et dont le champ d’application s’élargit progressivement.

b) Structurer l’organisation scolaire en fonction de cycles d’apprentissage de deux ans

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisDe la sorte, l’enseignement est organisé en trois cycles de

deux ans afin d’assurer l’intervalle nécessaire au développement des compétences, favoriser un apprentissage différencié et promouvoir le travail en équipe des enseignants.

c) Adapter l’évaluation des apprentissages aux visées du programme

L’évaluation faisant partie de la démarche d’apprentissage, il faudra mettre l’accent sur l’évaluation du type formatif tout au long du cycle, sur la participation active de l’élève à la démarche évaluative. Il ne faut pas négliger une évaluation sommative, y compris le bilan à la fin du cycle, tout en diversifiant les méthodes et les outils d’évaluation, en communiquant aussi aux parents les résultats obtenus par les élèves.

d) Reconnaître le caractère professionnel de l’enseignement

La nouvelle approche du programme d’étude implique une vision renouvelée du rôle des enseignants : médiateur entre les élèves et le savoir, facteur stimulant la motivation de l'apprentissage, professionnel du domaine, il encourage l’élève à exploiter son potentiel créatif, en valorisant au maximum les ressources dont il dispose etc.

e) Faire de la classe et de l’école une communauté d’apprentissage

Atteindre ces objectifs exige un effort d’équipe dans le cadre de chaque école, le partenariat entre tous les acteurs impliqués dans le processus complexe de façonnage de l’humain.

Nous allons ensuite insister sur les compétences transversales du Programme de formation de l’école québécoise, à l’aide d’un tableau.

Compétences transversales

Ordres de compétences

Types de compétences

Compétences d’ordre intellectuel

Exploiter l’informationRésoudre des

problèmesExercer son jugement

critiqueMettre en œuvre sa

pensée créatriceCompétences d’ordre

méthodologiqueSe donner des

méthodes de travail efficaces

Exploiter les TICs

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisCompétences d’ordre

personnel et socialStructurer son identité Coopérer

Compétences de l’ordre de la communication

Communiquer de façon appropriée

Gouvernement du Québec , 2006, Ministère de l’Éducation, Programme de formation de l’école québécoise. Version

approuvée, Bibliothèque nationale du Québec

CONCLUSIONSa) L’action de réformation du curriculum scolaire roumain axé

sur les compétences doit mettre en œuvre les compétences clés établies par l’UE (2006), ainsi que les expériences des systèmes éducatifs des pays développés.

b) Le curriculum scolaire roumain devrait être conçu sur la base d'un ensemble de compétences, y compris l'éducation préscolaire. Le curriculum formel devrait inclure les compétences transversales (transdisciplinaires), les compétences générales et les compétences spécifiques. De ce point de vue, nous considérons que les programmes scolaires actuels pour l'enseignement lycéal sont plus proches de la vision moderne du curriculum scolaire.

c) Une telle perspective centrée sur les compétences sera en accord avec les exigences de la société postmoderne d’accentuer le caractère formatif de l’apprentissage, qui vise la valorisation de l'énorme potentiel de la pensée, de l'imagination et de la créativité des jeunes.

d) Une démarche didactique axée sur l'apprenant privilégiera les stratégies modernes d'enseignement et d'apprentissage pour développer les compétences clés propres à la société postmoderne.

e) De même, le processus d'évaluation devra être axé sur les compétences, en insistant sur le type d'évaluation formative, ainsi que les méthodes et les outils utilisés à cet égard (Ge. Scalon, 2004).

BIBLIOGRAPHIEDOLZ, JOAQUIM, OLLAGNIER , ÉDM É, Éds., 2002, L`énigme de la compétence en éducation, Bruxelles, De Boeck Université .MORANDI, FRANC, 2000, Philosophie de l`éducation, Paris, Nathan.MORIN, EDGAR, 1990, Introduction à la pensée complexe, Paris : ESF .POURTOIS, JEAN-PIERRE, DESMET, HUGUETTE, 1997 (3e edition 2002), L`éducation postmoderne, Paris, PUF.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisRASSEKH, SHAPOUR, VAIDEANU, GEORGE, 1987, Les contenus de l'éducation, Paris, UNESCO.ROEGIERS, XAVIER, 2001, Une pédagogie de l`intégration. Compétences et intégration des acquis dans l`enseignement, Bruxelles, De Boeck.STANCIU, MIHAI, 1999, Reforma conţinuturilor invăţământului, Iaşi,  Editura Polirom.STANCIU, MIHAI, 2003, Didactica postmodernă , Suceava, Editura Universităţii.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

MISCELANAEA

La formazione continua del personale nelle Università italiane.

I risultati di una ricerca.

Prof. Dr Franco BOCHICCHIOUniversità del Salento (Lecce, Italy)

Abstract:The study documented in a revised and detailed form, the results of a research

training conducted in 2008 by Italian universities, public and private, for the administrative staff. The research was coordinated by me and live, in my role as Director of the Interuniversity Consortium on Education (CO.IN.FO.). The research findings are incorporated into national XII Report on training in Public Administration and have been submitted to the Italian Parliament. The research was coordinated by myself and live in my current capacity as Director of the Interuniversity Consortium on Education (CO.IN.FO.). The results of this research led to the XII National Report on the training in Public Administration have been recently submitted to the Italian Parliament.

La ricerca sulla formazione del personale nel settore pubblico

La Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, attraverso il Ministero della Funzione Pubblica, uno dei Ministeri del Governo Italiano deputato all’organizzazione e all’innovazione delle amministrazioni pubbliche, da dodici anni pubblica un Rapporto annuale sulla formazione nella Pubblica Amministrazione, che viene presentato al Parlamento italiano e agli operatori della formazione.

Il Rapporto, ha una rilevanza nazionale perché rappresenta un riferimento strategico di osservazione e di misurazione delle attività formative realizzate a tutti i livelli di Governo del Paese. Il Rapporto è perciò l’unico riferimento istituzionale esistente in Italia sulla formazione nel settore

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Annales Universitatis Apulensispubblico, base di conoscenza per i soggetti istituzionali e per gli attori della formazione pubblica.

I Rapporti annuali sono coordinati e curati dall’Osservatorio nazionale sui bisogni formativi della Scuola Superiore della Pubblica Amministrazione, che è un Ufficio alle dipendenze della Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri. Il Rapporto raccoglie tutti i dati sulla formazione realizzata a favore dei dipendenti pubblici nelle Amministrazioni Centrali dello Stato (Ministeri), nelle Amministrazioni periferiche (Regioni, Province e Comuni) ed in altre Amministrazioni come le Camere di Commercio e le Università.

Peculiarità della formazione nel sistema universitario italiano

Nel sistema universitario, la formazione del personale tecnico-amministrativo è un processo che si è andato affermando a partire dalla fine degli anni ’80, con una diffusione a macchia di leopardo rispetto alla localizzazione geografica degli Atenei sul territorio nazionale. Il processo ha preso avvio da alcune emergenze che erano in parte dettate dalla necessità di adeguare gli assetti organizzativi al mutato quadro, in parte riflesso di mutamenti esterni al sistema universitario.

Tra le cause esterne che hanno dato un forte impulso alla formazione del personale nel sistema universitario in modo continuativo, le nuove tecnologie informatiche hanno avuto un ruolo predominante, determinando modificazioni irreversibili nell’organizzazione del lavoro degli Uffici. Le cause interne sono state il riflesso dell’attuazione del processo di autonomia universitaria che, unitamente alla sperimentazione dipartimentale e al decentramento dei compiti dal Ministero dell’Università e della Ricerca (MIUR) alle Università hanno prodotto modificazioni negli assetti organizzativi interni, determinando l’urgenza di adeguare le competenze del personale ai nuovi compiti spettanti alle Università1. 1 Cfr. AA.VV., La formazione del personale tecnico-amministrativo dell’Università: esperienze e problemi emergenti, Atti del I Convegno Nazionale sulla formazione (Università degli Studi di Torino, 25-26 giugno 1991) Celid, Torino, 1992. Il volume documenta il quadro dei problemi agli albori della formazione nel sistema universitario. È

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisNel sistema universitario la formazione ha preceduto, per

certi versi anticipandola, ciò che nella pubblica amministrazione è considerata la genesi che ha dato avvio alla formazione dei pubblici dipendenti in modo sistematico, fino allora caratterizzata da iniziative episodiche ed occasionali. Il riferimento è alle due Direttive del Ministero della Funzione Pubblica in materia di formazione e di valorizzazione dei pubblici dipendenti (1996 e 2001), accompagnate da disposizioni più organiche e incisive in materia di formazione richiamate anche nei Contratti Collettivi Nazionali di Lavoro (CCNL).

Alla fine degli anni ‘80 in alcune Università operavano i referenti interni della formazione (che sono chiamati gestori o esperti dei processi formativi). Questi soggetti erano funzionari prevalentemente inquadrati nell’area amministrativo-contabile, spontaneamente chiamati ad occuparsi di formazione senza disporre di alcuna specifica competenza in materia.

Agli inizi degli anni ’90, su esplicita richiesta delle Università, la Scuola Superiore della Pubblica Amministrazione, organo della Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, si è fatta carico di formare questi soggetti con l’obiettivo di realizzare nelle rispettive sedi un sistema di governance permanente della formazione1. Tre anni più tardi, la presenza negli Atenei di una comunità professionale di referenti della formazione ha positivamente contribuito nel dare impulso alla nascita di un Consorzio di Università in materia di formazione permanente del personale tecnico-amministrativo.

Nell’ultimo decennio del secolo scorso la formazione nelle Università si è configurata soprattutto come risposta al cambiamento a fronte dei mutati scenari interni ed esterni al sistema, determinando l’urgenza di migliorare/adeguare le stato il primo dei successivi dodici Convegni nazionali sulla formazione promossi dal Consorzio Interuniversitario sulla Formazione (CO.IN.FO.) che sono diventati un appuntamento ormai ricorrente.1 Fino ad allora la Scuola Superiore della Pubblica Amministrazione aveva organizzato corsi di formazione per formatori rivolti esclusivamente a funzionari delle Amministrazioni Centrali dello Stato. Si deve alla sensibilità del Prof. Giuseppe Contini (a quel tempo docente stabile della Scuola e referente per i rapporti con le Università) il fatto che la Scuola per la prima volta ha ammesso alla frequenza anche i dipendenti delle Università.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiscompetenze del personale: dagli amministrativi ai tecnici ai bibliotecari di tutte le qualifiche. Un processo che non è stato interpretato come semplice adempimento ad una norma, ma come strumento per affrontare i problemi e, in alcuni casi, anche per anticiparne l’insorgere1.

Nella pubblica amministrazione gli indirizzi del legislatore in materia di formazione sono stati complessivamente applicati con grande ritardo, come esplicitamente denunciato nelle citate Direttive del Ministero della Funzione Pubblica. Una situazione che si verifica soprattutto quando la loro applicazione richiede - in modo implicito - di introdurre nel contesto innovazioni non soltanto organizzative ma anche culturali, come talvolta implicitamente prevede questa particolare materia.

Il ritardo nell’applicazione di norme o atti di indirizzo che attengono la formazione, spesso dipendono dalle difficoltà che si incontrano nel superare ostacoli di tipo culturale, che si manifestano sotto forma di resistenze interne al cambiamento, tendenti al mantenimento dello status quo e indifferenti ai mutamenti che avvengono nella realtà.

La decisione di fare o non fare formazione, quindi non va riduttivamente interpretata come assenza di una volontà/capacità degli amministratori. Spesso è l’esito di una complessa mediazione interna, affatto semplice, che coinvolge gli attori sociali ai diversi livelli2. Fattori che possono contribuire a spiegare le differenze quantitative e qualitative che si registrano tra le Università, evidenziate in questi Rapporti, circa il numero di iniziative di formazione organizzate, gli investimenti stanziati e le modalità prescelte.

La formazione nel sistema universitario ha inoltre dovuto confrontarsi con questioni che riguardano l’offerta e la domanda di formazione. In passato la formazione veniva 1 Cfr. È quanto emerso dai lavori di un successivo Convegno nazionale pubblicato nel volume: AA.VV., Valutazione della formazione e riflessi sul cambiamento organizzativo nelle Università, Atti del VII Convegno Nazionale sulla formazione (Università degli Studi di Bari, 18-20 novembre 1998) Celid, Torino, 2000.2 Una situazione distintamente emersa nella metà degli anni ’90 in occasione dei lavori di un Convegno organizzato a Firenze. Cfr. AA.VV., Il cambiamento in atto nelle Università: il ruolo della formazione, Atti del IV Convegno Nazionale sulla formazione (Università degli Studi di Firenze, 13-14 ottobre 1994) Celid, Torino, 1996.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisrealizzata in assenza di contropartite economiche e, come si è detto in precedenza, per affrontare e risolvere criticità emergenti. A modificare questa situazione sono intervenuti i CCNL di comparto, stabilendo che i processi di mobilità interni (orizzontali e verticali) prevedono la frequenza del personale a corsi di formazione obbligatori: una forzatura che ha avuto il merito di incrementare ulteriormente l’offerta.

I processi di mobilità hanno favorito la frequenza di personale inquadrato in categorie tradizionalmente meno coinvolte nelle attività di formazione organizzate centralmente dalle amministrazioni. Esperienze dove individui (anche alla soglia del pensionamento) hanno frequentato corsi di formazione spesso per la prima volta. Attività formative la cui valenza culturale è consistita principalmente nell’apprendere argomenti apparentemente più distanti alla mansione ricoperta, ma di fondamentale importanza sia per l’allargamento del loro orizzonte cognitivo sia per acquisire un maggiore senso di consapevolezza sul senso e sul significato dell’apporto individuale al risultato complessivo dell’organizzazione.

Relativamente alla formazione della domanda, anche se non sono mancate positive sperimentazioni condotte presso alcune Università2 è finora sostanzialmente assente un modello condiviso per la rilevazione dei bisogni di formazione all’interno di un contesto sociale complesso come l’Università3. Una situazione che può avere negativamente influenzato anche il livello di consapevolezza circa la presenza di un bisogno e il collaterale interesse verso il suo soddisfacimento. In alcuni casi la domanda di formazione si è operativamente tradotta nello scegliere la formazione a catalogo più vicina alle proprie esigenze, tra le proposte presenti nel vasto mercato dell’offerta, mentre in

2 Tra le pratiche di analisi dei bisogni realizzate nelle Università si rinvia al volume F. BOCHICCHIO, C. CICCARELLI, F. GRASSI, Analisi dei bisogni di formazione del personale tecnico-amministrativo dell’Università di Bari, Celid, Torino, 2002. Inoltre al volume dei medesimi autori insieme a F. SCARPELLI, Analisi dei bisogni di formazione del personale tecnico-amministrativo dell’Università della Calabria, Celid, Torino, 2003.3 Si rinvia il lettore al X Rapporto nazionale che documenta la presenza di approcci metodologici frammentati in una molteplicità di direzioni e di strumenti per l’indagine.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisaltri casi è stata direttamente suggerita dal superiore gerarchico.

Indipendentemente dal ruolo ricoperto, le risorse umane non sono parti di ricambio che operano all’interno di meccanismi organizzativi predeterminati. In via generale, nell’attuale realtà i compiti sono divenuti più impegnativi e complessi, ed anche quelli che in passato venivano considerati meramente esecutivi oggi prevedono l’interazione con sistemi tecnologici e procedurali che richiedono adeguate abilità nel trattamento delle informazioni. La capacità di governare e valorizzare le risorse umane attraverso la formazione è così divenuto il paradigma di riferimento per assicurare la sopravvivenza e lo sviluppo anche delle Università.

Le Università che hanno partecipato all’indagineHanno partecipato a questa indagine ben 37 Atenei su

72. Tra questi, è presente un solo Ateneo non statale. Dal punto di vista della distribuzione geografica delle Università che hanno partecipato all’indagine, dalla tabella 1 si osserva che il trend ha registrato una lieve diminuzione degli Atenei del nord, compensata da una maggiore partecipazione delle sedi del sud e isole, mentre per le sedi del centro il trend conferma una situazione di relativa tenuta con la presenza di circa un terzo delle sedi. Il dato è significativo perché il trend registrato negli anni 2006-2007 - che trovava riscontro già nel 2005 - trova conferma anche nel 2008, ancorché in presenza di un numero di Atenei rispondenti inferiore di circa il 40% rispetto al 2007.

Tabella 1 – Distribuzione territoriale degli Atenei che hanno partecipato all’indagine negli ultimi tre anni.

Posizione geografica

Anno 2006

% rispettoall’indagin

e

Anno 2007

% rispettoall’indagin

e

Anno 2008

% rispettoall’indagin

e Nord 44.4 41,7 38,0Centro 30,2 30,0 27,0Sud e isole 25,4 28,3 35,0Totale

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis100,0 100,0 100,0

I dati illustrati nella tabella 1 sono tuttavia parzialmente significativi, perché un’interpretazione esaustiva richiederebbe di confrontare tali dati con quelli riferiti al personale tecnico-amministrativo in servizio presso le sedi delle Università che hanno risposto all’indagine. In base alle più recenti informazioni pubblicate dall’Ufficio di Statistica del MIUR (che riguardano l’anno 2007) gli Atenei che hanno risposto all’indagine hanno una copertura del 58% del personale tecnico-amministrativo complessivamente in servizio a quella data, la cui distribuzione geografica è più omogenea rispetto a quella indicata nella tabella 1 (nord 36%, centro 34%, sud e isole 30%).

La partecipazione alla formazioneLa formazione nel 2008 è stata molto partecipata, con un

incremento delle presenze del 59,1%% rispetto all’anno precedente. In particolare, si è registrata una media di 121,6 partecipazioni su 100 dipendenti, contro le 80,5 partecipazioni del 2007 e le 91,0 partecipazioni del 2006. In valori assoluti le partecipazioni alle attività di formazione sono state 35.210 a fronte di oltre 64.000 ore di formazione erogate (tabella 2).

Tabella 2 - Partecipazioni alle attività di formazione nel 2008

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

L’incremento potrebbe in parte essere giustificato dalle attività di formazione obbligatorie in attuazione dei processi di mobilità interni previsti dai CCNL, alle quali generalmente partecipano numerosi partecipanti.

In tutti i casi, il sensibile aumento della partecipazione ai corsi registrato nel 2008 rispetto agli anni precedenti va positivamente salutato, anche se per assicurare un’offerta formativa in grado di garantire - a rotazione - l’accesso a tutti i dipendenti, ancorché nel medio periodo (secondo quanto contenuto nel testo dei CCNL), in prospettiva richiede di incrementare maggiormente l’offerta.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisDal confronto tra le Università sulla partecipazione ai

corsi, emergono differenze significative, che per Atenei di analoghe dimensioni (rispetto al numero di dipendenti) variano tra 9,5 e 102,8. Escludendo tale criterio, le differenze registrate sono ancora più marcate, con punte del 290,1. Le oscillazioni potrebbero essere imputabili al fatto che i processi di mobilità non vengono realizzati dagli Atenei con i medesimi tempi. Un’ipotesi che trova conferma dalle variazioni dei trend, su base annua, che gli Atenei singolarmente considerati registrano.

Le ore di formazione erogate nel 2008 sono state complessivamente 63.777. Con il termine ore erogate si intende la somma della durata in ore di ogni corso moltiplicata per il numero di edizioni svolte; un indicatore il cui scopo consiste sostanzialmente nel misurare la produttività nella realizzazione della formazione. La media pro capite di ore di formazione erogate nel 2008 è stata di 2,0, mentre nel 2007 era di 1,9 e nel 2006 era di 2,1. Il trend osservato nell’ultimo triennio si mantiene stabile, ed inoltre non presenta variazioni di rilievo rispetto ai valori complessivamente registrati in altri comparti del pubblico impiego che hanno una dimensione confrontabile con il sistema universitario.

Rispetto ai precedenti Rapporti, l’indagine di quest’anno non permetteva di distinguere i corsi di formazione in senso stretto dai convegni e dalle conferenze.

Le ore di formazione complessivamente fruite nel 2008 sono state 585.364 (tabella 3). Il valore esprime la somma della durata in ore di ogni corso moltiplicata per il numero di coloro che vi hanno partecipato.

Tabella 3 - Ore di formazione fruite nel 2008.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Il valore delle ore complessivamente fruite rapportato al totale delle partecipazioni, permette di ricavare il numero medio di ore fruite per partecipante. Nel 2008 il valore medio complessivo è stato di 16,6 ore, per cui il personale tecnico-amministrativo è stato mediamente impegnato in attività formative per circa due giorni lavorativi all’anno (calcolando che una giornata di formazione in genere è pari a 7 ore).

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisUn dato che fa riflettere pensando che la rapida

obsolescenza delle conoscenze sembra richiedere agli operatori un impegno per la formazione e l’aggiornamento ben superiore ai valori registrati; Va tuttavia osservato che l’effettiva possibilità per i soggetti di dedicare maggiore tempo per formarsi nella realtà è ostacolata dall’assenza di risorse, sia finanziarie sia umane, che rende sempre più oneroso allontanarsi dal posto di lavoro anche per brevi periodi. Considerazioni che trovano conferma anche osservando il trend discendente registrato nell’ultimo triennio (tabella 4), che documenta l’entità della contrazione.

Tabella 4 – Numero medio di ore fruite per partecipante e per anno di riferimento.

Anno 2006 Anno 2007 Anno 2008

Ore fruite in media per partecipante

20,9 22,3 16,6

Relativamente ai corsi organizzati, al numero delle edizioni e alla loro durata media, come è stato in precedenza ricordato, diversamente dai precedenti Rapporti dove l’indagine distingueva opportunamente tra attività formative in senso stretto, convegni e conferenze (aggregando questi ultimi sotto la voce altre attività), quest’anno le iniziative sono state convenzionalmente accorpate nella dizione corsi.

Dal punto di vista didattico-pedagogico la suddetta distinzione è importante, perché indipendentemente dal livello di apprendimento, a ciascuna tipologia corrispondono un diverso grado di intenzionalità, di formalità, di progettualità e di valutatività.

Anche se in questa sede non è possibile confrontare con i precedenti Rapporti i dati in valori assoluti, sembra lecito ipotizzare che nel sistema universitario il 2008 ha visto un aumento del numero dei corsi organizzati rispetto ai precedenti anni. A sostenere tale ipotesi basti pensare che nel 2008 le 37 Università rispondenti, da sole, hanno complessivamente organizzato 2.363 corsi (tabella 5),

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Annales Universitatis Apulensismentre nel 2007 le 60 Università partecipanti all’indagine avevano nell’insieme organizzato 3.607 corsi e, nel 2006, il numero di corsi organizzati dalle 63 Università che avevano partecipato all’indagine era stato pari a 3.565.

Tabella 5 - Corsi, edizioni e durata media nel 2008.

Dalla tabella 5 si osserva inoltre che il 2008 ha registrato un significativo grado di dispersione delle attività formative, correlatosi alla diversificazione degli obiettivi e dei contenuti di apprendimento. Se per i convegni e le conferenze il dato potrebbe essere giustificato, per i corsi di formazione in senso stretto potrebbe indurre a sospettare l’assenza di azioni formative di ampio respiro che, diversamente dagli

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisinterventi formativi episodici e occasionali, si distinguono per la disseminazione dell’apprendimento ad un consistente numero di personale, mediante la ripetizione del medesimo corso per gruppi più o meno numerosi di partecipanti. Questo dato potrebbe altresì significare che la formazione organizzata nel 2008 ha privilegiato il trasferimento di conoscenze e abilità tecnico-professionali (di mestiere) anziché le abilità trasversali. L’ipotesi è avvalorata osservando le differenze tra il numero totale dei corsi organizzati e il numero delle edizioni, la cui media è pari a 1,3.

L’anno passato la durata media dei corsi ha subito una contrazione di circa il 20%, passando dal 25,2 del 2007 al 20,7 del 2008. La presenza di durate medie particolarmente elevate registrate in alcuni Atenei potrebbe essere dovuta alla presenza di corsi di durata più lunga, come ad esempio i Master di formazione professionale. Il valore registrato non significa, necessariamente, una contrazione nella durata per i corsi lunghi e professionalizzanti, ma semplicemente che, accanto a questi ultimi, sono stati organizzati un maggior numero di eventi di durata più breve. Eventi formativi che sono caratteristici della formazione destinata ai funzionari e altre categorie di personale, che quest’anno hanno registrato un incremento di partecipazioni rispetto agli anni precedenti. Inoltre, la contrazione della durata media dei corsi potrebbe essere conseguenza di altri fattori. Ad esempio, una conseguenza del riposizionamento dell’offerta rispetto alle maggiori difficoltà del personale di assentarsi dal posto di lavoro, oppure una strategia volta a favorire una maggiore diversificazione dell’offerta formativa.

La partecipazione alla formazione per fasce di qualifica e per distribuzione all’interno della categoria di appartenenza (dirigenti, funzionari, altri) evidenzia quali destinatari, tra il personale dipendente, sono maggiormente (o prevalentemente) coinvolti nelle attività formative. Dall’analisi dei dati si conferma che nel 2008 la formazione ha riguardato una fascia piuttosto ampia di dipendenti, coinvolgendo il personale di tutte le qualifiche (tabella 6) con una significativa presenza di personale inquadrato nei livelli medio-bassi della gerarchia.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisLe ragioni di questa situazione potrebbero essere

rintracciate nelle peculiarità della formazione nel sistema universitario, che ha erogato i maggiori volumi di formazione per il personale di livello impiegatizio.

Tabella 6 – Partecipazioni alle attività di formazione. Composizione per qualifica (valori %)

Anno 2008

Dirigenti 1,2Funzionari 40,4Altri 58,4

Per favorire il raffronto fra le posizioni professionali interessate dalla formazione occorre comunque rapportare il peso di ciascuna qualifica al totale delle partecipazioni, allargando l’osservazione agli ultimi quattro anni (tabella 7).

Tabella 7 – Tasso di partecipazione per qualifica (valori %)Anno 2004 Anno 2006 Anno 2008

Dirigenti 1,1 0,9 1,2Funzionari 40,5 34,3 40,4Altri 58,4 64,8 58,4

Nel 2008 il tasso di partecipazione dei dirigenti alle attività formative (1,2) ha registrato un incremento di lieve entità rispetto al 2006, con valori che restano complessivamente invariati anche allargando l’osservazione all’ultimo quadriennio. La crescita percentualmente più consistente della partecipazione dei funzionari alle attività formative conferma l’interesse delle amministrazioni universitarie verso la formazione dei quadri intermedi. La voce altri, che accorpa le restanti qualifiche del personale, cui corrispondono tipologie di formazione orientate soprattutto all’addestramento, pur mantenendosi su livelli più elevati rispetto alle altre qualifiche, nel 2008 registra una flessione di oltre sei punti percentuali, compensata dall’aumento dei funzionari. La formazione sembrerebbe affrancarsi da istanze addestrative e/o di alfabetizzazione che in passato hanno viceversa prevalso.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisNel sistema universitario il livello di copertura dell’offerta

formativa rispetto a tutte le aree di inquadramento del personale tecnico-amministrativo è un problema di non facile soluzione, per la frammentazione dei bisogni tipici delle molteplici professionalità esistenti, che ha reso difficoltoso soddisfare bisogni individuali non facilmente solvibili con le tradizionali modalità di realizzazione dei percorsi formativi interni, centralmente organizzati dai competenti uffici dell’amministrazione.

Una situazione della quale ha sofferto soprattutto il personale dell’area tecnica, a causa della polverizzazione di queste professionalità nelle molteplici direzioni della ricerca scientifica e della didattica, dove questi soggetti svolgono compiti di supporto ai docenti.

Per quanto concerne alla partecipazione femminile ai corsi di formazione, nel 2008 il rapporto tra partecipanti e dipendenti in servizio è risultato in equilibrio (tabella 8).

Tabella 8 – Partecipazione femminile ai corsi nel 2008 (valori %).Dipendenti

donne

Partecipazione donne

Totale 55,6 56,5

La componente femminile costituisce, infatti, il 55,6% dei dipendenti delle Università censite, mentre le partecipazioni femminili ai corsi nel 2008 sono state pari al 56,5%.

Le strutture interne e le risorse didattiche per la formazione

Assecondando una tendenza da tempo presente nelle imprese private, anche le amministrazioni pubbliche stanno comprendendo i vantaggi derivanti dall’utilizzare e valorizzare le risorse interne per gestire e per realizzare le attività di formazione per i propri dipendenti. Un processo che si va progressivamente diffondendo anche nel sistema universitario, anche se in presenza di alcune contraddizioni non del tutto risolte1. 1 Per eventuali approfondimenti si rinvia a una ricerca commissionata al COINFO dal Ministero della Funzione Pubblica, pubblicata nel volume FRANCO BOCHICCHIO, Gestire la formazione continua. Gli Uffici formazione nelle pubbliche amministrazioni, Celid, Torino,

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisIn primo luogo, mentre è significativamente aumentata la

domanda e l’offerta di formazione, gli Uffici deputati a gestire le attività hanno registrato un incremento di modeste dimensioni.

In secondo luogo la formazione del personale non può essere gestita e realizzata in assenza del contributo attivo delle altre funzioni di line dell’organizzazione, come in alcuni casi abbiamo osservato. Diversamente da queste, la funzione formazione opera trasversalmente e funge da consulente rispetto alle prime. Questo è il solo per poter operare al servizio delle prime e a favore di tutta la comunità al tempo stesso.

Le indagini condotte negli ultimi due Rapporti, indicano che la presenza di strutture stabilmente deputate alla formazione si correlano a più elevati livelli di spesa e sono tipiche di Atenei che riconoscono la formazione come una pratica di tipo ricorrente.

Nell’indagine le strutture dedicate alla formazione sono state convenzionalmente classificate in tre tipologie: le scuole interne, gli uffici formazione e le unità organizzative. La suddivisione proposta fornisce informazioni indirette anche sulla modalità prescelta da ciascuna Amministrazione per programmare e gestire la formazione all’interno dell’Ente. La decisione di costituire l’una o l’altra tipologia in genere dipende dalle dimensioni degli Atenei, ma anche da altri fattori come ad esempio la disponibilità di qualificate risorse umane, i modelli di organizzazione del lavoro, di sviluppo e la valorizzazione delle risorse umane, l’entità degli investimenti in formazione ecc..

Forse non è un caso se le Università che hanno partecipato a questa indagine dispongono di un’efficiente struttura interna dedicata alla formazione. Una decisione che sta diventando un passaggio obbligato sia per superare l’episodicità delle iniziative sia per connotare le azioni nel quadro di standard qualitativi. Delle Università censite una soltanto dispone di una Scuola interna, mentre in tutti gli altri Atenei le strutture interne continuano ad essere equamente ripartite tra uffici formazione (strutture dedicate alla formazione in modo esclusivo) e unità organizzative 2004.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis(strutture dedicate alla formazione in modo parziale, insieme ad altre competenze), confermando un trend già registrato negli anni precedenti (tabella 9).

Tabella 9 – Strutture interne dedicate alla formazione nel 2008.Scuolainterna

Ufficioformazion

e

Unità organizzati

vaTotale

Università censite (valori assoluti)

1 17 18 36

Addetti interni alla formazione (valori %)

3 55 42 100

Relativamente agli addetti interni alla formazione le scuole interne e gli uffici formazione occupano in media 3 unità, mentre nelle unità organizzative la media degli addetti occupati è di poco superiore a 2 unità. In termini di risorse umane occupate, questo significa che le dimensioni dell’unica Scuola interna presente nelle Università censite sostanzialmente è pari ad un ufficio formazione ed inoltre che, sempre per numero di addetti, le unità organizzative hanno un dimensionamento di poco inferiore alle altre categorie, salvo il fatto che il personale può essere occupato a tali compiti in modo parziale. In via di principio, se da un lato la formazione è riconosciuta come uno strumento strategico per il cambiamento e lo sviluppo delle organizzazioni, non v’è dubbio che l’importanza, l’autonomia, la responsabilità e le risorse attribuite a queste strutture tendono a influenzare la realizzazione degli obiettivi strategici che la formazione è chiamata a realizzare.

Per quanto concerne la realizzazione dei corsi mediante il ricorso a docenti interni, registriamo che mentre resta sostanzialmente stabile il numero dei gestori o esperti dei processi formativi, viceversa aumenta quello dei formatori interni coinvolti nelle attività didattiche. Questi soggetti possono essere formatori di mestiere (docenti universitari e

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisprofessionisti esterni) oppure esperti coinvolti in modo occasionale (dirigenti, funzionari, tecnici ecc.). Nel 2008 i docenti interni sono stati 762, passando da una media di 13,3 unità per Ateneo nel 2006, a una media di 20,5 unità nel 2008 (il dato riferito al 2007 non è disponibile).

Abbiamo osservato che il ricorso sempre più frequente a formatori occasionali (che non fanno formazione di mestiere) è ancora prevalentemente dettato dalla convinzione errata che per essere un buon insegnante è sufficiente possedere un solido bagaglio di conoscenze e/o un’adeguata esperienza professionale. In entrambi i casi si esclude una competenza didattica, che concerne la capacità di progettare un corso, la comunicazione didattica e la capacità di saper valutare correttamente i risultati previsti e raggiunti.

L’investimento in formazioneL’analisi dell’investimento in formazione non può

esimersi dal tenere conto della critica fase storica che il sistema universitario sta complessivamente attraversando. Si tratta di problemi noti all’opinione pubblica che sembrano persino minare le basi del suo funzionamento. Tra le ragioni della crisi ai primi posti figurano la scarsità di risorse umane e finanziarie, dove le priorità cogenti non riguardano soltanto la formazione del personale tecnico-amministrativo. Nelle fasi di crisi economica acuta come l’attuale, molte organizzazioni reagiscono riducendo gli investimenti; tra questi, soprattutto quelli per la formazione del personale. Una tendenza che trova conferma osservando il trend degli investimenti in formazione registrati nell’ultimo triennio (tabella 10), anche se le variazioni hanno un’entità contenuta rispetto alle contrazioni che hanno interessato altre voci dei bilanci universitari.

Il 2008 ha registrato una riduzione dell’investimento in formazione, che viceversa nel 2007 era lievemente aumentato rispetto al 2006. Perdurando l’attuale situazione critica, tende ad allontanarsi anche la possibilità di raggiungere il traguardo dell’investimento in formazione pari ad almeno l’1% della massa salariale, come auspicato da tempo dal Ministero della Funzione Pubblica.

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Tabella 10 - Investimento medio nella formazione su massa salariale (valori %).

2006

2007

2008

Università censite

0,52

0,66

0,44

Per investimento in formazione si intende il totale dei costi per la formazione sostenuti dalle Amministrazioni universitarie, ai quali concorrono i costi diretti per i corsi, quelli per il personale dedicato, i costi per le strutture interne e i docenti (interni ed esterni), aggiungendo le spese di missione e di funzionamento delle strutture formative. La variazione della spesa non è un indicatore tuttavia sufficiente per analizzare l’investimento in formazione in modo compiuto. In alcuni casi, infatti, all’aumento dei volumi della formazione (in termini di partecipazioni, ma anche di ore erogate, ore fruite e durata media) non corrisponde un proporzionale aumento dei costi.

Confrontando gli investimenti in formazione dichiarati dagli Atenei censiti (tabella 11) si osservano marcate oscillazioni, dalle quali emerge che nonostante le richiamate difficoltà finanziarie, alcuni di questi hanno raggiunto la soglia dell’1%, mentre due Atenei hanno persino registrato due punti percentuali.

Tabella 11 - Investimenti nella formazione nel 2008.

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Per analizzare con un maggiore dettaglio gli investimenti in formazione è tuttavia necessario prendere in considerazione altri indicatori disponibili nello strumento di rilevazione. In primo luogo la spesa pro capite, che è calcolata sull’ammontare delle spese per la formazione degli Atenei censiti per il totale dei partecipanti alle attività di formazione. Per indagare gli indicatori di efficienza è necessario analizzare il rapporto tra la spesa sostenuta e il volume della formazione fruita ed erogata, assumendo in questo caso come riferimento gli anni 2004 e 2006.

Relativamente alla spesa pro capite il 2008 ha registrato un consistente aumento rispetto alle medie rilevate negli anni 2004 e 2006 (tabella 12). L’aumento del 3,9% verificatosi nel periodo 2006-2008 può essere in parte giustificato dalle variazioni intervenute nelle basi di calcolo dovute alla variazione delle condizioni economiche di

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisriferimento, in parte essere conseguenza dell’aumento complessivo dei volumi della formazione registrato nel 2008.

Tabella 12 – Spesa pro capite per la formazione (valori in Euro).2004 2006 2008

Università censite

214,9 217,5 223,3

La spesa per ora fruita fornisce invece indicazioni sul costo medio di un’ora di formazione fruita per singolo partecipante. Dalla tabella 13 si osserva l’aumento di questo valore che, nell’arco di un quadriennio ha registrato una variazione contenuta passando da 9,8 a poco più di 12 euro.

Le fluttuazioni registrate nell’ultimo quadriennio tendono a stabilizzarsi su incrementi di lieve entità, che sono in controtendenza rispetto alle elevate oscillazioni verificatesi negli anni precedenti al 2006. Si pensi che tra il 2002 e il 2003 si era verificata una triplicazione della spesa per ora fruita, da 10,7 a 29,4 euro.

Tabella 13 – Spesa per ora fruita (valori in Euro).2004 2006 2008

Università censite

9,8 11,7 12,2

La spesa per ora erogata consente invece di leggere quanto è costata, in media, un’ora di formazione. Dalla tabella 14 si rileva che alla forte contrazione avvenuta nel periodo 2004-2006 pari a circa l’80%, il biennio 2006-2008 ha invertito la tendenza con un aumento contenuto che è stato pari a circa il 7%, attestandosi sui valori del 2002.

Tabella 14 – Spesa per ora erogata (valori in Euro).2004 2006 2008

Università censite

188,4 104,9 112,3

Confrontando i tre indicatori considerati (spesa pro capite, spesa per ora fruita e per ora erogata), l’aumento

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisdella spesa pro capite sembra essere principalmente dovuto all’aumento dei costi della formazione, che è stato in parte compensato dall’aumento dei partecipanti alle iniziative di formazione. Ciò significa che rispetto al passato le Università tendono a prestare maggiore attenzione alla spesa in formazione, cercando di equilibrare gli investimenti in rapporto alle partecipazioni.

La programmazione della formazioneTra le attività che caratterizzano il sistema di governance

interno della formazione, la programmazione ha un’importanza strategica. Sul piano concettuale, programmare la formazione significa promuovere esperienze di apprendimento sottraendo l’azione alla casualità, all’improvvisazione e all’arbitrio al quale possono esporla scelte non elaborate in anticipo e prive di una giustificazione ermeneutica. La programmazione pertanto concerne il complesso delle decisioni necessarie per indirizzare intenzionalmente il corso degli eventi verso traguardi desiderati. Programmare perciò significa mettere a punto una pluralità di azioni coerenti e integrate, con l’obiettivo di realizzare le attività di formazione rilevate a seguito dell’analisi dei bisogni di formazione tenendo conto delle risorse disponibili. Nelle organizzazioni il piano annuale di formazione è il tipico documento di progettazione, che illustra le azioni formative che l’organizzazione intende previsionalmente realizzare nel successivo esercizio finanziario, precisando le modalità prescelte e le risorse impiegate per realizzare le azioni indicate.

Le attività formative contenute nel piano annuale di formazione devono correlarsi alle strategie di sviluppo individuale e organizzativo di medio periodo. Pertanto, la prospettiva temporale alla quale il piano deve fare riferimento è annuale in termini operativi e, in aggiunta a questo, pluriennale in termini di obiettivi programmatici.

La programmazione si presenta, in tal modo, come un processo di soluzione di problemi consistente nell’approntare criteri, modalità e strumenti per la progettazione, l’esecuzione e la valutazione degli interventi formativi che, nel quadro di condizioni e possibilità date, è

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisintenzionalmente orientato a trasformare situazioni esistenti in situazioni desiderate.

Dal punto di vista operativo, programmare significa operazionalizzare informazioni pertinenti in vista dell’azione, esplicitando obiettivi generali e didattici in funzione dei bisogni rilevati, individuando i contenuti di apprendimento e le metodologie didattiche che di massima si intendono utilizzare, approntando le risorse umane, finanziarie e tecnologiche, ed infine stabilendo in anticipo modalità e strumenti per la valutazione del prodotto e del processo.

In breve, un complesso di compiti che richiedono ai gestori della formazione di elaborare criticamente e operativamente variabili che sono indispensabili per assumere decisioni sull’azione tra le opzioni didattiche e organizzative praticabili (che non sono necessariamente le migliori in senso assoluto), perché le decisioni finali sono sempre in rapporto alle risorse disponibili e alle peculiarità del contesto organizzativo di riferimento.

Ancorché sulla base di un campione non del tutto confrontabile, negli ultimi quattro anni la tendenza registrata negli Atenei (tabella 15) è nella direzione di un incremento dell’importanza strategica riconosciuta alla programmazione, sia per dare maggiore continuità agli interventi formativi, sia per operazionalizzare le fasi del processo di formazione nel quadro di un approccio sistemico e integrato. Una tendenza che testimonia l’accresciuta sensibilità degli amministratori unitamente alla competenza degli operatori.

Tabella 15 – Programmazione della formazione (valori %).

2004 2006 2008

Piano formativo preparato 64,4 20,6 56,8Piano formativo adottato 22,0 33,3 32,4Piano formativo non preparato 11,9 42,9 10,8Non risponde 1,7 3,2 0,0Totale 100,

00100,

00100,

00

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisDalla tabella si osserva che relativamente alla

preparazione del piano formativo, nell’anno 2006 si era verificata una preoccupante contrazione rispetto al 2004, che nel 2008 è stata ampiamente recuperata (10,8%, riportando il trend su valori sostanzialmente identici al 2004. In particolare, gli Atenei che nel 2006 avevano dichiarato di non preparare un Piano formativo erano il 42,9% dei rispondenti, a fronte dell’11,9% del 2004.

Rispetto al precedente biennio, il 2008 registra inoltre un significativo incremento (quasi 37 punti percentuali: dal 20,6% al 56,8%) degli Atenei che hanno preparato il piano di formazione, a fronte di una sostanziale tenuta di quelli che lo hanno adottato (32,4%). Sommando questi dati si rileva che l’89,2% degli Atenei ha effettuato la programmazione della formazione attraverso la preparazione e la successiva adozione di un Piano, contro il 53,9% registrato nel 2006 e l’86,4% del 2004. In sintesi, i dati del 2008 riportano il trend sui valori del 2004, con un Ateneo su tre che in media adotta il piano, unitamente ad una lieve e positiva riduzione degli Atenei che viceversa hanno dichiarato di non averlo preparato.

I contenuti di apprendimento Per maggiore chiarezza espositiva è stato chiesto ai

rispondenti di ordinare i temi oggetto dei corsi di formazione in alcune principali marco-aree. I corsi che nel 2008 hanno registrato la maggiore percentuale di partecipanti (tabella 16) hanno avuto per oggetto contenuti classificati nell’area giuridico-normativa generale (26,0%), seguiti da contenuti riconducibili all’area informatica e telematica (18,4%). Il particolare interesse registrato dalla convergenza dell’offerta e della domanda verso le suddette macro-aree tematiche è da interpretarsi, da un lato, come risposta ai cambiamenti normativi intervenuti negli ultimi anni, che ha determinato la necessità di acquisire conoscenze di natura verosimilmente procedurale1; dall’altra, per la necessità di 1 Il termine è un costrutto tecnico che tiene conto della distinzione pedagogica tra conoscenze dichiarative e conoscenze procedurali; le prime fanno riferimento alle teorie ed hanno un contenuto generalmente astratto rispetto ad una specifica realtà, mentre le seconde sono interessate ad applicare le teorie alle quali si riconducono e fanno riferimento.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensismigliorare capacità operative che riguardano l’uso degli strumenti informatici e tecnologici nella pratica quotidiana di lavoro.

Tabella 16 – Distribuzione dei partecipanti per area tematica e anno di riferimento (valori %).

Aree tematiche 2004 2006 2008

Giuridico-normativo generale 22,7 22,0 26,0Organizzazione e personale 7,3 9,6 9,3Manageriale 3,0 1,3 1,5Comunicazione 4,3 7,4 4,6Economico-finanziaria 11,0 6,2 10,5Controllo di gestione e

valutazione1,5 0,9 0,3

Informatica e telematica 23,5 19,2 18,4Linguistica 5,8 4,2 4,9Corsi multidisciplinari 10,2 13,8 10,4Internazionale 2,5 0,5 2,7Tecnico-specialistica 8,2 14,9 11,4Totale 100,

00100,

00100,

00

Ulteriori contenuti di apprendimento che hanno catalizzato una significativa percentuale di frequenze, nell’ordine riguardano: l’area tecnica-specialistica (11,4%), l’area economica-finanziaria (10,5%), l’area dei corsi multidisciplinari (10,4%) ed infine l’area dell’organizzazione e del personale (9,3%). I dati del 2008 confermano tendenze già registrate in passato, con variazioni in aumento di modesta entità.

Relativamente all’ultimo triennio, il trend registra una progressiva riduzione dell’offerta e della domanda a corsi che riguardano soprattutto le tematiche del controllo di gestione e della valutazione (da 1,5% a 0,3%) ed inoltre l’area manageriale (a 3% a 1,5%). Viceversa, le tematiche internazionali registrano un incremento molto limitato, che dopo la consistente flessione registrata nel 2006, nel 2008 si attesta su variazioni in aumento molto contenute in termini percentuali (da 2,5 a 2,7%). Da sottolineare anche il trend delle partecipazioni che hanno interessato l’area della comunicazione che, dopo aver registrato nel 2006 un

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Annales Universitatis Apulensissignificativo incremento (7,4%), nel 2008 si riportano sui livelli del 2004.

I dati più recenti rilevati confermano l’assenza di una propensione ad investire diffusamente sui corsi di formazione che riguardano i cosiddetti comportamenti organizzativi (relazioni con il pubblico, comunicazione interpersonale, lavoro di gruppo, leadership ecc.). Argomenti che viceversa hanno visto una partecipazione più circoscritta, presumibilmente riservata ad alcune categorie professionali tra quelle che per ruolo o per funzione a giudizio dei committenti richiedono il miglioramento di tali abilità.

Le aree tematiche dove hanno prevalso le partecipazioni sembrano invece riflettere esigenze formative che hanno una forte connotazione pragmatica sul piano dell’immediata trasferibilità al lavoro delle competenze apprese, collegandosi all’acquisizione di specifiche abilità necessarie per la risoluzione di problemi concreti, prevedibili e contingenti. Nel linguaggio tecnico degli addetti ai lavori la traduzione di queste considerazioni stanno a significare che nel 2008 la formazione ha privilegiato alcune aree della competenza a scapito di altre, dove hanno prevalso l’area del sapere e del saper fare, rispetto al saper essere e saper far fare. Considerazioni che è opportuno incrociare con il più recente dibattito nelle scienze dell’educazione, dove gli studiosi ritengono che nelle organizzazioni la formazione deve essere funzionale soprattutto all’acquisizione di un portfolio di competenze flessibili e adattive, indispensabili per restare competitivi in una realtà sempre meno prevedibile.

La distribuzione delle frequenze dei partecipanti per area tematica permette inoltre di accertare, ancorché in modo indiretto, quali sono stati gli obiettivi prevalenti dell’apprendimento. Osservando che i contenuti di apprendimento che hanno registrato una maggiore partecipazione sono fortemente ancorati alla mansione esercitata (miglioramento o sviluppo di attività pratico-manuali o quanto meno scarsamente intellettuali) e al risultato della prestazione, si ricava che nel sistema universitario la formazione sembra essersi per lo più

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisindirizzata verso obiettivi professionalizzanti, tipici della formazione tecnico-specialistica1, che rafforzano le ipotesi precedentemente avanzate.

Per quanto concerne la distribuzione delle ore fruite per aree tematiche e anno di riferimento (tabella 17), nel 2008 la maggiore percentuale di fruizione è stata registrata nell’area informatica e telematica (19,0%). Ulteriori aree che hanno registrano percentuali significative sono state l’area dei corsi multidisciplinari (15,4%), e l’area giuridico-normativa (12,9%). Le aree tecnico-specialistica, dell’organizzazione e del personale ed inoltre l’area linguistica, hanno registrano percentuali simili, rispettivamente dell’11,4%, l’11,2% e l’11,2%. Rispetto agli anni precedenti il 2008 registra una contrazione del 50% rispetto al 2006 relativamente all’area giuridico-normativa, che riporta il valore a quello registrato nel 2004. L’area organizzazione e personale triplica il valore rispetto al 2006, come pure si raddoppia quello dell’area economico-finanziaria. Registrano valori sostanzialmente invariati l’area manageriale, della comunicazione, linguistica e tecnico-specialistica, mentre i corsi dell’area informatica e telematica registrano un incremento di 5 punti, dopo una significativa riduzione avvenuta tra il 2004 e il 2006.

Tabella 17 – Distribuzione delle ore fruite per aree tematiche e anno di riferimento (valori %).

Aree tematiche 2004 2006 2008

Giuridico-normativo generale 14,6 24,6 12,9Organizzazione e personale 5,5 4,0 11,2Manageriale 3,4 2,3 2,7Comunicazione 6,8 6,8 5,6Economico-finanziaria 8,9 3,8 7,5Controllo di gestione e

valutazione2,0 0,7 0,5

Informatica e telematica 26,2 14,9 19,0

1 In base al duplice criterio dei contenuti e della complessità, la formazione tecnico-professionale (o tecnico-specialistica) si distingue da altre tipologie soprattutto per la presenza di obiettivi di natura addestrativa e di aggiornamento. In via di principio, l’addestramento ha per oggetto lo sviluppo di nuove capacità operative, mentre l’aggiornamento professionale è soprattutto funzionale ad evitare l’obsolescenza di conoscenze procedurali e di capacità.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisLinguistica 13,6 11,6 11,2Corsi multidisciplinari 9,8 19,7 15,4Internazionale 1,5 0,4 2,6Tecnico-specialistica 7,7 11,2 11,4Totale 100,

00100,

00100,

00

Esaminando le ore fruite per aree tematiche in base alla qualifica dei partecipanti (tabella 18), si rileva che i dirigenti sono stati principalmente interessati all’area dell’organizzazione e del personale (42,5%), che da sola ha attratto circa il 50% di tutte le ore complessivamente fruite da questa qualifica. La formazione tecnico-specialistica (19,5%) ha invece registrato un volume di ore fruite addirittura doppio rispetto alla formazione manageriale (9,2%) e sostanzialmente identico all’area tematica giuridico-normativa generale (9,0%).

Tabella 18 – Ore fruite per aree tematiche e per qualifica nel 2008 (valori %).

Aree tematiche Dirigenti

Funzionari

Altri

Giuridico-normativo generale 9,0 15,7 11,8Organizzazione e personale 42,5 17,8 6,3Manageriale 9,2 5,3 0,9Comunicazione 0,6 4,5 6,3Economico-finanziaria 6,5 7,4 5,2Controllo di gestione e

valutazione0,3 0,3 0,6

Informatica e telematica 6,3 14,9 22,0Linguistica 4,7 7,6 12,6Corsi multidisciplinari 0,0 7,1 22,7Internazionale 1,4 5,3 1,4Tecnico-specialistica 19,5 14,1 10,2Totale 100,00 100,00 100,

00

Analogamente ai dirigenti, anche le ore di formazione fruite dai funzionari hanno registrato una prevalenza dell’area dell’organizzazione e del personale (17,8%) sebbene, da un’analisi più dettagliata, le tematiche alle quali ha partecipato questa qualifica hanno abbracciato uno spettro più ampio di problematiche rispetto ai dirigenti. Ulteriori aree tematiche fruite dai funzionari sono state: l’area giuridico-normativa generale (15,7%), l’area

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisinformatica e telematica (14,9%) e tecnico-specialistica (14,1%).

Nella categoria che raccoglie le restanti qualifiche, convenzionalmente raggruppate nella categoria “altri”, i contenuti di apprendimento che hanno registrato le maggiori percentuali di fruizione sono state: l’area dei corsi multidisciplinari (22,7%) e l’area informatica e telematica (22,0%). Con percentuali di fruizione inferiore seguono: l’area linguistica (12,6%), l’area tecnico-specialistica (11,8%)e l’area giuridico-normativo generale (10,2%). I temi fruiti da queste categorie potrebbero trovare in parte giustificazione nella frequenza ad attività di formazione obbligatorie collegate ai processi interni di mobilità (verticale e orizzontale) che, per loro natura, presentano un maggiore livello di generalità nella scelta degli argomenti, a svantaggio della specializzazione, per la trasversalità del target di riferimento.

Per quanto concerne invece la realizzazione di processi di innovazione da attuarsi mediante progetti formativi ad hoc associati alla programmazione strategica, la tabella 19 illustra il quadro delle iniziative realizzate e previste, in riferimento agli anni 2007-2009. Gli Atenei rispondenti hanno dichiarato di avere realizzato tra il 2007 e il 2008 ben 256 progetti formativi; di avere in previsione la realizzazione di 193 progetti nel 2008, mentre per il 2009 sono già previsti 117 nuovi progetti.

Tabella 19 – Innovazione nelle Università: la programmazione strategica

Aree tematiche

Progetti formativi

realizzati nel 2007

Progetti formativi previsti

nel 2008

Progetti formativi

realizzati nel 2008

Progetti formativi previsti

nel 2009

Accesso e gestione fondi comunitari

9 15 13 12

E-Procurement 7 8 12 12Reingegnerizzazione

dei processi39 43 21 23

Rilevamento qualità e customer care

19 21 7 13

Servizi ai cittadini 10 13 1 6Controllo qualità 20 28 10 14Comunicazione 22 21 12 12

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Annales Universitatis Apulensispubblica e call center

Valutazione progetti e analisi costi benefici

15 22 9 7

Valutazioni delle prestazioni e posizioni organizzative

18 22 12 18

Totale 159 193 97 117

Nel biennio 2007-2008 l’attenzione degli Atenei è stata rivolta soprattutto ad acquisire competenze sul versante della reingegnerizzazione dei processi (82 progetti tra quelli realizzati nel 2007 e previsti nel 2008). Inoltre, sulle tematiche della qualità (rilevamento qualità e customer care, controllo qualità, servizi ai cittadini) e delle relazioni con il pubblico (comunicazione pubblica e call center) che nell’insieme denotano una spiccata vocazione in direzione, al contempo, del miglioramento interno e del marketing verso l’esterno (cittadini e studenti). Iniziative formative che osservando i titoli confermano la forte valenza strategica, che complessivamente ammonta a 154 progetti (tra quelle realizzati nel 2007 e previste nel 2008).

Rispetto al 2007 resta sostanzialmente invariato il numero dei progetti concernenti le aree tematiche che riguardano la valutazione (progetti e analisi dei costi benefici, prestazioni e posizioni organizzative), mentre nel medesimo periodo aumentano i progetti sulle tematiche relative all’accesso e alla gestione dei fondi comunitari, nonché quelli riferiti all’e-procurement. L’importanza di tale quadro consiste nel delineare alcune possibili tendenze che riguardano anche il futuro della formazione.

Dal quadro esposto trova altresì conferma che la nuova prospettiva life long della formazione e dell’apprendimento ha dato impulso a nuove logiche di azione formativa nel quadro di obiettivi meno deterministici e più complessi che si propongono di adeguare le competenze in modo flessibile e adattivo alle esigenze di un contesto sociale ed organizzativo globale e locale al tempo stesso. La dimensione innovativa dei progetti strategici sui quali sono impegnate le Università implicitamente richiedono ai dipendenti il possesso di nuove competenze, diverse da quelle più tradizionali, ancorate ai contenuti conoscitivi tipici del ruolo e della posizione.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisLe nuove competenze che devono accompagnare i

processi di innovazione richiedono nuove forme di appropriatezza e l’esercizio della competenza in situazione, che attengono le modalità con cui il soggetto oggi si pone in relazione con problemi sempre prevedibili. In controtendenza rispetto al passato, per usare una felice espressione di E. Morin - oggi è necessario soprattutto formare soggetti dotati di teste ben fatte anziché di teste piene.

I soggetti erogatori della formazioneL’indagine prevedeva di aggregare i soggetti erogatori

della formazione in tre principali categorie: quelli organizzati internamente direttamente a cura dell’Ateneo (attraverso le proprie scuole interne, uffici formazione oppure unità organizzative, distinguendo da quelli erogati a cura di organizzazioni pubbliche e private.

La distribuzione delle ore fruite nelle tre categorie di soggetti erogatori (tabella 20), nel 2008 ha registrato la forte prevalenza di corsi organizzati internamente, che tra gli Atenei rispondenti sono risultati complessivamente pari al 76,9%, con una lieve flessione rispetto agli anni 2006 e 2004.

Tabella 20 – Distribuzione delle ore fruite per ente erogatore e anno di riferimento (valori %).

Ente organizzatore 2004 2006 2008

Ateneo di appartenenza + Scuola interna

79,2 87,2 76,9

Altre organizzazioni pubbliche 8,0 5,1 14,7Altre organizzazioni private 12,8 7,7 8,4Totale 100,

00100,

00100,

00

I corsi erogati da organizzazioni pubbliche viceversa hanno registrato un aumento, che rispetto al 2006 è stato molto consistente (da 5,0 a 14,7); infine, i corsi erogati da organizzazioni private sono quelli che, rispetto agli altri, hanno registrato la minore percentuale di ore fruite (8,4), invertendo il trend rispetto agli anni precedenti, che

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisavevano visto una prevalenza delle organizzazioni private rispetto a quelle pubbliche.

Dal quadro emerge che gli Atenei preferiscono organizzare i corsi al proprio interno, utilizzando le professionalità di cui dispongono, ottimizzando e valorizzando le risorse a disposizione. Questa tendenza è supportata dalla contemporanea attenzione verso la formazione di professionalità interne agli Atenei, necessarie per realizzare queste scelte (formatori-docenti, tutor e gestori dei processi formativi).

In sintesi, dal 2004 al 2008, soltanto 23,1% delle ore di formazione complessivamente fruite, ossia meno di un quarto, continua ad essere erogato da organizzazioni esterne, sia pubbliche sia private. Il più elevato ricorso alle organizzazioni pubbliche rispetto alle private, è da attribuirsi – verosimilmente –alla conoscenza delle problematiche, dei linguaggi e delle criticità tipiche del settore pubblico, che rispetto agli Enti di formazione privati è il principale patrimonio degli Enti di formazione pubblici.

Le metodologie didatticheAnche nella rilevazione del 2008 l’apprendimento in

presenza (aula) si conferma essere la modalità didattica che caratterizza la formazione nel sistema universitario in modo quasi esclusivo (82,0%).

Nonostante la varietà delle opzioni didattiche, che sono maggiori rispetto al passato perché indotte dalla diffusione delle nuove tecnologie anche nelle attività educative, la formazione in presenza non subisce rallentamenti ma al contrario tende a rafforzarsi. Come si osserva dalla tabella 21, la tipica modalità didattica d’aula, rappresentata dalla lezione, registra un aumento passando da 75,8% del 2004, all’82,0% del 2008.

Sempre nel 2008 il 12,0% dei partecipanti ha frequentato il laboratorio informatico. Questo dato trova conferma dal confronto incrociato con le precedenti tabelle 16 e 17, dalle quali si osserva che, nello stesso periodo, i corsi realizzati nell’area dell’informatica e della telematica hanno raccolto il 18,4% di partecipanti, con una percentuale di ore fruite pari al 12,3%.

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Tabella 21 – Distribuzione delle frequenze ai corsi per modalità didattica e anno di riferimento (valori %).

Modalità didattiche 2004 2006 2008

Aula 75,8 81,4 82,0Autoapprendimento 1,4 2,2 0.3E-Learning 1,8 1,5 2,2Formazione-intervento 5,2 0,4 1,5Laboratorio informatico 15,5 12,8 12,0Learning on the job 0,3 1,5 1,0Videoconferenza 0,0 0,2 1,0Stage 0,0 0,0 0,0Totale 100,

00100,

00100,

00

Relativamente alle altre metodologie didattiche, i dati del 2008 non presentano variazioni significative rispetto agli anni precedenti. Resta invariato il ricorso ad alcune metodologie meno convenzionali (come la formazione-intervento), come pure il ricorso a metodologie che richiedono l’utilizzo delle nuove tecnologie dell’informazione e della comunicazione (e-learning). Anche l’autoapprendimento e il ricorso al learning on the job non registrano variazioni di significativa entità.

Per quanto riguarda la formazione-intervento, lo scarso ricorso a questa metodologia potrebbe dipendere dal fatto che implicitamente richiede una forte sinergia tra i soggetti in formazione e un contesto disponibile ad attuare concretamente i cambiamenti associati a questo particolare tipo di pratica didattica. Un discorso a parte meritano l’autoapprendimento e il learning on the job, che rispetto a quelle più tradizionali sono metodologie meno disciplinabili dal punto di vista del controllo formale, forse per questo finora poco utilizzate nei contesti pubblici dell’apprendimento non formale.

Più preoccupante appare invece la sotto-utilizzazione dell’e-learning nelle attività di formazione. Nonostante le ottimistiche previsioni sulla diffusione di questa metodologia di matrice costruttivista per i vantaggi che ad essa si accompagnano, nella realtà resta una modalità poco utilizzata, confermata dal trend registrato nell’ultimo

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Annales Universitatis Apulensistriennio che, seppure in presenza di un lieve incremento registrato nel 2008 rispetto al 2006, non supera complessivamente i due punti percentuali rispetto alle metodologie didattiche complessivamente utilizzate nel sistema universitario.

È utile ricordare che sul piano spaziale il setting di apprendimento coincide con i luoghi di lavoro degli individui, mentre sul piano temporale il momento nel quale le conoscenze vengono apprese coincide con il loro impiego effettivo nell’attività di lavoro. Nelle amministrazioni pubbliche il paradosso evidente sta nel fatto che mentre tende ad aumentare l’utilizzo delle nuove tecnologie nell’esecuzione dei compiti di routine, esse non vengono utilizzate in uguale misura per apprendere in modo nuovo rispetto alle modalità tradizionali1.

La valutazione della formazioneNelle attività di formazione, l’importanza della

valutazione, risiede soprattutto nel costituirsi come collegamento indispensabile tra il desiderato e il realizzato, ovvero fra la rilevazione dei bisogni e la progettazione, da un lato, e la realizzazione dell’intervento, dall’altro.

Nei precedenti Rapporti, la valutazione dei corsi di formazione ha soprattutto registrato che cosa è stato soprattutto oggetto di valutazione da parte degli Atenei. Da questi è risultato che le principali aree della valutazione dei corsi hanno riguardato l’efficacia, l’efficienza e la customer 1 Si tenga conto che il riferimento all’e-learning può essere duplice: al progetto formativo, oppure al processo organizzativo di gestione e sviluppo delle conoscenze. E’ opportuno considerare queste differenze, perché nelle organizzazioni convivono entrambi i significati che talvolta generano confusione. Come modalità di insegnamento/apprendimento collegata all’uso delle nuove tecnologie ICT, l’e-learning è interessata alle modalità con cui le conoscenze sono progettate, realizzate e valutate, oltre che socializzate. Come processo organizzativo di gestione e di sviluppo delle competenze, l’e-learning funzionalmente sposta l’attenzione dalla gestione dai beni e servizi alla gestione delle conoscenze. La tendenza più recente è di integrare le due prospettive considerando il progetto formativo come parte di un processo organizzativo di ordine più generale. Nelle pubbliche amministrazioni, ad esempio, le tecnologie ICT vengono considerate utili sia per migliorare l'efficienza dei processi interni dell’amministrazione (come ad esempio l’e-procurement) sia per valorizzare le risorse umane attraverso la formazione. Cfr. Vademecum per la realizzazione di progetti formativi in modalità e-learning nelle pubbliche amministrazioni, «Quaderni CNIPA», I, n. 2, 2004.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiscare. In sostanza, gli Atenei hanno privilegiato la valutazione dell’apprendimento e del gradimento. Ambiti della valutazione che nelle organizzazioni sono tradizionalmente tra quelli più utilizzati perché, rispettivamente, soddisfano criteri formali e sono facilmente osservabili. Ben più complessa è invece la valutazione delle ricadute della formazione, una pratica finora sostanzialmente trascurata da tutte le organizzazioni, che richiede di guardare ai risultati della formazione con una prospettiva spaziale e temporale molto più ampia, che tiene conto dei complessi intrecci tra sviluppo socio-territoriale, organizzativo e individuale. Un argomento sul quale le Università sono attualmente impegnate a riflettere1.

Per quanto concerne il 2008 (tabella 22), rispetto al 2007 non si registrano significative variazioni in ordine ai corsi che sono stati sottoposti a valutazione2.

Tabella 22 – Corsi sottoposti a valutazione.2007 2008

Totale corsi 3.607 2.363Numero di corsi sottoposti a

valutazione2.012 1.129

% corsi sottoposti a valutazione 55,8 47,8

Mentre nel 2007 sono stati il 55,8% del totale, nel 2008 hanno registrato una lieve flessione (47,8%). Pertanto, soltanto la metà dei corsi erogati viene sottoposta a valutazione. Tra i corsi che sono stati sottoposti a valutazione le ore fruite hanno principalmente riguardato attività organizzate direttamente dall’Ateneo (79,6%), utilizzando le proprie strutture formative interne (scuola interna, ufficio formazione oppure unità organizzativa). Per la restante parte, sono state fruite e valutate soltanto il 12,2% dei corsi realizzati presso le organizzazioni private, mentre la percentuale si è ulteriormente ridotta (8,2%) nel

1 Il tema delle ricadute della formazione è stato al centro dei lavori dell’ultimo Convegno Nazionale sulla formazione del personale, promosso dal COINFO e organizzato nell’Università di Genova (novembre 2007). Cfr. F. BOCHICCHIO, F. GRASSI (a cura di), Le ricadute della formazione. Significati, approcci, esperienze, Melpignano, Lecce, 2009.2 L’indagine sui corsi sottoposti a valutazione è stata avviata a partire dal 2007, quindi non esistono informazioni sugli anni precedenti.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiscaso di attività organizzate da scuole o enti di formazione pubblici (tabella 23).

Confrontando i dati della tabella 23 con quelli riportati nella tabella 20, si rileva che sono principalmente le organizzazioni pubbliche a non prevedere la valutazione nei corsi che erogano a favore degli Atenei, mentre aumenta la valutazione nei corsi realizzati da organizzazioni private; inoltre, trova conferma il dato che i corsi più valutati sono quelli organizzati dagli Atenei al proprio interno. In particolare, i corsi svolti da organizzazioni pubbliche, pur ricoprendo il 14,7% delle ore fruite, vengono sottoposti a valutazione soltanto per l’8,2%, mentre hanno subito un lieve incremento la percentuale dei corsi valutati erogati da organizzazioni private. Questa situazione potrebbe in parte trovare giustificazione dall’aver ricompresso nei corsi anche i convegni e le conferenze, che sono principalmente realizzati da organizzazioni esterne, pubbliche e private; attività che per loro natura non prevedono forme di valutazione.

Tabella 23 – Ore fruite nei corsi sottoposti a valutazione nel 2008 (valori %).

Corsi organizzati da Ateneo di

appartenenza + scuola interna79,6

Corsi organizzati da organizzazioni pubbliche

8,2

Corsi organizzati da organizzazioni private

12,2

I motivi per cui viceversa i corsi maggiormente sottoposti a valutazione sono quelli interni, trovano giustificazione da alcuni fattori. Tra questi, l’accresciuta sensibilità di ordine generale verso la valutazione da parte degli attori sociali, dove questa pratica in alcuni casi è diventata persino un obbligo di legge; inoltre, il riconoscimento dell’utilità della valutazione per gli stessi partecipanti ai corsi, per la spendibilità della certificazione individualmente acquisita nei processi di mobilità interni, oppure all’esterno.

Conclusioni

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisDal punto di vista quantitativo, nel 2008 la formazione

continua del personale tecnico-amministrativo nel sistema universitario italiano è rimasta sostanzialmente stabile rispetto al trend registrato nell’ultimo triennio, nonostante le accresciute difficoltà economiche. La formazione del personale è divenuta in Italia sostanzialmente parte della vita delle Amministrazioni pubbliche, consolidandosi come un diritto-dovere dei lavoratori e degli Amministratori pubblici. Nel settore pubblico, la formazione professionale è maggiormente diffusa rispetto al settore privato, contribuendo a raggiungere, seppure più lentamente rispetto alle attese, gli obiettivi della strategia di Lisbona e di Goteborg, innalzando la percentuale dei lavoratori occupati che fruiscono di opportunità di formazione continua. Dal punto di vista qualitativo, almeno nel sistema universitario, la formazione presenta ulteriori margini di miglioramento, in termini di governance dei processi e, soprattutto, di utilizzo delle nuove tecnologie dell’informazione e della comunicazione che non riescono ancora a caratterizzarsi come una modalità diffusa. Sussistono pertanto numerose aree sulle quali è necessario sensibilizzare gli Amministratori pubblici e i dirigenti, in considerazione della responsabilità formale di questi soggetti sulle decisioni che riguardano le scelte formative nel settore pubblico.Bibliografia:BOCHICCHIO F. (a cura di), La formazione del personale tecnico-amministrativo dell’Università: esperienze e problemi emergenti, Atti del I Convegno Nazionale sulla formazione (Università degli Studi di Torino, 25-26 giugno 1991) Celid, Torino, 1992.BOCHICCHIO F. (a cura di), Il cambiamento in atto nelle Università: il ruolo della formazione, Atti del IV Convegno Nazionale sulla formazione (Università degli Studi di Firenze, 13-14 ottobre 1994) Celid, Torino, 1996.BOCHICCHIO F. (a cura di), Valutazione della formazione e riflessi sul cambiamento organizzativo nelle Università, Atti del VII Convegno Nazionale sulla formazione (Università degli Studi di Bari, 18-20 novembre 1998) Celid, Torino, 2000.BOCHICCHIO F., CICCARELLI C., GRASSI F., Analisi dei bisogni di formazione del personale tecnico-amministrativo dell’Università di Bari, Celid, Torino, 2002. BOCHICCHIO F., CICCARELLI C., GRASSI F., SCARPELLI F., Analisi dei bisogni di formazione del personale tecnico-amministrativo dell’Università della Calabria, Celid, Torino, 2003.BOCHICCHIO F., Gestire la formazione continua. Gli Uffici formazione nelle pubbliche amministrazioni, Celid, Torino, 2004.BOCHICCHIO F., GRASSI F. (a cura di), Le ricadute della formazione. Significati, approcci, esperienze, Melpignano, Lecce, 2009.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisCNIPA, Vademecum per la realizzazione di progetti formativi in modalità e-learning nelle pubbliche amministrazioni, «Quaderni CNIPA», I, n. 2, 2004.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Strumenti di osservazione sistemica per l’analisi dei bisogni di formazione nel sociale

Drd Pasquale Luigi Di VIGGIANO 1

Abstract: The analysis of training needs represents a most delicate and complex tool for the planning and management of training processes, either in a formal context (institutions and enterprises) and in a wider civil society context (non profit). Civil society organizations, unlike what happens at a formal level, don’t have analysis models nor field experience as to pinpoint (one or more sets of) conceptual and effective tools for handling surveys and analyses of training needs at a scientific level. The paper we present means to be a theoretical introduction to a major work of research (in this field) and aims to single out conceptual tools and identify strategies to conduct surveys and training needs analyses in a social context starting from a systemic an constructivist point of view. The objective to achieve, on the one hand, is the quality assessment of the used search tools and on the other hand, the testing of a theoretical model up to today absolutely unique in a social organization context.

PremessaIl presente contributo nasce come premessa teorica ad una

ricerca empirica scaturita dalla collaborazione tra la UIL di Lecce2

e l’Università del Salento. In particolare dalla convenzione con i Corsi di Studio dell’Area Pedagogica per lo svolgimento dell’attività di tirocinio degli studenti laureandi del Corso di Laurea in Esperti della Formazione.

La disponibilità, l’interesse e la curiosità di alcuni tirocinanti ad occuparsi di studiare un progetto sperimentale di analisi dei

1 Pasquale Luigi Di Viggiano è laureato in Pedagogia. Attualmente dottorando nel Corso di dottorato di ricerca in Scienze Giuridiche, Curriculum Filosofia del diritto, Università del Salento; Professore incaricato per gli insegnamenti di Sociologia della comunicazione elettronica, nonché di Sistemi di gestione dell’informazione presso l’Università telematica TELMA di Roma. Autore e curatore di diversi lavori di ricerca sociale e di pubblicazioni.2 La UIL (Unione Italiana dei Lavoratori) di Lecce è una struttura sindacale provinciale, di emanazione UIL nazionale, tra le più rappresentative dei lavoratori e che opera in provincia di Lecce. Cfr. http://www.uil.it/.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisbisogni di formazione, il sostegno dell’insegnamento di Teoria e metodi della formazione della Facoltà di Scienze della Formazione nonché la passione e l’esperienza maturata nel campo della progettazione e gestione della formazione degli adulti dal Responsabile della SO.SE.CIT. SRL1, hanno orientato le attività di tirocinio verso la sperimentazione di un’idea in quel momento ancora in fase di costruzione nella sua parte applicativa, ma già ampiamente definita nella sua parte teorica2.

Tutte le fasi della ricerca sono state rese oggetto di discussione che ha interessato i soggetti coinvolti e questo ha prodotto un continuo lavoro di revisione e di aggiustamento degli strumenti utilizzati sia per la rilevazione e l’analisi dei dati sia per la costruzione della premessa metodologica che qui presentiamo.

Pur operando nell’ambito della formazione e con obiettivi specificamente formativi, per questo progetto di ricerca-azione abbiamo utilizzato diversi strumenti concettuali mutuati dalla scienze sociali, in particolare dal filone costruttivista3, fino a considerare alcune delle acquisizioni teoriche consolidatesi nell’ambito dei sistemi sociali4.1 SO.SE.CIT. srl (Società per i servizi al Cittadino) è una società di servizi che opera in maniera esclusiva nel territorio della Provincia di Lecce, costituita nel rispetto dei requisiti previsti dalla normativa di riferimento (art. 11 D.M. 165/99) che svolge attività di assistenza fiscale in convenzione con il CAFUIL SPA che, per lo svolgimento delle attività previste dalle norme, può avvalersi di strutture costituite in società di servizi le cui attività siano effettuate comunque sotto il suo diretto controllo, ai sensi dei commi 1 e 2 dell’art. 11 del D.M. n. 164/99. La società si occupa anche di formazione sia per i propri addetti che per le strutture della UIL di Lecce.2 Cfr. la ricca produzione di Franco Bochicchio, le sue proposte teoriche e i molteplici progetti applicativi. In particolare: F. Bochicchio et al, Le ricadute della formazione. Significati, approcci, esperienze, Amaltea, Melpignano (Le) 2009; ID., Gli esperti della formazione. Profili interpretativi di una professione emergente, Amaltea, Melpignano (Le) 2006; ID., Gestire la formazione continua, CELID, Torino 2004; ID., Analisi dei bisogni di formazione (Unical), CELID Torino 2003; ID., Analisi dei bisogni di formazione (Università di Bari), CELID Torino 2002; ID., I formatori: l'educatore. Competenze, tecniche e strumenti per la formazione degli adulti, CELID Torino 2000.3 Cfr. P. Watzlawick, La realtà inventata, Feltrinelli, Milano 2006; J. Piaget, Introduzione all’epistemologia genetica, Emme Edizioni, Milano, 1982. Piaget, partendo da una formazione biologica e da studi sull’adattamento all’ambiente degli organismi, sposta l’attenzione dal mondo ontologicamente inteso al mondo percepito ed inizia a considerare la conoscenza come la più alta forma di adattamento di un organismo complesso. Il conoscere è infatti legato all’agire sull’ambiente ed ha lo scopo di costruire strutture concettuali variabili , così la mente costruendo sé stessa costruisce il mondo (Piaget, 1937).4 Cfr. N. Luhmann, R. De Giorgi, La teoria della società, Franco Angeli, Milano, 1992; N. Luhmann, Il sistema educativo. Problemi di riflessività, Armando, Roma, 1988; ID., Sistemi sociali. Fondamenti di una teoria generale, Il Mulino, Milano,

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisIn particolare, abbiamo ritenuto utile per la nostra indagine,

condotta con metodi della ricerca campionaria ormai accreditati anche in ambito di scienze della formazione, proporre un apparato concettuale legato alla semantica dell’osservazione1 sviluppatasi in riferimento ad una società definita complessa2 il cui motore è rappresentato dalle aspettative3.

Rilevare, analizzare ed interpretare il bisogno formativo si rivela un’operazione di osservazione che implica tutti i rischi di una tale pratica, ma la consapevolezza che per tutte le diverse fasi della ricerca si utilizza un tipo di osservazione di secondo ordine4 ci mette al riparo da effetti dogmatici proprio perché un osservatore è solo un osservatore la cui peculiarità è quella di osservare come altri hanno osservato e si espone al rischio di essere osservato a sua volta. Con la consapevolezza che non ci sono punti di osservazione o osservatori privilegiati, ma solo altri punti di vista e altri osservatori.

L’attività formativa, in questo modo, si differenzia come parte del sistema educativo sulla base dell’osservazione dell’universo della comunicazione preso a riferimento e che chiamiamo bisogno formativo il cui soddisfacimento rappresenta l’esito di interventi formativi programmati sulla base di osservazioni.

1990.1 Cfr. Foester H. von, Sistemi che osservano, Astrolabio, Roma, 1987; E. Esposito, L’operazione di osservazione: costruttivismo e teoria dei sistemi sociali, Franco Angeli, Milano, 1992.2 Cfr. G. Bocchi, M. Ceruti (a cura di), La sfida della complessità, Feltrinelli, Milano, 1985; Da un punto di vista sistemico, cfr. N. Luhmann, Sistemi sociali. Fondamenti di una teoria generale, cit., p. 94 e ss., nonché i vasti riferimenti bibliografici contenuti nelle note.3Per una definizione sintetica, cfr. R. Schmidt, Tradurre la complessità, in N. Luhmann, Sistemi sociali. Fondamenti di una teoria generale, cit., Appendice, voce: Aspettativa, p. 747-748. L'aspettativa è un insieme personale ed interpersonale. Poiché la stessa si compie nell'oggi, l'aspettativa è futuro presentificato, tende a ciò che non è ancora, al non esperito, a ciò che si può solo arguire o scoprire. Speranza e paura, desiderio e volontà, preoccupazione, ma anche analisi razionale, visione ricettiva o curiosità, intervengono nell’aspettativa in quanto la costituiscono. In seguito tratteremo più approfonditamente il concetto da un punto di vista sistemico.4 Questo approccio viene indicato anche come cibernetica di secondo ordine e viene assunto, nella epistemologia costruttivista, come set di strumenti teorici in grado di consentire l’osservazione della società come sistema. L’operazione di osservazione, operata dai sistemi sociali, tiene conto della complessità che per molti versi è divenuta il metodo scientifico dell’epistemologia contemporanea sul piano della costruzione della conoscenza, caratterizzata dalla necessità di indicare il punto di vista di osservazione che produce la descrizione e la costruzione della realtà sociale. Cfr. F. Giglietto, Alle radici del futuro, Franco Angeli, Milano, 2006, pp. 99-160.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisIl sistema educativo/formativo1 inteso come sistema sociale

complesso e differenziato, specie in ambito di organizzazione sociale, allora, nell’intento di ridurre la propria complessità, seleziona e sceglie in base a osservazioni gli interventi formativi tesi a soddisfare aspettative del sistema e dell’ambiente, legate all’organizzazione, al singolo o a entrambi che, per brevità, chiamiamo bisogni formativi.

I presupposti teorici2.1 L’osservazione e la conoscenzaL'epistemologia costruttivista condivide un assunto

metateorico in cui viene abbandonata la credenza in una realtà indipendente dall’osservatore. La conoscenza personale, ma anche quella sociale, anziché consistere nella rappresentazione di una realtà data, si configura come vera e propria costruzione o specificazione da parte dell’osservatore, al tempo stesso permessa e vincolata dalla sua struttura. Gli elementi più importanti di questo filone di pensiero sono già presenti nell’opera di Jean Piaget e nella teoria dei costrutti personali di George A. Kelly. Tale concezione del rapporto conoscenza/realtà è stato più recentemente formalizzato da Ernst von Glasersfeld, e trova più specifiche elaborazioni nella cibernetica di secondo ordine di Heinz von Foerster, nella teoria dell’autopoiesi di Humberto Maturana e Francisco Varela, nel movimento del costruzionismo sociale avviato da Kenneth Gergen, nella psicologia culturale di Jerome Bruner, nell’approccio discorsivo di Rom Harré, nella teoria dei sistemi sociali di Niklas Luhmann, tanto per citare gli indirizzi e i nomi più noti anche in Italia.

Non è nostro interesse ripercorrere ora le tappe evolutive di questo pensiero, altresì variegato, quanto individuare alcuni punti di riferimento che ci consentano di esplicitare l’indirizzo teorico e 1 Un sistema è complesso quando non può più collegare ogni suo elemento con ogni altro; quando, dunque, nel relazionare i suoi elementi deve procedere in modo selettivo. Un sistema è differenziato quando forma in se stesso sottosistemi, vale a dire ripete in se stesso la formazione del sistema, crea, dunque, in se stesso ancora differenze tra sistema ed ambiente. Con la differenziazione interna, allora, un sistema si automoltiplica, autoripetendosi in sistema‚ come differenza tra sottosistema ed ambiente interno in un ambiente esterno. In questo senso la differenziazione sistemica promuove complessità e impulsi per la costruzione di ordini emergenti. Cfr N. Luhmann, Struttura della società e semantica, Bari, Laterza, 1983, p. 19. Per alcuni riflessioni sul rapporto tra costruttivismo e sistema formativo, cfr. E. Niccoli, Il costruttivismo in didattica: una teoria o un atteggiamento?, «Giornale di Didattica della Società Chimica Italiana», ISSN 0392-5912, Anno XXV, n. 2, 2003, pp. 43-47; E. von Glasersfeld, in Constructivis in Education, Lawrence Erlbaum Ed., NJ, 1995; B. Inhelder, H. Sinclair, M. Bovet, Apprendimento e strutture della conoscenza, Loescher Ed., Torino, 1975.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisgli strumenti concettuali con i quali tenteremo di analizzare i bisogni formativi che emergeranno dal processo di osservazione operato in ambito organizzativo-sociale sindacale: nella fattispecie della UIL di Lecce

Osservare è il definitivo punto di partenza nonché il problema fondamentale di ogni tentativo di comprendere la realtà e la ragione come fenomeni del dominio umano. Invero ogni cosa detta è detta da un osservatore ad un altro osservatore che può essere egli stesso1

Lo scopo principale di questa operazione è fare distinzioni che scindano l'ambiente dal sistema che osserva.

Questa frase di Maturana, strettamente collegata all’assunto di Spencer Brown2 traccia una distinzione, rappresenta il presupposto paradigmatico, spesso esplicito, di ogni ricercatore sociale che si riconosca nell’epistemologia costruttivista.

L’applicazione feconda del principio di Brown alla teoria dei sistemi (sociali e autopoietici) intesi come sistemi che osservano, conduce a considerare che l’operazione fondamentale dell'osservare è la distinzione. La nozione dell'osservatore circoscrive tutte le indagini e tutte le discussioni. La forma e la funzione per le quali i sistemi vengono distinti sono inevitabilmente imposte da qualsivoglia osservatore le impieghi. La qualificazione di ogni osservazione rispetto alla prospettiva di un dato osservatore (individuo o sistema che sia), fa di questa teoria una teoria intrinsecamente relativistica sia con riferimento all'osservatore, sia rispetto alle interazioni fra osservatori dati. E’ una teoria intrinsecamente relativistica con riferimento agli osservatori interagenti e alla loro storia congiunta di interazioni.

Uno degli attributi fondamentali dei sistemi è l’organizzazione.I sistemi non possono essere definiti semplicemente

enumerando i loro elementi costituenti o tracciandone lo schema. L'attributo che definisce un'entità sistemica è l'insieme delle relazioni fra componenti che ne delineano la forma in ogni momento dato e ne determinano la separatezza e la differenza, e servono come essenziale identità mantenuta a dispetto dei cambiamenti dinamici nel tempo: questo set di relazioni definitorie è chiamato organizzazione del sistema.

E' l'organizzazione di un sistema che lo differenzia come sistema e che definisce la sua identità, le sue proprietà in quanto unità: la cornice entro la quale esso deve essere assunto come un tutto. 1 Cfr. H, Maturana, Autopoiesi e cognizione: la realizzazione del vivente, Marsilio, Venezia, 1988.2 Cfr. G. S. Brown, Laws of Form, Allen&Unwin, London, 1969.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisAltro attributo fondamentale dei sistemi è costituito dal

concetto di struttura1. Di fatto, l'organizzazione di un sistema specifica una categoria

all'interno della quale possono darsi molti casi specificatamente realizzati. L'organizzazione di un'unità sistemica è specificatamente realizzata attraverso la presenza e l'interazione di componenti interni in uno spazio dato. Queste costituiscono la struttura del sistema.

Una unità può cambiare struttura senza perdita di identità, fintanto che viene mantenuta la sua organizzazione. Interessante è la distinzione di Maturana & Varela fra organizzazione e struttura in quanto fornisce una base per classificare le descrizioni dei sistemi rispetto ai loro aspetti astratti e concreti.

Una vivace illustrazione della distinzione è data ne L'Albero della Conoscenza del 1987. La distinzione complementare fra organizzazione e struttura operata da Maturana & Varela è utilissima per delineare ed analizzare la forma e la funzione dei sistemi; per esempio, nella descrizione di sistemi che hanno forme generali invarianti a dispetto del cambiamento di componenti specifiche.

2.2 La complessità La differenza specifica che caratterizza il passaggio evolutivo

da società arcaiche verso l'attuale organizzazione sociale è costituita dal diverso grado di complessità proprio della società osservata rispetto a quella che la precede e a quella che la segue. Intendiamo per complessità il fatto che siano a disposizione 1 Per la teoria dei sistemi sociali, Struttura è il rafforzamento della selettività attraverso un processo che rende possibile una doppia selettività. La struttura è un codice di significati fissati come invarianti sulla base della elisione di altre possibilità, significati che designano il quadro di riferimento entro il quale è possibile operare concretamente delle scelte muovendosi tra alternative prestrutturate. La struttura è essenziale al sistema. La consistenza, la stabilità del sistema dipendono dalla relativa invarianza della sua struttura rispetto all'ambiente. La struttura costituisce la misura ed il limite della complessità che può essere compresa e ridotta all'interno del sistema. Essa indica il grado di complessità che un sistema può elaborare e delimita altresì il confine tra la complessità interna al sistema e la complessità del mondo (R. De Giorgi, Scienza del diritto e legittimazione, Bari, De Donato, 1979, pp. 215-216). Si intendono per strutture, sotto l'aspetto temporale, complessi di rapporti che non si risolvono nella stretta successione di eventi sperimentati per una sola volta. Stanno ad indicare piuttosto durata, stabilità notevole, e, ovunque, cambiamenti solo a lungo termine. Sotto le categorie del medio o lungo periodo vengono formulate, con maggiori pretese temporali, quelle che nel linguaggio del secolo scorso venivano chiamate “situazioni”. Una struttura può essere solo descritta e non raccontata se non una volta analizzata e descritta come fattore connettivo di eventi più generali. (R. Koselleck, Futuro passato, , Marietti, Genova, 1986, p. 125).

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisdell'esperire vivente e dell'agire molte più possibilità di quante ne possano essere attualizzate, dato lo scarso potenziale di attenzione che caratterizza l'agire stesso1. In questa intricata profferta di sempre più disponibili possibilità è necessario operare continuamente una selezione. Complessità, quindi, significa praticamente coazione a scegliere2.

La teoria dei sistemi sociali che qui prendiamo come costante riferimento di riflessione e che si richiama in larga parte al pensiero di Niklas Luhmann, considera la complessità come la caratteristica più specifica dei sistemi sociali sia in rapporto a se stessi sia in rapporto all'ambiente. Di conseguenza il problema della riduzione della complessità del mondo diventa un problema fondamentale dei sistemi sociali. La complessità del mondo, intesa come totalità degli eventi possibili, come sovrabbondanza del possibile, supera sempre ciò che l'uomo è capace di elaborare attraverso l'azione e l'esperienza. Il contenuto stesso dell'esperienza attuale rimanda sempre ad altri sensi, ad altre infinite possibilità ed implicazioni che non è possibile recepire interamente a livello di coscienza e di azione. Pretese eccessive gravano sulla nostra esperienza ed esercitano nei suoi confronti un'azione che la rende incerta, apportando serie minacce alla sua capacità di orientarsi con successo. La disponibilità che queste eccessive pretese insite nell'esperienza esprimono, si denota da un lato come sovrabbondanza del possibile in relazione all'esperienza non ancora divenuta attuale e, dall'altro, come necessità di correre dei rischi allorché l'esperienza si attualizza. Questo aspetto dell'esperienza possibile presenta la doppia struttura della complessità e della contingenza3.

Il concetto di contingenza, immediatamente riferito a quello di complessità, indica che nell'orizzonte delle possibilità dell'esperienza e dell'azione attuale ci sono soltanto possibilità le quali possono riuscire diversamente da come ci si aspettava4. Indichiamo allora con il concetto di complessità la costrizione ad 1 Cfr. R. De Giorgi, Scienza del diritto e legittimazione, cit, p. 19 ss.; N. Luhmann, Struttura della società e semantica, Bari, Laterza, 1983, p. 25; J. Habermas-N. Luhmann, Teoria della società o tecnologia sociale, Milano, Etas, 1983, p. 11.2 “Con il concetto di complessità si vuole indicare che ci sono sempre più possibilità dell'esperire vivente e dell'agire di quante possano essere attualizzate. Complessità, quindi, significa praticamente coazione a scegliere” R. De Giorgi, Scienza del diritto e legittimazione, cit., p. 19. ID., Condizioni della descrizione della complessità nella società del mondo, in R. De Giorgi, Temi di filosofia del diritto, Pensa Multimedia, Lecce, 2006, pp. 13-24.3 Cfr. N. Luhmann, Sociologia del diritto, Laterza, Bari, 1977, p. 40.4 Cfr. J. Habermas-N. Luhmann, Teoria della società o tecnologia sociale, cit., p. 49 ss.; p. 196 ss.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisoperare una selezione e quindi una scelta, mentre con contingenza intendiamo il pericolo che aspettative vengano deluse ed anche la necessità di andare incontro a rischi tutte le volte che si effettua una selezione. I sistemi sociali assolvono alla funzione di comprendere e ridurre la complessità del mondo. Poiché essi sono dotati di una più ridotta complessità rispetto all'ambiente, essi mediano tra la estrema indeterminata complessità del mondo e lo scarso potenziale di senso che hanno l'esperienza e l'agire rispettivamente attuali1.

Per la loro capacità di mediazione tra esperienza e mondo, per il loro presentare il mondo come frammenti aggredibili dell'esperienza umana (frammenti in cui la complessità è già ridotta), i sistemi sociali svolgono la funzione strategica di meccanismo per la riduzione della complessità. I sistemi sociali offrono la possibilità che la complessità venga fruita (cioè che la complessità si trasformi da indeterminata possibilità di azione ed esperienza in contingente esperienza fattuale che si determina al momento in cui si attua) ma che tiene presenti le infinite possibilità scartate al momento della scelta, non per questo eliminate da una possibile successiva utilizzazione. Il sistema si costruisce fissando un confine2 tra interno ed esterno, tra una connessione di azioni sociali fornita di senso (qual è il sistema sociale parziale) e l'universo.

Il sistema allora è il risultato della stabilizzazione di questa differenza, della stabilizzazione, cioè, del confine entro il quale si può mantenere invariato un ordine specifico che presenta una complessità ridotta. Questa strategia della riduzione produce un effetto illusorio, ma necessario per orientare l'azione. Nel sistema si produce infatti una specificazione della complessità del mondo ed i problemi vengono percepiti come problemi del sistema, funzionali al suo mantenimento. Questo meccanismo rende possibile l'effetto funzionale attraverso cui l'attenzione si sposta all'interno del sistema e si concentra su di esso, disinteressandosi del mondo dove, data l'elevata complessità, orientarsi sarebbe impossibile.

Nei sistemi parziali si accentua la capacità selettiva che orienta l'agire in quanto, così concepito, il sistema offre conseguentemente un numero limitato di alternative atte a orientare il comportamento. Nel rapporto sistema/ambiente, dal quale dipende il grado di riduzione della complessità, si potenzia la capacità selettiva del sistema per cui si riduce il coefficiente di 1 N. Luhmann, Illuminismo sociologico, vol. I, Il Saggiatore, Milano, 1983, p. 76.2Cfr. A. Febbrajo, Prefazione, in N. Luhmann, Sociologia del diritto, cit., p. IX-X; Cfr. J. Habermas-N. Luhmann, Teoria della società o tecnologia sociale, cit., p. 11.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisrischio implicito in qualsiasi scelta; si accresce la capacità di agire ed aumenta la velocità con cui si effettuano scelte relative al comportamento. Questa funzione selettiva del sistema crea un'illusione sulla complessità del mondo. Allorché le possibilità scelte per l'azione, in seguito a selezione, vengono attualizzate contemporaneamente alla negazione di infinite altre possibilità accantonate, ma non scartate definitivamente (questo meccanismo è implicito nell'atto della scelta), si produce un grado latente reale della complessità e dei relativi problemi. In ciò consiste la prestazione più alta del sistema la quale permette al comportamento umano di orientarsi.

La riduzione della complessità nel rapporto sistema/ambiente verso un formato più accessibile all'esperienza e all'azione viene guidata dal senso che si può considerare come una strategia comportamentale e selettiva in condizione di alta complessità. Un paradosso però si verifica nel momento stesso in cui determinati meccanismi intervengono a ridurre la complessità: ridurre la complessità per l'azione significa operare su di un orizzonte che, una volta definito, si apre a infinite altre possibilità suscettibili di essere ridotte, ma contestualmente stimolate ad accrescersi illimitatamente. Allora è il senso che induce il sottosistema ad assumere una propria identità nei confronti dell'ambiente per cui ogni sistema tenderà ad avere un rapporto suo particolare con il suo ambiente interno alla società. Ciò comporta una visione autoreferenziale del sistema sociale. Questa consente, in una società ad alta complessità e funzionalmente differenziata, che ogni singolo sistema si autolegittimi e si fondi, sviluppando al proprio interno strategie per la riduzione della complessità ed invero stabilendo i criteri della propria razionalità.

2.3 Le aspettativeUn ulteriore sviluppo della teoria dei sistemi ci permette di

analizzare il sistema sociale in generale, e il sistema dell’educazione in particolare, usando come strumento d'indagine la prospettiva della aspettativa; prospettiva tanto più proficua in quanto ci conduce a guardare la formazione da un punto di vista finora non debitamente considerato, rendendo possibile soluzioni di problemi e problematizzazioni di temi per una osservazione da punti di vista diversi dei processi educativi e formativi.

Il sistema dell’educazione costituisce un sistema della comunicazione che al suo interno delimita e stabilizza un ambito di possibilità. Rispetto ad esso si producono aspettative.

Per capire meglio cosa si intende con aspettativa ci rifaremo a studi specifici di metodo e di semantica storica sviluppati da R. Koselleck.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisL'aspettativa, come l'esperienza per Koselleck, è una

categoria storica. Esperienza ed aspettativa sono categorie esclusivamente formali perché non permettono di inferire che cosa sia stato sperimentato né cosa ci si aspetti di caso in caso. Si tratta inoltre di categorie specifiche: le possibilità di tutto l'agire (anche quello educativo e formativo), inteso come storico, sono costituite da esperienze e aspettative degli uomini che non dicono niente in merito alla storia ogni volta concreta.

E' palese comunque che queste due categorie presentano un più alto grado di astrazione rispetto ad altre che si riferiscono ad un più immediato mondo della vita. In questo senso si equivalgono a spazio e tempo. Mentre coppie concettuali tipo servo-padrone, guerra-pace, ecc., hanno valenza alternativa e significato che si escludono, la coppia concettuale esperienza e aspettativa è chiusa in sé, non pone alternative, ognuno dei due termini non è possibile senza l'altro: non c'è esperienza senza aspettativa e non c'è aspettativa senza esperienza. Entrambe rimandano ad una struttura antropologica presupposta, senza la quale la storia non è neanche pensabile. Esperienza e aspettativa, dunque, sono due categorie atte a tematizzare il tempo storico in quanto intrecciano tra loro il passato e il futuro1. Esse stanno ad indicare le temporalità dell'uomo e metastoricamente indicano la misura in cui esse siano la condizione di possibilità dell'agire.

L'esperienza può essere intesa come un passato presente i cui eventi sono stati compresi nell'esperienza propria e altrui e possono essere ricordati; l'aspettativa analogamente è anch'essa personale ed impersonale; l'attesa si compie nell'oggi: è futuro presentificato e tende a ciò che ancora non è. L'esperienza è puntuale in quanto passato di esperienza fatta, l'aspettativa si scompone in infinite estensioni temporali diverse. Esperienza e aspettativa, passato e futuro non coincidono mai ed entrambe sono proiezioni del presente2. La presenza del passato è diversa dalla presenza del futuro, per cui, con espressione metaforica, si può parlare di spazio di esperienza e di orizzonte di aspettative. Infatti l'esperienza tramandata è spaziale e si raccoglie in una totalità presente fatta di molti strati di tempo precedenti. L'aspettativa intesa come orizzonte, rispecchia le caratteristiche dell'immagine metaforica per cui l'orizzonte si riferisce ad una linea dietro la quale si apre un futuro, un nuovo possibile spazio di esperienza non ancora visibile. Malgrado la possibilità di prognosi, l'accessibilità del futuro non è passibile di esperienza. In altri 1 Cfr. R. Koselleck, Futuro passato, cit., p. 303.2 Cfr. G. H. Mead, La filosofia del presente, tr. it. di G. A. Roggerone, Napoli, Guida, 1986.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensistermini lo spazio di esperienza non è mai sufficiente a determinare l'orizzonte delle aspettative.

Nel corso dell'evoluzione storico-sociale, queste categorie hanno subito un mutamento semantico giungendo, per Koselleck, al punto che è possibile dire che quanto più scarso è il contenuto di esperienza, tanto maggiore è l'aspettativa1, ma anche che quanto maggiore è l'esperienza, tanto più cauta, ma anche più aperta è l'aspettativa2.

Il valore di quest'analisi per lo svolgimento della ricerca è prezioso in quanto ci permette di porre delle basi concettuali di natura generale, ma che possono essere utilizzate in un ambito più ristretto, qual è quello del sistema educativo guardato dal punto di vista della teoria dei sistemi.

Per trattare del sistema delle aspettative e dei suoi vari livelli riflessivi è necessario riferirlo alla complessità e alla contingenza del campo di esperienza, soprattutto in relazione al suo aspetto concreto ed alle astrazioni che lo regolano e lo integrano come struttura. Centrale per il problema delle aspettative è, dunque, il concetto di struttura. Al fine di rendere più chiara la comprensione, cercheremo, allora di puntualizzare la nostra idea di struttura per una proficua trattazione delle aspettative e per rendere più trasparenti quegli ambiti concettuali in cui è usato il termine in questione, ma che potrebbero essere nebulosi a causa della nostra necessaria concisione nello svolgimento dei concetti.

Per definire la struttura, in genere, si ricorre ad una sua proprietà, vale a dire alla sua relativa costanza. Questa apparente contraddizione di termini, pur rendendo bene l'idea di cosa oggi s'intende per struttura, tuttavia elude la più interessante questione delle ragioni per cui si ha bisogno di una costanza relativa. La risposta a questi quesiti può essere data definendo la struttura mediante la sua funzione più specifica: è operare selezioni e rafforzare la selettività mediante una doppia selezione.

Diventa vantaggioso, se non indispensabile, in un mondo complesso e contingente, costituito in base al senso, mettere in rapporto tra loro le diverse fasi in cui si svolge il processo di selezione. Nel processo quotidiano della comunicazione si sceglie da una pluralità di possibilità di comunicazione e colui che viene investito dal flusso comunicativo non recepisce più ciò che è stato comunicato come selezione, ma come premessa delle proprie selezioni a cui collegare scelte per una nuova selezione. Questo meccanismo, in gran parte inconscio o, quanto meno non a livelli elevati di coscienza, libera il singolo da gran parte dell'onere di un 1 R. Koselleck, Futuro passato, cit., p. 231.2 Ivi, p. 322.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisesame autonomo delle alternative e dal dover problematizzare, tutte le volte che opera una selezione, i sedimenti di senso acquisiti.

Riferendo una selezione ad un'altra selezione le strutture potenziano questo effetto di alleggerimento perché limitano il campo delle possibilità di scelta in quanto scelgono preliminarmente ciò che deve essere scelto1. In questo modo le strutture determinano l'arbitrario e riducono in un ambito più ristretto e più accessibile le infinite possibilità di scelta.

La prestazione che rende la struttura indefinita e non vincolante risiede nel fatto che la sua funzione riduttiva si esplica anzitutto come messa in ombra di alternative. Questo modo di essere rende superfluo esplicitare gli assunti strutturanti da cui si prendono le mosse, cioè non vengono messi continuamente in discussione. L'analisi teorica deve superare questo livello di assunzione della struttura considerandone la selettività e la non-ovvietà. Quindi essa deve potersi rappresentare la realtà come più complicata e più ricca di alternative di quanto non appaia a chi, senza problematizzarla, vive in essa. Possibilità diverse si mostrano in selezioni della struttura allorché subentrano delusioni di un'aspettativa.

Il riferimento di questa alla realtà risulta proprio dalla sua possibilità di essere delusa, piuttosto che da una sua regolarità di realizzazione. Poiché le strutture consolidano come attendibili solo una porzione molto ristretta del possibile, esse ingannano sulla vera complessità del mondo, correndo il rischio di essere continuamente deluse. Da questo punto di vista le strutture trasformano il permanente possibile della complessità in delusioni eventuali contro cui è possibile realmente intraprendere qualcosa: si può dire così che le strutture (dal punto di vista psichico) regolano la paura2 quindi nel giudicare l'adeguatezza delle strutture, bisogna sempre tener presente il problema della delusione.

Stabilizzazione delle strutture vuol dire, dunque, oltre che progetto dotato di senso, anche la messa a punto di meccanismi per l'assorbimento delle delusioni. Questo intendere la struttura come stabile, e tuttavia suscettibile di delusioni, costringe ad assumere dei rischi3 che porterebbero ad insopportabili tensioni e 1Cfr. N. Luhmann, Sociologia del diritto, cit., p. 50.2 Cfr. N. Luhmann, Sociologia del diritto, cit., p. 52.3 Il concetto di rischio assume particolare significato per descrivere in modo diverso gli esiti delle attività di selezione in base a scelte. In tutti i casi in cui tratteremo di rischio, intendiamo per rischio un possibile danno derivante da scelte soggettive, ma anche come unica possibilità che abbiamo per costruire

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisdifficoltà di orientamento se il sistema sociale della società non disponesse di due possibilità antitetiche per reagire alla delusione delle aspettative. Nel momento in cui le delusioni si presentano come oggetto di esperienza nel quadro della realtà, rimane un'alternativa: o cambiare le aspettative deluse cercando di adattarle alla realtà deludente, oppure mantenerle ferme a dispetto della realtà deludente4. In base all'atteggiamento che è dominante, in questi casi, si può parlare di aspettative cognitive o di aspettative normative.

Questa formulazione della distinzione tra cognitivo e normativo si riferisce funzionalmente alla soluzione di un certo problema e può dare, in questo modo, un contributo essenziale per la chiarificazione dei meccanismi elementari di formazione delle strutture di apprendimento e dei meccanismi che trasformano l’educazione da processo problematico in esito formativo vero e proprio.

La disponibilità ad apprendere (non necessariamente consapevole) caratterizza le aspettative cognitive; la decisione di non apprendere dalla delusione, per contro, è l'atteggiamento tipico di un'aspettativa normativa.

Di per sé un'aspettativa non è indifferente al fatto di essere realizzata o meno, quantunque attui processi di neutralizzazione simbolica in presenza di sempre possibile delusione. Infatti, per un'aspettativa è importante essere gratificata da un esito positivo oppure essere frustrata da una delusione.

Le aspettative di comportamento stabilizzate in modo da resistere a variazioni della situazione di fatto vengono indicate come norme il cui senso implica una validità incondizionata perché percepita (istituzionalizzata) come slegata dalla realizzazione fattuale o dalla mancata realizzazione della norma. Il riferimento simbolico dell'aspettativa di questo genere viene indicato come dover essere. Considerato nella giusta dimensione il dover essere non si contrappone a fattuale, per cui normativo

vincoli per il futuro; con pericolo ci riferiremo alla possibilità che si verifichi un danno in seguito a scelte di altri. Cfr: R. De Giorgi, Il rischio nella società contemporanea, in R. De Giorgi, Temi di filosofia del diritto, cit., pp. 55-68. Una letteratura che diventa sempre più ampia si occupa del rischio nella società, definendo addirittura la società contemporanea come “società del rischio”. Cfr. N. Luhmann, Sociologia del Rischio, Bruno Mondadori, 1996; A. Marinelli, La costruzione del rischio, Angeli, Milano 1993; M. Douglas, Rischio e colpa, Il Mulino, Bologna 1996; U. Beck , Un mondo a rischio, Einaudi, Torino 2003: ID., La società globale del rischio, Asterios, Trieste 2001; ID., La società del rischio, Carocci, Roma 2006; ID., I rischi della libertà, Il mulino, Bologna 2000; A. Giddens, Le conseguenze della Modernità, Il Mulino, Bologna 1994.4 Cfr. N. Luhmann, Sociologia del diritto, cit., p. 53.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisnon ha la sua antitesi in fattuale, ma nel cognitivo. Tuttavia non è possibile spingere fin troppo oltre questa contrapposizione tra normativo e cognitivo, tra dover essere ed essere, in quanto essi, di fronte ad una delusione dell'aspettativa, rappresentano una soluzione funzionalmente equivalente, sebbene frutto di due strategie diverse.

Sia apprendere che non apprendere possono aiutare a superare una situazione deludente realizzando la medesima funzione. In questi equivalenti funzionali, cioè sul fatto che non solo comportamenti analoghi, ma anche opposti, riescano a svolgere la medesima funzione, si basa il successo della vita sociale, si basa il successo dell’apprendimento, si basa il processo educativo. Con questo particolare modo di operare viene semplificato il rinvenimento di una soluzione per ogni caso di delusione per cui, a seconda dell'aspettativa, del suo significato e della sua importanza, si può decidere se mantenere o abbandonare l'aspettativa stessa.

La società, attraverso questa differenziazione del modo di reagire alla delusione delle aspettative, può giungere ad un compromesso tra le esigenze dell'adattamento alla realtà e della costanza delle aspettative, istituzionalizzando reazioni di comportamento cognitive o normative a seconda che i suoi interessi siano di adattamento o di urgenza di sicurezza. Partendo da questa doppia strategia, atta ad arginare il rischio riducendolo, in una società altamente complessa si giunge a capire che la separazione tra essere e dover essere o tra verità ed educazione, non è una struttura immanente al mondo, ma è una conquista evolutiva. In questa ottica è facile immaginarsi la nascita del sistema educativo dalle delusioni di aspettative e dal comportamento corrispondente il quale consapevolmente non abbandona l'aspettativa delusa.

Grosse implicazioni corrono tra deviazione dall'aspettativa e deviazione dalla verità, specie in campo psichiatrico in cui il trattamento della deviazione dalle aspettative interpretato come comportamento patologico, presuppone una mancanza di differenziazione dei fondamenti delle aspettative. Particolarmente interessanti sono in questo campo le sovrapposizioni tra psichiatria e morale.

Solo nel campo delle aspettative che non sono ovvie si giunge ad una differenziazione accentuata tra aspettative cognitive e normative. L'aumento della complessità interna della struttura delle aspettative nel tentativo di adeguarsi al mondo, costituisce il principio su cui poggia la conquista evolutiva della differenziazione tra aspettative cognitive ed aspettative

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisnormative. Il sistema delle aspettative, comunque inteso, in presenza di un alto grado di complessità e di contingenza, elabora delle strategie per diminuire il rischio. Malgrado la specificità strutturale delle aspettative esiste la possibilità che, tuttavia, un'aspettativa cognitiva riesca a non apprendere ed un'aspettativa normativa attui un processo di apprendimento. E' abbastanza semplice riuscire ad identificare la riduzione del rischio con l'introduzione nell'aspettativa di un elemento di stile contrario a quello predominante. Esiste allora la possibilità di ipotizzare che la soluzione del problema risiede nel consentire una contraddizione che, come tale, deve rimanere latente.

Questo meccanismo dell'aspettare in modo normativo suscettibile di apprendimento e dell'aspettare in modo cognitivo che non conduce all'adattamento, si può osservare anche nel sistema dell’educazione moderno. Questo modo di trattare le delusioni da parte delle aspettative potrebbe portare ad una perdita di orientamento se non ci fossero delle vie d'uscita accettabili che risiedono in strategie contrarie, ma funzionalmente equivalenti e vantaggiose per reagire, a seconda delle circostanze, con l'apprendimento o il non-apprendimento.

Accanto a questo modo di considerare le aspettative ne esiste un altro che riposa sulla possibilità di aspettare aspettative. Attraverso questo processo si formano catene di aspettative in cui sono comprese sia possibilità di apprendimento che di non-apprendimento. Di conseguenza, aumentando i livelli di riflessività aumentano anche le possibilità di combinazione. Si può osservare, da questa prospettiva, che la normazione della scelta dello stile di aspettativa normativo o cognitivo muta, e che la norma può passare, successivamente, da uno stile di aspettative più normativo ad uno stile più cognitivamente tollerante. La possibilità di aspettare aspettative altrui è quindi una conquista fondamentale per la convivenza umana.

Il bisogno formativo come operazione di osservazionePer analisi dei bisogni formativi, generalmente si intende

un’indagine (quindi un’operazione di osservazione) che è orientata ad individuare e definire le iniziative e gli interventi ritenuti necessari in una ben circoscritta situazione educativa, capace di veicolare in questa direzione le linee strategiche dell’azione formativa stessa. Si potrebbe dire che l’analisi dei bisogni è lo strumento funzionalmente preposto a realizzare una progettazione efficace nonché capace di definire le opzioni didattico-metodologiche più adeguate per rendere intenzionale e non casuale l’azione formativa.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisPer affrontare adeguatamente questo compito abbiamo

considerato come riferimento gli orientamenti pedagogici rivolti alla prospettiva delle scienze dell’educazione che hanno indirizzato la tematizzazione della conoscenza verso l’integrazione dei saperi e predisposta a considerare una generalizzabilità degli eventi educativi con riferimenti più puntuali ai contesti nei quali la conoscenza viene prodotta e diffusa1.

Questo vuol dire che riteniamo valido il principio secondo il quale ogni esperienza formativa dotata di intenzionalità è sempre una esperienza educativa e la presenza, nelle attività di formazione professionale, di una componente addestrativa non lo intacca minimamente. Proprio in quanto ogni attività di apprendimento, sebbene formalmente addestrativa, non è mai priva di una finalità educativa potenziale2.

Tale principio è, a nostro avviso, applicabile anche all’interno di quella che viene definita educazione lifelong nella quale si avverte la necessità di salvaguardare, attraverso una diversa connotazione del compito formativo, la crescita e il cambiamento della persona. Tutto ciò applicabile anche in ambito extrascolastico 3, pur con le dovute distinzioni tra compito e bisogno formativo e la loro reciproca interferenza; mentre concordiamo con la necessità di collocare esperienze di analisi in un contesto ambientale che solo può fornire elementi di contatto con la realtà e in grado di far emergere i condizionamenti che intercorrono tra compiti e bisogni formativi.

Nella particolarità dell’analisi dei bisogni sviluppata in ambito sociale queste affermazioni di principio trovano ampia applicazione soprattutto per la complessità organizzativa che caratterizza le organizzazioni sociali. Per questo riteniamo dirimente l’osservazione e la conoscenza del contesto, complessivamente inteso, come ambiente all’interno del quale l’analisi dei bisogni potrà individuare gli elementi che la renderanno possibile come sistema educativo differenziato.

1 Cfr. B. Massa, Educare o istruire?, Unicopli, Milano, 1987.2 Cfr. A. Munari, Le ragioni dell’educativo e del formativo, in Galliani L. (a cura di), Educazione versus formazione, ESI, Napoli, 2003.3 Cfr. N. Paparella, Il compito di sviluppo ;una nuova categoria ermeneutica, in C. Scurati (a cura di), Realtà e forme dell’insegnamento. Contributi per una teoria della didattica, La Scuola, Brescia, 1990.

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BibliografiaBALDASSARRE V.A., ZACCARO F., LIGORIO M. B. (a cura di), Progettare la formazione, Carocci editore, Roma, 2004;BECK U., La società globale del rischio, Asterios, Trieste 2001; ID., Un mondo a rischio, Einaudi, Torino 2003;ID., La società del rischio, Carocci, Roma 2006; BERGER P., LUCKMANN TH., La realtà come costruzione sociale, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1969;BOCCHI G., CERUTI (a cura di), La sfida della complessità, Feltrinelli, Milano, 1985; BOCHICCHIO F., I formatori: l'educatore. Competenze, tecniche e strumenti per la formazione degli adulti, CELID Torino 2000; ID. et al, Analisi dei bisogni di formazione (Università di Bari), CELID Torino 2002;ID. et al, Analisi dei bisogni di formazione (Unical), CELID Torino 2003ID. et al, Gestire la formazione continua, CELID, Torino 2004;ID., Gli esperti della formazione. Profili interpretativi di una professione emergente, Amaltea, Melpignano (Le) 2006;ID. (a cura di ), Gli esperti della formazione, Amaltea edizioni, Melpignano (Le), 2006;ID. et al, Le ricadute della formazione. Significati, approcci, esperienze, Amaltea, Melpignano (Le) 2009;BROWN G. S., Laws of Form, Allen&Unwin, London, 1969;CORBETTA P. Metodologia e tecniche della ricerca sociale, il Mulino, Bologna, 1999;CORSI G., Sistemi che apprendono, Pensa Multimedia, Lecce, 1998;DE GIORGI R., Scienza del diritto e legittimazione, Bari, De Donato, 1979; ID., Temi di filosofia del diritto, Pensa Multimedia, Lecce, 2006;DOUGLAS M., Rischio e colpa, Il Mulino, Bologna 1996; ESPOSITO E., L’operazione di osservazione: costruttivismo e teoria dei sistemi sociali, Franco Angeli, Milano, 1992;FOESTER von H., Sistemi che osservano, Astrolabio, Roma, 1987;GALLIANI L. (a cura di), Educazione versus formazione, ESI, Napoli, 2003;GIDDENS A., Le conseguenze della Modernità, Il mulino, Bologna 1994;GIGLIETTO F., Alle radici del futuro, Franco Angeli, Milano, 2006; GLASERSFELD E. von, in “Constructivis in Education”, Lawrence Erlbaum Ed., NJ, 1995; HABERMAS J. – LUHMANN N., Teoria della società o tecnologia sociale, Milano, Etas, 1973;INHELDER B., SINCLAIR H., BOVET M., “Apprendimento e strutture della conoscenza”, Loescher Ed., Torino, 1975;KOSELLECK R., Futuro passato, , Marietti, Genova, 1986;LAENG M., Pedagogia sperimentale, La Nuova Italia, Firenze 1992;

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisLUHMANN N., R. De GIORGI, La teoria della società, Franco Angeli, Milano, 1992; LUHMANN N., Sociologia del diritto, Laterza, Bari, 1977;ID., Struttura della società e semantica, Bari, Laterza, 1983; ID., Illuminismo sociologico, vol. I, Il Saggiatore, Milano, 1983;ID., Il sistema educativo. Problemi di riflessività, Armando, Roma, 1988; ID., Sistemi sociali. Fondamenti di una teoria generale, Il Mulino, Milano, 1990;ID., Sociologia del Rischio, Bruno Mondadori, 1996; MARINELLI A., La costruzione del rischio, Angeli, Milano 1993; MASSA B., Educare o istruire?, Unicopli, Milano, 1987;MATURANA H., Autopoiesi e cognizione: la realizzazione del vivente, Marsilio, Venezia, 1988;MEAD G. H., La filosofia del presente, tr. it. di G. A. Roggerone, Napoli, Guida, 1986;MONASTA A. (a cura di), Mestiere: progettista di formazione, Carocci, Roma, 2000;NICCOLI E., Il costruttivismo in didattica: una teoria o un atteggiamento?, «Giornale di Didattica della Società Chimica Italiana», ISSN 0392-5912, Anno XXV, n. 2, 2003; PIAGET J., Introduzione all’epistemologia genetica, Emme Edizioni, Milano, 1982;SARRACINO V. Progettare la formazione, Carocci, NIS, Roma, 1997;SCURATI C. (a cura di), Realtà e forme dell’insegnamento. Contributi per una teoria della didattica, La Scuola, Brescia, 1990;TROMBETTA C., ROSIELLO L., La ricerca-azione. Il modello di Kurt Lewin e le sue applicazioni. Edizioni Erickson, Trento 2000; WATZLAWICK P., La realtà inventata, Feltrinelli, Milano 2006.

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THE DISTANCE EDUCATION THROUGH THE INTERNET

Dr Mirela MAZILUAssociate Professor, Craiova University

Abstract: Regardless of the degree of content organisation and of the degree of control of the computer on the learning process, all the learning experiences which use a computer are classified by the generic term of Computer Based Learning (IMC/CBL). The computer can be used either as a means of communication, case in which we talk about the Computer Based Communication, or as a tutor which monitors and leads the student’s learning, case in which we talk about the Computer Assisted Instruction. This distinction is useful because sometimes the terms used as being synonymous, as the ones from the INTEC University do when they identify the CBL with the CAI saying that CBL means the teaching and the learning with the help of the computer where the one who studies interacts with a computer and its program, and this one controls and directs the instructional sequence according to the student’s answers. CBL (the wider meaning of the term) means indeed an active style of learning rather than passive, as the ones at INTEC believe, because the student follows the information shown on the screen, determines the rhythm of the presentation either through the click of the keyboard to pass to the instructional sequence which comes next or to a previous one (in the case of the CAI), or through sending an answer to the request arrived through the network from the other students, or instructors involved in the process of distance education through the network of computers.

Key words: pedagogic, e-learning, communication, risk, research.

1. Pedagogic aspects of the use of new informatics and communication technologies in the distance education

The new ways of learning available in the distance education programs differ a lot from the traditional ones. That is the reason why the more and more ample integration of the new informatics and communication technologies in the learning process, needs a profound reconsidering of the contemporary didactics, because the new means of learning available through these new technologies differ fundamentally from the learning and the teaching of the traditional classroom. This reconsideration must start firstly from the analysis of the features of these new technologies, and of the multiple functions which they can fulfil: the communicating functions, the demonstration, the solution of

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisthe problems, the research, the simulation, the assessment, and even the sensitivity and the increase in motivation. Otherwise, these programs risk having a smaller effect than the one expected.

The use of these new technologies in education determines radical changes at the level of each component of the didactic process, of teaching as well as of learning. Although the new means of learning lack an authentic pedagogic relationship, and a low level of interaction, they allow in fact a pedagogic communication which is not reduced to the talked and the written one, but it includes progressively the entire register of specific means of the dynamic of the contemporary human communication, like multimedia. (Ioan Cerghit). As these means are used in the permanent training activity, the functions of self-studying are increased, easing the effort of self-studying and self-education of each individual (…) estimating that through the rational integrity of the new informatics technologies in the learning process a great part of the requests of the intensive learning will be achieved, and an increase in the productivity as well.

According to the nature of the interaction, which can be performed in real time (through network conferences) or at some distance in time (through e-mail), we can distinguish between synchronic systems of supplying the training and a-synchronic systems of supplying the training. According to its terms, the interaction can be achieved between the student and the teacher, the student and the content, between the students, cases when the focus is on the facilitating and teaching role of the teacher, either on the capacity and the activism of the student through learning, or on the so-called cooperative learning which finds new values in the new means offered by the electronic bulletins, list servers and newsgroups.

The learning with the help of computer based materials is separating itself from the traditional means of learning through a series of advantages and disadvantages which this technology has: the increased flexibility of the materials and the possibility of bringing up to date with minimum costs; the integration of a variety of learning means; the access to a multitude of other available resources through the World Wide Web, advantages that make possible a high motivation and a more active engagement of the student in the study. Some of the main disadvantages of the distance training are the permanent necessity to familiarise with the new facilities offered by the technology and the high costs of its implementation.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisA course on distance education must come to confront

other problems as well with which the distance student may deal, like: the isolation status of the student (this may not allow the maintenance of a proper level of motivation on a long term); difficulties of organising the study and of finding the time necessary for studying; finding the balance; lack of motivation; lack of the learning resources with which the student is accustomed; the difficulty in developing some special skills.

The actual performances of those who study with the help of these means will depend on the way in which this technology is seen, understood and used, either as a simple information system, or as an education management system.

In order to benefit fully from the material set forth by these technologies, the students need a context and a pedagogical environment (of guidance, advice, explicatory notes etc.). Thus for the organisation of an efficient educational environment the course materials are necessary, as well as trained teachers and mediators who are as important as the rest of the means.

There are essential differences between the traditional lesson and the on-line course which come from the specific means of learning. The existing material in the traditional courses in order to be transformed into an on-line course, it has to suffer some upgrades related to the general structure, the conception and the language, so that it can take specific shapes, and stylistic features. This happens especially because the reference materials and the books are elaborated for the face to face teaching. They can be completed by the information offered by the teacher from the traditional classroom. With distance learning and self-education, the lack of the direct relationship between the teacher and the student represents a constraint, because the student works individually. In this case, the learning material must be built on a modular structure, secondly, it has to be complete, to contain all the necessary information for the study: from content, explanations, applications, exercises of self-evaluation, elements to help the process of learning, explicatory notes, glossaries etc.

Thus, apart from the traditional teaching in the classroom, the distance education needs more time for its elaboration.

The distance learning is different from the traditional one, allowing, through the integration of different multimedia resource, a greater involvement from the part of the student in learning and an increased control of the learning.

The new technologies offer numerous opportunities for the student to learn, but the cooperative learning is also a very important concept. This concept finds its definition in the distance

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Annales Universitatis Apulensistraining (through means like the www, the electronic bulletins, newsgroups etc.), although it made a carrier in different learning theories. This means a learning process which emphasises the group efforts or cooperative between faculty and students, facilitating the active interaction and participation. The knowledge is seen in this case as a social construction and thus the entire educational process is built on the basis of interaction, evaluation and group cooperation.

All these special features of the distance learning environment shape a new vision on learning, different from the one in which the teacher offers information and the student assimilates, called the Focus on the Problem. This means that the students start learning trying to solve problems, using their own knowledge, becoming thus conscious of their needs of information and of the situations and the ways in which they can use the theoretical knowledge.

This perspective on learning means a compensation of some aspects from the traditional way of organising the instruction through a profound structure of the students’ interaction with the learning environment, and through the use of proper strategies for the cooperative solution of the problems, as well as through the organisation of the study starting from the authentic problem in order to determine the understanding of the theoretical knowledge acquired, as well as its possible applications, so that the students can choose the relevant information for the given tasks.

The development of the means of education from the constructivist perspective must be oriented towards the four principles formulated by Mandl and Reinmmann Rotlmeier: to have as starting points problems and authentic and relevant solutions; to refer to multiple contexts (the www has a special potential which can be seen from an ethnic and methodological perspective as the materialisation of the inter-textual), but to structure the learning around the primary concepts; to include the multiple perspectives of the learning object; to be framed within a social context, to which the revaluation of the students’ points of view are added; to adapt the curriculum in order to answer the students suppositions; to evaluate the students’ learning in the context of teaching.

Thus, the result is the fact that the distance trainer with the constructivist direction: encourages and accepts the autonomy and the initiative of the student; uses raw data and primary sources, together with other manipulative materials, interactive and physical; uses in the formulation of tasks a cognitive

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisterminology like: classifications, analyses, predictions, creations; changes its instructional strategies and the presented contents according to the students’ answers; questions the students on their opinions about the concept before presenting his/her own position; encourages the dialogue; maintains the natural curiosity of the students.

As a conclusion, the advanced technologies have the potential to revaluate more than the current didactics and to lead to its major reconsideration. These involve at the same time a change of the teacher’s role from the expert to the mediator or the instructor, as well as of the system structure of the education. The instructional technology determines what the evaluation means, its inclusion in the instructional process, ensuring the students a permanent feed-back which can direct their learning, correct their tasks, and can structure their experiences around their individual needs. With the help of the new technologies, the results of the assessment can be monitored by a specialised instructor or can be recorded in individual charts to show the students’ progress.

2. The risks involvedEven from the beginning of the development of the

different users’ interfaces on the Internet, these have been used for educational purposes and today being present in many institutions of all types. In the nearest future all the schools will be connected to the network (at least in our country). The real performances of those who learn using these types of means will be dependent on the way in which the technology is seen and used (the www for instance) either as a simple informational system, or as a learning system.

The Communicational Organisation means not only factors and technical aspects, but also aspects which are related to the human factor and to the discourse. Then besides an analysis of the informational flux through the hypertext as a process of writing and reading in the Distance Education on the www, there appears the hypothesis that in order to be efficient the electronic communications need a meta-communication code to help the process of writing and the reading one.

Finally the precautions related to the use of technology are connected to the limits of the technology itself. Bates’ advice is very important …we must define very carefully those areas where we must not use the technology even if it was at hand, taking into account the quality differences between the direct social interaction and the mediated one.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisEven if the new informatics and communication

technologies represent efficient instrument for the extensive broadcasting of courses and pedagogic materials, the numerous and the attractive facilities which these offer can lead to the exaggerated enthusiasm regarding their use in education. What has happened at the appearance of the TV and the radio when many have predicted optimistically their use in the process of learning and teaching, might repeat. Still, like the audiotapes and the videotapes which could be sent anywhere in the world, the www can supply textbooks at a mass scale. That is why without an unconditioned adoption of the informatics technologies we must not forget their real advantages. 3. Research

Like any new domain of activity, especially when it is about working with people, in order to find sooner the best ways to perform related to the purposes followed, a theoretical foundation is necessary. The research in the distance education field aims at the efficiency of the technology, the acquiring of the people who learn, the design of the course, the teaching strategies, the proportion cost-benefit, the policy etc. From the performed researches, most of them focus on the efficiency of the means, for instance, the success of a given course (measured in the terms of student satisfaction) using one or more means of communication.

Although this type can be useful in taking decisions regarding the selection of the means within a special distance education program, this one does not contribute too much to the general understanding of the distance education. In fact the most comparative studies about the means used lead to the conclusion that there are not any significant differences. On the contrary, there is the need to further research about the variables which influence the results of distance education.

References:BĂLTEANU, D. (2005), Dezvoltarea actuală a cercetării geografice, Buletinul Societăţii de Geografie, tom XI (XXCI), Ed. Societăţii de Geografie, Bucureşti.GOLU, T., VERZA, E. şi ZLATE, M. (1995), Psihologia copilului, E.D.P., Bucureşti. ILINCA, N. (2000), Didactica geografiei, Editura Corint, Bucureşti.MITROI, M. (1998), Metodica predării geografiei, Editura Scrisul Românesc, Craiova.MAZILU, M. (2004), Ecologie şi protecţia mediului înconjurător, Editura Mirton, Timişoara.MAZILU, Mirela (2008), Managementul calităţii în învăţământ depinde

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisde competenţa didactică, Revista Calitatea - acces la succes, nr. 1-2/2008.MAZILU, Mirela (2009), Resursele Umane în educaţie, Editura ASE, pp. 180-184, Bucureşti.MAZILU, Mirela (2009), Didactica geografiei în societatea bazată pe cunoaştere, în vol. Contemporary Trends in teaching and learning Geography, vol. 5, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană 2008, pp. 26-30.SCHOUMAKER, B.M. (1994), Didactica Geografiei, Editura All, Bucureşti.STOICA, A., (2000), Reforma evaluării în învăţământ, Editura Sigma, Bucureşti.

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IL METODO FEUERSTEIN. PROGRAMMA DI ARRICCHIMENTO STRUMENTALE

Dr Daniel MARAAssociate Professor, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu

Abstract:Instrumental Enrichment Program is the result of researches conducted by psychologist Reuven Feuerstein of romanian origin and consists of a methodology for intervention in improving cognitive abilities: memory, reasons, attention, and especially to increase the capacity of coordination of these mental functions autonomously and active moods. Instrumental Enrichment Program is composed of 14 instruments used to develop cognitive and metacognitive capabilities. Instruments permit the skills training to mental concepts used in different situations. Each instrument is focused on a specific cognitive function and provide pre-acquisition to go deeply and develop the cognitive capacities involved in solving tasks.

1. L’organizzazione del programmaIl Programma di Arricchimento Strumentale, è composto da

14 strumenti per il potenziamento delle capacità mentali. Gli strumenti non hanno contenuti disciplinari perché non puntano all’acquisizione di conoscenze specifiche, ma all’acquisizione di abilità mentali, di concetti utilizzabili in molte occasioni diverse. Ogni strumento si focalizza su una specifica funzione cognitiva, ma è utile per svilupparne una gamma piuttosto ampia e fornisce i prerequisiti per approfondire ed ampliare le capacità cognitive necessarie ad affrontare compiti che richiedono livelli di astrazione sempre più alti (Kopciowski Camerini, 2002).

Gli strumenti sono: Organizzazione punti, Orientamento spaziale I, Confronti, Percezione analitica, Immagini, Orientamento spaziale II, Classificazioni, Relazioni temporali, Istruzioni, Relazioni familiari, Progressioni numeriche, Sillogismi, Relazioni transitive, Sagome.

Nei corsi di formazione gli strumenti sono presentati in tre stadi che corrispondono molto spesso a tre anni successivi: i primi cinque strumenti, definiti di primo livello, sono affrontati nel primo corso, i cinque successivi nel secondo e gli ultimi quattro, di terzo livello, l’ultimo anno.

In linea di principio essi prevedono un ordine di somministrazione ben preciso: si comincia con Organizzazione Punti, che introduce i concetti che accompagneranno tutto il

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Annales Universitatis Apulensislavoro con il PAS e fornisce indicazioni ed occasioni per imparare ad organizzare il proprio lavoro, e si termina con Sagome che richiede un livello di astrazione molto alto e la capacità di impiegare le funzioni cognitive potenziate nel corso di tutto il programma.

Gli esercizi di tutti gli strumenti, con esclusione di Immagini e Relazioni Temporali, che sono organizzati in modo diverso, prevedono un graduale aumento delle difficoltà, in modo tale da creare progressivamente i prerequisiti necessari alla risoluzione degli esercizi successivi, rinforzando in questa maniera il senso di competenza, l’autonomia nella gestione del lavoro e la motivazione intrinseca allo svolgimento dell’attività, e permettono, inoltre, di dedicare un tempo adeguato alla riflessione sui meccanismi che hanno portato alla soluzione dei compiti (Vanini, 2003).

Ogni strumento comincia con una pagina illustrata Pagina di Copertina e che viene usata per introdurre lo strumento, creare aspettative e motivazione affinché il ragazzo provi il desiderio di cimentarsi con gli esercizi che verranno proposti. Le pagine di copertina hanno alcune caratteristiche che rimangono uguali di strumento in strumento per sottolineare la continuità del lavoro, altre, il nome ed un’immagine che rappresenta il simbolo dello strumento, che lo caratterizzano e lo distinguono dagli altri. Il mediatore guida i soggetti ad analizzare il simbolo perché comincino ad immaginare quale sarà il contenuto degli esercizi che affronteranno e, dalla discussione che si intavola, realizzino che non solo affronteranno argomenti utili, ma che avranno la possibilità di approfondire temi di loro interesse che esulano dall’attività scolastica per spaziare nel mondo delle prospettive per il futuro, delle amicizie, del lavoro (Feuerstein, 1995).

Nell’ultimo tempo è stato elaborato un nuovo filone di strumenti, definito Programma di arricchimento Strumentale Basic, che prevede due categorie di materiale educativo, uno rivolto alla sfera emozionale, l’altro propedeutico agli strumenti dal P.A.S. classico e rivolto ai bambini della fascia prescolare o a persone con difficoltà d’apprendimento.

2. Gli strumenti del programma classicoOrganizzazione PuntiOrganizzazione Punti è di solito il

primo Strumento P.A.S che viene presentato. I suoi esercizi forniscono ampie opportunità per il raggiungimento dei sottoobiettivi del Programma, sollecitando molte delle funzioni cognitive coinvolte

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisnell’apprendimento. Si presenta sotto vari aspetti lontano dalle prestazioni scolastiche solitamente richieste agli alunni e, pertanto, viene di rado vissuto con disagio da chi ha precedentemente sofferto di insuccessi scolastici; fornisce, al contrario, un valido supporto per potenziare le sue capacità d’apprendimento ed il livello di autostima. Si basa su un test di Rey che è stato adattato per attivare o potenziare le funzioni cognitive necessarie all'apprendimento. La soluzione degli esercizi richiede che vengano proiettate relazioni virtuali per identificare e disegnare alcune figure date come modello, all'interno di una nuvola indistinta di punti.

Affrontare gli esercizi di questo strumento prepara ad utilizzare varie funzioni cognitive anche nella vita di tutti i giorni. Senza la capacità di proiettare relazioni virtuali, per esempio, si avrebbe una comprensione episodica della realtà; oggetti ed eventi sarebbero percepiti come casuali, privi di legami: pezzi singoli di un puzzle che non si riesce a costruire.

Gli esercizi dello strumento sono composti da pagine in cui figure geometriche contenute in un riquadro fanno da modello mentre all’interno di altri riquadri si trovano nuvole di punti. Il compito consiste nell’organizzare i punti contenuti in ogni riquadro facendo riferimento al modello per riprodurre figure identiche a quelle date in termini di forma e dimensione, ma non di orientamento.

Il lavoro proposto richiede di contrastare, attraverso strategie cognitive, carenze di tipo percettivo. Per fare ciò è necessario mettere in pratica processi di lavoro ben pianificati atti ad individuare, di volta in volta, le connessioni esistenti tra i punti che si stanno cercando.

Orientamento spazialeIl Programma prevede due strumenti dedicati

all’Orientamento Spaziale, uno di I livello che viene proposto proprio all’inizio del percorso, intrecciato con Organizzazione Punti, ed uno di II livello. Orientamento Spaziale I e II si pongono come obiettivo quello di affrontare uno dei più comuni problemi osservati in caso di difficoltà d’apprendimento: la limitata capacità di articolare, differenziare e rappresentare mentalmente le dimensioni spaziali.

Per organizzare e descrivere il mondo che ci circonda è basilare l’utilizzo di dimensioni e relazioni spaziali. Dobbiamo essere in grado di rappresentare queste dimensioni e queste relazioni anche quando non sono presenti e non hanno supporti sensoriali. Perché la rappresentazione sia proficua deve esserci, inoltre, la capacità di agire come se lo spazio fisico a cui si fa

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Annales Universitatis Apulensismentalmente riferimento fosse presente nell’immediato campo sensoriale.

La necessità di utilizzare spazi rappresentativi si fa particolarmente evidente quando è necessario separare la capacità di orientamento spaziale dalle azioni immediate e si deve utilizzare un punto di riferimento esterno: per esempio se si deve spiegare un percorso complesso è possibile essere in grado di seguirlo personalmente ma non riuscire a comunicarlo ad altri.

ConfrontiLa capacità di confrontare è alla base di qualunque

processo cognitivo. Il confronto non solo è necessario per riconoscere ed identificare le cose che si percepiscono, ma è un prerequisito essenziale per costruire relazioni che portano al pensiero astratto. È attraverso il confronto che si organizzano ed integrano informazioni separate e distinte in un sistema di pensiero coordinato e significativo. Non appena si ricevono nuove informazioni queste vengono organizzate e confrontate per creare relazioni e integrarle con ciò che già esiste nel pensiero. Lo strumento stimola risposte divergenti perché gli esercizi sono apparentemente semplici. Gli oggetti ed i concetti sono stati scelti di proposito fra quelli familiari ai ragazzi, per porre l’accento sul processo di confronto e sulla discussione che può essere intavolata. Ci sono spesso più risposte possibili, tutte ugualmente corrette. Il mediatore gioca un ruolo estremamente importante nella presentazione di Confronti, dato che la pura risoluzione degli esercizi non porta da sola al raggiungimento degli obiettivi dello strumento. È solo attraverso la mediazione che si può far comprendere a fondo la natura trascendente ed il significato del comportamento comparativo. Attraverso l’analisi e la discussione sulle differenti risposte alla stessa domanda, aumenta la consapevolezza del valore dei parametri di confronto e si stimola la ricerca di modi nuovi e creativi per dar risposte ai problemi quotidiani.

Percezione AnaliticaL’adattamento al mondo dipende dall’equilibrio fra processi

di differenziazione ed integrazione. Funzionalità cognitive adeguate richiedono sia l'abilità di dividere l'insieme in più parti, (differenziazione), sia quella di congiungere le parti di un dato insieme (integrazione).

Questo strumento usa il processo percettivo per sviluppare una varietà di strategie cognitive che conducono a cambiamenti attitudinali e motivazionali nell'approccio con la realtà. Tramite gli esercizi dello strumento si acquisisce un approccio analitico che permette di porre dei limiti fra sé e il mondo. Una volta che l’io è

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisseparato dal non-io e che la differenza fra fonti di riferimento interne ed esterne viene riconosciuta, si è in grado di formare ed utilizzare riferimenti interni per il processo informativo.

Percezioni Analitiche si prefigge di: insegnare le strategie per l'articolazione del campo e la differenziazione, la divisione dell'insieme nelle sue parti in vista di obiettivi specifici; insegnare strategie per l'integrazione, la sintesi delle parti in un insieme a seconda delle necessità; esercitarsi a ristrutturare un campo; incoraggiare l’uso di processi percettivi personali per sviluppare strategie cognitive.

La ristrutturazione del campo richiede l'effettuazione di cambiamenti nel campo percettivo e va oltre le informazioni date, per effettuarla sono necessari sia fattori percettivi che di problem-solving. La persona in grado di strutturare il campo è più attenta agli elementi salienti di una situazione.

ImmaginiQuesto strumento concorre, con gli altri, al raggiungimento

degli obiettivi del Programma di Arricchimento Strumentale anche se il metodo di presentazione, e l’importanza dell’aspetto simbolico e della comunicazione verbale gli fanno assumere un ruolo suo specifico.

Immagini, è formato da una raccolta di situazioni nelle quali bisogna riconoscere l’esistenza di un problema. Sia la percezione del problema sia l’individuazione della sua soluzione richiedono l'uso di strategie di pensiero: deve essere fatto uno sforzo per riportare l'equilibrio tra ciò che si ritiene logico o, comunque ci si aspetta che succeda, e quanto, invece, la storia propone. Nelle pagine di questo strumento si discute spesso sulla relazione esistente fra emotività e cognizione.

Le trasformazioni che avvengono nel comportamento dei protagonisti di alcune storie, trasformazioni che sono il risultato del confronto fra la realtà e la sua percezione, possono essere sia negative che positive: dall’analisi della realtà il protagonista può trovare la forza ed il coraggio necessari ad affrontare i propri problemi, o soccombere sotto una visione che esaurisce le sue capacità di reazione. E' interessante notare che non ci sono cambiamenti oggettivi nella situazione presentata in nessuna delle storie: le trasformazioni che avvengono nel protagonista vanno attribuite direttamente ed unicamente al modo in cui egli percepisce la realtà. La percezione è influenzata sia da fattori cognitivi che da fattori emotivi: in ultima analisi la realtà possiede aspetti soggettivi e personali.

Compito del mediatore è sollecitare i soggetti a trarre il massimo profitto dagli esempi forniti, trovando analogie con la

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisloro vita, motivazioni per il raggiungimento degli obiettivi e strategie per farlo nella maniera più efficiente.

L’aspetto umoristico ed allegorico delle illustrazioni rende possibile la discussione anche su argomenti delicati ed importanti, in maniera oggettiva e non-minacciosa. Inoltre, la maggior parte delle storie ha diverse sfaccettature e si presta ad interpretazioni e discussioni a diversi livelli.

3. Alcuni degli strumenti del PAS Basic Strumenti della sfera emozionaleOgni comportamento, anche il più semplice, ha sempre una

componente cognitiva. Trattando degli aspetti emozionali emerge spesso la difficoltà di individuare la sorgente delle emozioni e la necessità di isolare l’emozione stessa dal comportamento che ne deriva. Ci sono persone che, a causa di condizioni emozionali o educative, non sono in grado di individuare i fattori che portano ad un dato comportamento, sono prive degli strumenti utili ad analizzare la sorgente delle emozioni.

Generalmente ci si sofferma troppo poco a cercare di capire il perché di alcuni atteggiamenti, di associare certi comportamenti a determinate cause, mentre è possibile, anche se non facile, utilizzare le capacità cognitive per gestire con maggiore consapevolezza la propria vita emozionale.

Esplorare, esprimere, comunicare i propri sentimentiPer vivere un equilibrato mondo interiore è necessario

saper esplorare il proprio sé, al fine di conoscere i sentimenti che si provano per poterli analizzare, esprimere e comunicare anche agli altri, ma ancora più importante è saper leggere i segnali analogici emessi dagli altri, per poter interagire in modo armonico con l’ambiente in cui si è inseriti.

Schematicamente gli elementi che concorrono a creare una buona gestione del mondo emozionale sono: esplorare, esprimere e comunicare i propri sentimenti, chiarendoli ed identificandoli; contenere e liberare in modo equilibrato la propria energia emozionale; trovare e sperimentare modi nuovi per pensare ed affrontare le emozioni; leggere i segnali analogici (espressione, postura, gestualità) in chi ci circonda dandogli significato e correlandoli, per analogia, con i propri vissuti.

Identificare le emozioniObiettiviPensare le emozioni, comprendere la loro pertinenza in una

varietà di situazioni comportamentali e sociali. Dare al soggetto l’abilità di parlare delle emozioni e di trovare strategie per tenerle sotto controllo.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisCiò porta a potenziare la capacità di pensare alle emozioni

e saperle esprimere per capire se stessi e gli altri; saper reagire correttamente agli stimoli produttori di reazioni emotive per non rispondere in modo impulsivo e poco costruttivo, poter modificare (o almeno contenere) gli stati emotivi più frequentemente portatori di stati di disagio.

Sotto-obiettivi dare un nome condivisibile alle emozioni e saperle descrivere al fine di definire e parlare del proprio stato emotivo. Ciò comporta anche l’acquisizione della capacità di individuare situazioni che sono collegate ai diversi stati emotivi, filtrando quelle che non lo sono. trasmettere il concetto che è possibile riconoscere le emozioni anche valutandone il grado di intensità al fine di padroneggiare e guidare i propri comportamenti, e valutare quelli assunti dagli altri. ridurre l’impulsività nel comportamento emozionale. Ciò dipende dalla capacità di riconoscere le condizioni che provocano stati di malessere per cercare di evitarle, o attutirne le conseguenze, tenendo sotto controllo al loro insorgere i sintomi di disagio. accrescere il processo di socializzazione. E’ possibile, attraverso il bridging, utilizzare le situazioni proposte per affrontare problematiche inerenti situazioni di classe o di famiglia. fornire al bambino strumenti di autogestione emozionale, insegnando come raccogliere le informazioni rilevanti in input e come gestirle in elaborazione attraverso la lettura sia del linguaggio corporeo che dell’espressione, l’analisi della situazione e del contesto, in modo da pianificare il proprio agito al di là della reazione immediata. stimolare la capacità di scegliere attraverso l’analisi ed il confronto degli stimoli forniti, selezionando l’alternativa corretta in base a dati oggettivi ed alla consapevole conoscenza di quelli soggettivi.

Dall’Empatia all’AzioneObiettivi:

insegnare a riflettere sulla gestione del proprio comportamento grazie alla comprensione ed alla definizione di stati emotivi. aiutare a capire e a trattare le emozioni, nel momento in cui esse influenzano il comportamento. E’ questa “abilità” che contribuisce a dare al soggetto in via di sviluppo, al soggetto con problemi di squilibrio emotivo o di difficoltà di integrazione, l’acquisizione di abilità socio/affettiva e di competenze sociali.

Natura del compito

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisIn ogni pagina dello strumento si trova un’immagine

“problema” che costituisce l’elemento stimolo su cui riflettere. Al fine di creare una condizione di empatia con il protagonista dell’immagine si richiede l’identificazione del suo stato mentale, evidenziando attraverso l’analisi dell’espressione e della postura del corpo nonché del contesto in cui si trova, che egli si trova in una situazione critica. Vengono proposte quattro situazioni alternative che rappresentano possibili soluzioni al problema iniziale.

Il soggetto apprende a scegliere la risposta più appropriata rispetto alla situazione di partenza, lavorando sugli aspetti cognitivi che influenzano la sfera emozionale. Va però sottolineato che, ancora più importante dell’effettiva scelta, è la capacità di analisi e discussione promosse dal lavoro sulla pagina. Dall’empatia all’azione può essere considerato il seguito di IE, viene mediato l’utilizzo dell’apporto affettivo/energetico sul funzionamento cognitivo. Come tale, favorisce la consapevolezza sociale e la comprensione, elementi necessari a rapportarsi ad esperienze emotive proprie e di altri, e per valutare e reagire alle conseguenze derivanti dalle emozioni.

Pensa e previeni la violenzaE’ il terzo degli strumenti direttamente rivolti alla sfera

emozionale. Si focalizza sulla pianificazione ed il controllo del comportamento come strumento significativo per prevenire azioni di violenza. Media una conoscenza ampia e varia delle diverse possibili cause di violenza individuabili all’interno dell’ambiente in cui si vive.

Strumenti propedeutici al programma classicoGli strumenti di questo gruppo sono prevalentemente non

verbali, non richiedono abilità di lettura e scrittura ed hanno l’obiettivo di promuovere lo sviluppo delle funzioni cognitive di base, favorire il pensiero riflessivo e la motivazione intrinseca al lavoro, creare o potenziare la sensazione di essere generatori e non semplici riproduttori di informazioni (Kopciowski Camerini, 2002).

Orientamento spaziale basicObiettiviL’obiettivo principale è insegnare a capire ed utilizzare

correttamente posizioni nello spazio tramite il riconoscimento ed il collocamento di oggetti in punti stabiliti. Si opera per costituire e consolidare il concetto di posizione, di relazione spaziale e di orientamento, e per creare un linguaggio corretto ed appropriato, utile ad una buona gestione di se stessi all’interno dell’ambiente.

Sotto-obiettivi:

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis sviluppare concetti e parole legati all’orientamento spaziale; utilizzare l’orientamento spaziale per migliorare la scansione e la ricerca delle informazioni rilevanti; apprendere a confrontare: identificare e differenziare relazioni spaziali (non c’è relazione senza confronto). migliorare l’orientamento spaziale; capire le istruzioni e soprattutto tenerle a mente mentre si opera.

Natura del compito Orientamento Spaziale basic è costituito da una serie di

semplici disegni di scene familiari, organizzate in 7 livelli, in cui, di pagina in pagina, la complessità dei dettagli e delle relazioni aumenta. Ciò permette l’acquisizione di competenze nuove, incoraggia la flessibilità nell’utilizzo di processi operazionali attraverso l’uso di indizi visivi e promuove la loro organizzazione tramite strumenti verbali corretti ed appropriati.

In ogni pagina occorre orientare il ragazzo verso i particolari della scenetta, focalizzando, tramite una ricerca sistematica, la sua attenzione sugli elementi rilevanti, in modo da potenziare il vocabolario e formare concetti nuovi.

Confronta e scopri l’assurdoObiettiviL’obiettivo fondamentale dello Strumento è creare un

processo sistematico di confronto.Il raggiungimento di questo obiettivo comporta la

costruzione di relazioni, e richiede lo sviluppo dell’abitudine a porre domande ed a manipolare mentalmente oggetti ed eventi. Il confronto è spesso considerato come il fondamento dell’acquisizione della conoscenza.

Natura del CompitoIl compito principale è scoprire e comprendere la natura di

un’assurdità derivata dall’incongruenza fra due situazioni studiate appositamente per creare uno stato di disequilibrio. Per evidenziare lo squilibrio è necessario attivare il processo di confronto stabilendo relazioni tra i diversi elementi.

Tutti i processi della vita intellettiva comprendono il confronto e, per confrontare, occorre stabilire dei criteri, che costituiscono i concetti sovraordinati in base ai quali le informazioni vanno elaborate, organizzate e differenziate. Ogni pagina è fornita di una tabella che facilita la strutturazione del comportamento comparativo promuovendo l’acquisizione dei concetti utili alla costituzione di parametri di confronto.

Apprendimento a tre CanaliObiettivi

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisL’Obiettivo principale è la regolazione del comportamento

attraverso l’integrazione di diverse modalità di raccolta di informazioni e di pensiero rappresentativo.

Sotto-obiettivi potenziare il Comportamento di Focalizzazione, utilizzando stimoli astratti, che devono essere prima percepiti in maniera diversificata per individuarne tutte le caratteristiche, quindi integrati per costruire la visione d’insieme. favorire la capacità di esplorare in maniera sistematica, con uso della modalità aptica. portare alla costruzione progressiva di concetti, attraverso una mediazione verbale sulla base di informazioni tattili raccolte e assimilate.

Natura del Compito Lo Strumento prende il suo nome dalle tre modalità

utilizzate: Tattile, Visiva, Grafica. E’ costituito da alcune figure geometriche di legno; una scatola con due aperture predisposte per infilare le manie e manipolare ciò che c’è dentro senza vederlo; alcune pagine con disegni che riproducono le figure. Si richiede di percepire un oggetto in modo sequenziale e non globale. Viene utilizzata la modalità aptica (cioè il tatto attivo) per mezzo del quale è dato di conoscere l’oggetto in maniera sistematica perché la percezione è sequenziale, passo dopo passo. Per procedere si attivano operazioni mentali che rendono il passaggio tra percezione e conoscenza più organizzato, profondo, e duraturo.

Ai bambini viene chiesto prima di costruire l’immagine mentale dell’oggetto che manipolano, poi di riconoscerlo tra i disegni che rappresentano bidimensionalmente le figure geometriche del gioco, infine di riprodurlo graficamente mantenendo proporzioni e relazioni spaziali.

Scopo dello Strumento è di rinforzare il Controllo del Comportamento per far sì che i soggetti arrivino a padroneggiare i loro processi in Input.

Attraverso la percezione visiva si può avere l’impressione di padroneggiare il campo percettivo e di non aver bisogno di dedicare maggiore energia, impegno e tempo all’analisi dei dettagli, ma ciò non è vero, ci sono dei processi che ci permettono di approfondire la conoscenza attraverso una più accurata visione. La percezione tattile, sequenziale e non globale, non ci trasmette questa sensazione di padronanza, siamo quindi più disponibili a concentrarci per acquisire informazioni ed a lasciarci guidare da un mediatore che ci aiuti ad individuare strategie di ricerca e di sistematizzazione dei dati raccolti. Si è più pronti ad accogliere la

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Annales Universitatis Apulensismediazione perché ci si rende conto della propria inadeguatezza e si accetta l’aiuto esterno come qualche cosa che non incide sul concetto di sé.

Le abilità di analisi, organizzazione e pianificazione così acquisite si trasferiscono da una modalità all’altra diventando una regola di comportamento.

Bibliografia:FEUERSTEIN R., RAND Y., RYNDERS, J. E., (1988), Don’t accept me as I am. Helping retarded people to excel. Boulder (CO), Perseus Publishing.FEUERSTEIN, R., RAND, Y., HOFFMAN, M. B., MILLER, R., (1980), Instrumental Enrichment: an intervention program for cognitive modifiability. Baltimore, Baltimore University Park Press.FEUERSTEIN, R., RAND, J., RYNDERS, J.E., (1995), Non accettarmi come sono, Editura Sansoni, Milano.KOPCIOWSKI Camerini, J., (2002), L’apprendimento mediato. Orientamenti teorici ed esperienze pratiche del metodo Feuerstein, Editura La Scuola, Brescia.VANINI, P. (2003), Potenziare la mente? Una scommessa possibile: L’apprendimento mediato secondo il metodo Feuerstein, Editura Vannini Editrice, Gussago (Brescia).

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Methods for prevention and therapydisorders of behavior to school children

Professor Dr. Marioara LUDUSANAssistant professor Angela Monica BARA1 December 1918 University off Alba Iulia

Abstract: In the literature are presented many experiences of best practices and prediction of therapy used in schools by teachers, educational programs, methods and therapeutic techniques, forms of prediction, questionnaires and psychological tests. Assessments made in the application through direct observations, the repetition of questionnaires and psychological tests have shown predictive several conclusions: reduction of risk factors; recognizing the effectiveness of predictive tools and therapy deviations of behavior in general to work in school.

Structured educational programs for schools, as complex interventions, with a high degree of consistency and educational interaction is to prevent and treat deviations from the behavior of students can contribute in the medium term to reduce risk behaviors and thus deviance recovery pupils deviations behavior. Such programs involve mixed teams of school psychologists, teachers, parents and representatives of the local community.

In developing their left to the findings of the facts presented in the specialized studies that have shown that:

- Social life these days is saturated with stimuli and incidence of negative patterns, dezadapte what constitutes risk in as many behavioral deviations which plane the students and treated with indifference or superficiality may compromise long-term education of the young generation.

- Range of risk factors is constantly increasing; - Scope and depth of the incidence of risk factors, the

generation of school age, are growing rapidly both at individual level and at the mini;

- Age of onset and manifestation of the deviation in behavior is more lowered.

Under these conditions the development of educational programs in the form of structured educational therapies with greater consistency and educational interactivity, completed

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Annales Universitatis Apulensistraining educative several factors, notably a family led, step by step, by teachers and coordinated psycho-pedagogy, can result in the medium term to reduce the risk of deviant behavior and the recovery of students with such behavior.

Prevention plan in such programs seek to limit the risks deviant behavior by:

- Updating and developing civic-moral knowledge and those that promote socialization, based on filtration, settling and precise orientation of the significant flows of information, with higher incidence in the mass of students;

- Students' awareness of the risks of behavior and ensure that basic rules of assimilation of socially desirable conduct, with the rejection behavior dezadapte;

- Support training students in social behavior integrator and secured in the acquisition and matures moral autonomy;

- Awareness of parents about the risks of delinquency; - Unlocking the potential of collective class education, family

and other factors education, prevention and therapy of behavior deviation.

In the therapy itself educational programs will target: - Initiation of teachers in the implementation of strategies,

means and specific individual psychotherapy or group which, used in complementary ways with traditional educational intervention, can give good results in the recovery;

- Experimentation of tools and techniques means information and data specific to the field of educational work, through which teachers can monitor, to know and monitor developments in the behavioral class and every student individually, as a prerequisite therapeutic intervention.

In order to prepare the plan for conducting the program should follow a series of stages:

The first stage involves the study and documentation Psycho - Pedagogical issues in behavioral deviations from juvenile students and includes such actions as: documentation on legal framework study and establish the program; monitoring the phenomenon of deviant and from school; studying the application of psychotherapy and recovery, prevention, collective or individual; developing the teachers of guidance programs and educational activities for parent’s literately; developing tools: the schedule for the deviant behavior prediction sheet for students at risk of deviant and decided on the results sheet of school pupils; developing a questionnaire for parents; preparation for implementation sociometric test MORENO; conduct an interim and statistical situation; determination of the logistics of

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiscommunication-related consultation and the results of partial observations.

Stage two consists in the formation of the initial data by applying

A. Students of tests and questionnaires: - Standard test intelligence Progressive Matrices (Raven); - FPI test form G (FAHRENBERG Personality Inventory); - Personality questionnaire WOODWORTH-MATTHEWS; - MORENO sociometric test. B. Teachers: - Schedule for deviant behavior prediction; - Schedule for students at risk of deviant pronounced. Sheet to forecast / prediction of individual risk of deviant

behavior, completed on overlapping information and psycho-pedagogy of observation day, the behavior of each student in class, after updating the knowledge of the family environment (application questionnaire for parents) and close confrontation perception of parents with that of the student teachers.

Stage three is the therapy itself The main activities undertaken in this stage may be: the

hour’s educative themes taken from the program guidance, applying participatory methods, interactive; support of educational topics to literately parents; the forms of group psychotherapy, including occupational, therapy of music, therapy of art, debates on issues-ethical behavior, inspired by the immediate actuality of life class, meetings with psychologists, sociologists, prosecutors, policemen, people of culture, organization of visits , tours, shows, etc.; psychotherapy sessions in small groups or individual - debate, psychodramas forms, and individual discussions - held on the techniques and cognitive behavioral therapy, intended for students at risk of deviant gave the students with unfavorable prognosis, with high exposure to deviant.

Stage of completion of the program consists of: systematic observations of teachers on behavior change in students, to assess the program; teachers inform parents of students found the results and determine, in each case, post-therapy necessary in the case of students with unsatisfactory progress during program implementation.

After conducting studies and analysis of the trends highlighted by the application of questionnaires, the experts consider that the school lays a good part of responsibility in the nervousness of students to the psychological imbalance. They support these assertions by the following arguments:

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis- The large share of students with labiality / emotional

instability and those with deficiency of calm that is hard to put out only on domestic factors and the family;

- School-student relationship as a whole shows some dysfunctions.

Also, say teachers who participated in such programs was that sheet prediction is a useful tool in early detection of students with risk behavior and suggested placing it on the scale at the beginning of each school year, with updated regularly.

Conclusions From views set out by specialists and teachers loose following

findings:- Research carried out confirms that the deviations of behavior

from students juveniles presents a growing frequency range of risk factors are increasing, based on the existing crisis of values in society;

- The size you are, the phenomenon of juvenile delinquency is a problem particularly social current, which requires careful study of the causes, forms of expressions and techniques for prevention and treatment of it;

- Educational therapy to prevent deviations in behavior and recovery juveniles proved to be:

a. affordable plan methodically-logistics; b. the complementary educational activities in pre-university

education; c. efficient education, the short and medium term; - Instruments of prediction deviations of behavior used to have

proven the value and role of scientific support educational-therapeutic approach itself;

- By the system of prevention and therapy itself deviation behavior, were significantly diminished the effects of risk factors and were positive changes in students' behavior;

- The use of educational methodology, therapy, group or individual contributes to a better cognition, providing a secure emotional environment, distressing, developing communication ability of students and giving them the satisfaction of using time effectively;

- Skills training and communication networking private resort development to help better adaptation to increased resistance against frustrating situations, conflict and the formation of an image appropriate to oneself, against others and the cognitive and behavioral therapies;

- The most lacking aspect in the application of the link to ensure school-family partnership, the more so as a part of the

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisstudents included in the study come from families deficient structure or issues-cultural education;

- Meeting with students, putting them in different hypostases (debates, occupational therapy, game therapy, psychodrama, role-plays, etc.), reinforced the belief that the most effective method of influencing education is positive (the therapy) by medical condition, through love.

Bibliografie:ALLPORT, G.W., (1981), Structura şi dezvoltarea personalităţii, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, BucureştiBUNESCU, Gh., ALECU, G., BADEA, D. (1997), Educaţia părinţilor. Strategii şi programe, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, BucureştiDANCSULY, A., IONESCU, M., RADU, I., SALADE, D., (1979), Pedagogie, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, BucureştiHOLDEVICI, I., (1996), Elemente de psihoterapie, Editura ALL, BucureştiNICOLA, I., (1996), Tratat de pedagogie şcolară, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică R.A., BucureştiOZUNU, D., (1995), Psihopedagogia comportamentului normal şi deviant, Editura Genesis, Cluj-NapocaPREDA, V., (1981), Profilaxia delincvenţei şi reintegrarea şcolară, Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, BucureştiRĂDULESCU, S. M., BANCIU, D.,(1990), Introducere în sociologia delincvenţei juvenile. Adolescenţa între normalitate şi devianţă, Editura Medicală, Bucureşti

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Comment intégrer le jeu en classe de FLE

Lect . dr. Adina CURTAUniversite Le 1er Decembrie 1918 Alba Iulia

Résumé : À partir de quelques définitions célèbres du jeu, nous envisageons l’exploitation de celui-ci en tant que méthode d’enseignement-apprentissage en classe de FLE. Les critères des définitions données sont mis en relation avec l’activité didactique proprement dite afin d’assurer une grande efficacité de la méthode.

Mots-clé : jeu didactique, définition, critères, activité

L’option d’intégrer le jeu didactique en classe de FLE répond au désir bien justifié de l’enseignant de diversifier les méthodes d’apprentissage afin de proposer aux apprenants un apprentissage plus agréable et incitant. On ne saurait jouer en classe de français sans savoir exactement ce que le jeu suppose comme perception et investissement de la part des joueurs (enfants, apprenants d’une langue étrangère dans notre cas) ou bien ce que son utilisation comme méthode d’enseignement suppose comme perception et préparation de la part des enseignants. Afin d’avoir une perspective tant soit peu complète sur ce que le jeu veut dire en général, nous allons passer en revue quelques définitions qui en ont été données:

1. Considéré du point de vue de la forme, le jeu serait une action libre, consciente de ce qu’elle est non-intentionnelle et située en dehors de la vie courante, une action qui néanmoins peut absorber totalement le joueur, une action sans intérêt matériel direct et sans but utilitaire, qui se déroule entre des limites de temps et d’espace bien déterminées, qui se passe en ordre et se soumet à des règles, qui engendre des relations communautaires

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisdésireuses de s’envelopper de mystère ou de se révéler, par déguisement, autres que le monde ordinaire.

(Johan Huizinga, Homo ludens)2. Le jeu est une activité: libre : à laquelle le joueur ne saurait être obligé

sans que le jeu perde aussitôt sa nature de divertissement attirant et joyeux;

séparée : circonscrite dans des limites d’espace et de temps précises et fixées à l’avance ;

incertaine : dont le déroulement ne saurait être déterminé ni le résultat acquis préalablement, une certaine latitude dans la nécessité d’inventer étant obligatoirement laissée à l’initiative du joueur ;

improductive : ne créant ni biens, ni richesse, ni élément nouveau d’aucune sorte ; et, sauf déplacement de propriété au sein du cercle des joueurs, aboutissant à une situation identique à celle du début de la partie ;

réglée : soumise à des conventions qui suspendent les lois ordinaires et qui instaurent momentanément une législation nouvelle, qui seule compte ;

fictive : accompagnée d’une conscience spécifique de réalité seconde ou de franche irréalité par rapport à la vie courante.

(Roger Caillois, Les jeux et les hommes)

3. Le jeu est, pour ainsi dire, le vis-à-vis du sérieux de la vie, du souci et du travail, du soin accordé au salut de l’âme ; il apparaît comme ce qui n’est pas « sérieux », ne crée pas d’« obligations », comme détente provisoire de la tension de l’existence, comme « pause », « récréation pour récupérer ses forces », comme perte de temps pour les heures d’oisiveté, comme occupation frivole et intempérance satisfaite d’elle-même. Tout au plus concède-t-on au jeu, dans l’économie d’une existence d’adulte, une valeur limitée : on reconnaît en lui un moyen thérapeutique efficace contre les surtensions du travail, du souci, du sérieux. […] En lui-même, le jeu n’est pas du tout pris au sérieux. Sans doute reconnaît-on qu’il remplit une fonction importante, voire essentielle, dans l’existence de l’enfant, qu’il en constitue le centre. Mais on interprète la croissance

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisdu jeune homme comme un processus au cours duquel le jeu est écarté de plus en plus du centre de la vie et remplacé par d’autres phénomènes de l’existence. Le jeu est repoussé vers la périphérie de la vie, et ne disparaît pas complètement, mais acquiert le caractère d’un passe-temps occasionnel, d’une pause récréative. Le jeu paraît réservé, valablement, au petit enfant qui vit à l’abri de la protection familiale avant d’affronter le sérieux de la vie.

(Eugen Fink, Le jeu comme symbole du monde)

Loin de nous rendre plus enclin à jouer, penser diminue plutôt notre penchant pour le jeu ; en pensant, nous perdons la naïveté d’une vie insouciante, l’élan impulsif de la sérénité détendue, la joie de vivre notre vie de façon irréfléchie, sans brisure. On le dit du moins, et la psychologie semble le confirmer. Les enfants jouent encore dans la bonne humeur et sans aucune gêne ; les adultes le font déjà avec mauvaise conscience et considèrent le jeu comme une occupation de loisir, un remontant qui détend notre esprit et le libère du fardeau de nos devoirs. Le jeu s’approche ainsi du voisinage suspect de l’oisiveté.

(Eugen Fink, Le jeu comme symbole du monde)

Les chercheurs qui se sont penchés sur le phénomène du jeu ont émis plusieurs affirmations qui le concernent. Aussi le jeu est-il un type fondamental de l’activité humaine susceptible de modeler la personnalité. L’enfant est naturellement porté vers l’imitation des adultes, ce qui contribue à la formation et au développement de leur personnalité. En ce contexte, le jeu apparaît chez l’enfant comme exercice d’une impulsion intérieure vers des activités qui assurent le développement des aptitudes, des habiletés et des habitudes existant déjà chez l’adulte.

D’autres chercheurs parlent de l’existence d’un instinct de jeu, ce qui n’est pas à négliger par le prof. qui désire en faire une méthode courante d’apprentissage. L’existence d’un tel instinct rend plus facile l’acceptation par les apprenants d’une approche d’apprentissage en concordance avec leurs disponibilités natives.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisCeux qui expliquent le jeu à travers la satisfaction

fonctionnelle - qui serait son mécanisme même – ajoutent aux perspectives existantes une autre qui s’appuie sur la nature intérieure du jeu, nature qui se trouverait à la base de la satisfaction qu’en recueillent les joueurs. Si l’essence du jeu consiste dans le mode de l’individu de se rapporter intérieurement à la réalité, en classe de langue cela devient source de plaisir. La réalité contraignante de la classe traditionnelle se convertit en réalité ludique permissive et stimulatrice de la créativité. Par la fiction, qui serait sa qualité essentielle, le jeu permettrait à l’enfant d’assumer un rôle que la vie réelle lui refuse normalement. En classe, cela devient jeu de rôle qui met l’apprenant dans la situation d’être un acteur social qui accompli des tâches (voir l’approche actionnelle du Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues).

Freud signale une différence essentielle entre le jeu de l’enfant et celui de l’adulte. Alors que le second est en permanence à la recherche de la nouveauté – qui représente pour lui la condition première de la jouissance – par contre, le premier manifeste un désir de répétition qui se trouve à la base de son plaisir. En classe de langue, la répétition se trouve à la base de l’acquisition des structures et de la formation d’automatismes.

Pour Philippe Gutton le jeu est une activité symbolique qui inclut le sujet (le joueur) dans un champ structural différent de la réalité. En classe de langue c’est l’instauration d’un autre espace que l’espace-classe, un espace qui permet l’épanouissement libre de la personnalité de l’apprenant.

Youri Lotman insiste sur le principe de dédoublement de la conscience qui fait que le joueur acquiert l’habitude de ce qu’il appelle un comportement biplanaire. C’est toujours lui qui parle de l’effet de jeu et des possibilités qu’offre le jeu de passer, de revenir en arrière pour un nouveau commencement, de mettre de l’ordre à l’intérieur d’un système amorphe grâce aux règles, de résoudre des situations conflictuelles de toutes sortes qui dans la vie réelle peuvent apparaître comme insolubles, de créer n’importe quel type de situation pour imiter, améliorer ou

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Annales Universitatis Apulensistransformer le réel, de mettre en place des situations afin de triompher de la peur, de consolider des structures émotionnelles utiles dans la vie réelle… En classe de langue, l’effet de jeu serait responsable du dépassement des limites prescrites par l’espace-classe et le règlement intérieur du groupe, et permettrait la résolution des problèmes et des conflits dans un climat d’entente et de respect réciproque. Il contribue également à l’amélioration des prestations individuelles des apprenants en face du groupe.

Piaget est celui qui propose une très intéressante théorie des deux mondes, théorie qui proclame que le monde de l’enfant diffère de celui de l’adulte. Ce qui nous apparaît comme très important dans la théorie de Piaget est le fait qu’il considère que la fonction la plus importante du jeu est celle de défendre le moi contre l’accommodation forcée à la réalité. En classe de langue, les deux mondes coexistent dans la mesure où l’enseignant renonce au statut de source du savoir et offre aux apprenants la liberté d’évoluer et de se manifester dans le monde parallèle du jeu auquel ils ont consenti librement.

Émile Benveniste affirme que la réalité quotidienne diffère de celle du jeu, bien plus, qu’elles s’excluent l’une l’autre. Le jeu interviendrait selon lui là où la conscience s’irréalise (passe vers l’irréel) pour pouvoir paradoxalement pouvoir se réaliser au moment où elle ne peut ni vivre ni assumer complètement le réel. En classe de langue il s’agit de faire coexister les deux alternativement, afin d’en tirer les avantages escomptés.

Après avoir revu les points essentiels des définitions du jeu, essayons maintenant de reconfigurer la notion - cette fois-ci rétrospectivement puisque pourvus d’un bagage bibliographique assez vaste pour pouvoir y puiser les aspects qui conviennent à la description et à l’utilisation du jeu en classe de langue - afin de n’omettre aucune des caractéristiques qui seraient censées en faire une méthode efficace d’enseignement/apprentissage. On dira dorénavant du jeu qu’il est une activité. Le jeu sera donc une activité, une activité libre qui se déroule dans un espace et un temps qui lui sont spécialement alloués (dans l’espace-classe pour une durée bien déterminée d’avance). Ce sera une activité

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Annales Universitatis Apulensissituée en dehors de la vie courante (en dehors de la pratique de classe traditionnelle dans notre cas). Une activité qui peut absorber totalement le joueur. Il faut insister sur cet aspect mis en évidence par Huizinga parce qu’il représente un des plus grands avantages que l’on puisse exploiter et qui ne se retrouve guère dans les leçons traditionnelles : admettons qu’il advient assez rarement que les élèves soient totalement absorbés par une leçon dispensée magistralement du haut de la chaire ! Une activité qui se passe dans l’ordre et se soumet à des règles : n’oublions pas que des conseils pour la gestion du bruit accompagnent les recommandations de mise en place des jeux en classe de langue – ici aussi l’imagination et l’intérêt du prof peuvent en rajouter ! – vu que les profs se plaignent souvent (parfois même avant d’avoir du moins essayé de jouer avec leurs élèves !) des difficultés que le déroulement d’un jeu en classe produi(rai)t. La soumission à des règles sur lesquelles on convient d’avance représente une très bonne méthode de « dressage » social des enfants qui devront, leur vie durant, en reconnaître et respecter la nécessité.

Par sa nature d’activité de divertissement le jeu sera évidemment beaucoup plus attrayant qu’une leçon habituelle (traditionnelle) lors de laquelle il faudrait normalement se tenir tranquille, écouter, écrire et répondre uniquement après invitation. Aussi laissera-t-il aux apprenants la liberté de se manifester, d’exploiter leur créativité, de jouir des connaissances acquises au lieu de les réciter souvent de manière impersonnelle, neutre…

En tant qu’activité incertaine (dont le résultat n’est pas acquis d’avance), le jeu invitera les joueurs à inventer des solutions, à trouver des résultats, à résoudre des problèmes, ce qui leur fera cultiver des aptitudes intellectuelles, cognitives, etc.

En tant qu’activité fictive (caractéristique que le prof ne met jamais assez en évidence !) – et même si elle absorbe totalement le joueur – le jeu sera évidemment séparé de la vie courante non seulement dans le sens que nous venons de donner à cette séparation, mais aussi dans celui où le prof veillera à ce que ceux qui gagnent en classe

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiscontinuent à être les amis de ceux qui, eux, perdent lors des jeux. Le départ entre gagnants et perdants ne doit pas transformer les amitiés en hostilités, loin de là, c’est pourquoi le prof veillera également à ce que tous aient envie de gagner honnêtement, c’est-à-dire grâce à leurs savoirs, à leurs connaissances et à leurs habiletés, choses que tout un chacun peut faire siennes à moins qu’il s’y intéresse un peu et qu’il y consacre un peu de son temps… Apprendre plus de mots, plusieurs structures de langue qui rendent l’expression libre plus facile et plus riche, ce n’est pas le bout du monde !

En tant que détente provisoire de la tension de l’existence, le jeu sera envisagé comme le vis-à-vis du travail (Eugen Fink). Le prof aura beaucoup à gagner s’il réussit à faire comprendre à ses élèves que jouer n’est pas travailler dans le sens courant du mot (qui implique obligation, sérieux et contrainte), mais travailler autrement, c’est-à-dire de son propre gré, joyeusement, tout en s’amusant et se divertissant pendant qu’on acquiert quelque chose de plus, de nouveau, d’utile, d’agréable et d’intéressant.

Comme centre de l’existence de l’enfant, le jeu sera donc une activité essentielle grâce à laquelle l’enseignant pourra témoigner de l’importance qu’il accorde au bien-être de l’enfant, du respect qu’il porte à ses centres d’intérêt réels et de son souci continuel de perfectionnement des pratiques de classe dans une direction qui associe efficacité, professionnalisme et bonne humeur. Belle combinaison, n’est-ce pas ?

En tant qu’activité qui repose sur le désir de répétition, le jeu pourra être inclus par les profs (et nous le leur conseillons vivement) dans un répertoire au sens propre du terme, à savoir dans un cahier alphabétique à onglets (les élèves pourront eux-mêmes assumer cette charge) qui permettra une consultation rapide lors des activités réservées aux bilans. Aussi les élèves pourront-ils eux-mêmes proposer la (re)mise en place de tel ou tel jeu quand il s’agit de récapituler certaines connaissances déjà acquises.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisL’effet de jeu deviendra en classe de langue une

chance à saisir par ceux qui, hélas!, ne gagnent pas toujours…

Ayant pour fonction de défendre le moi contre l’accommodation forcée à la réalité, le jeu sera également la chance des profs d’attirer les élèves vers des activités qu’ils agréent, tout en les persuadant qu’ils les ont choisies eux-mêmes.

Mais seule la pratique pourra décider du succès ou de l’échec d’une telle approche.

BIBLIOGRAPHIE :HUIZINGA, JOHAN, Homo ludens, ed. Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2002.CAILLOIS, ROGER, Les jeux et les hommes, Gallimard, Folio, Essais, 1967.FINK, EUGEN, Le jeu comme symbole du monde, Les Editions de Minuit, Arguments, 1987.FREUD, SIGMUND, Au-delà du principe du plaisir, in Essais de psychanalyse, Petite Bibliothèque Payot, 1964.PIAGET, JEAN, La formation du symbole chez l’enfant – Imitation, jeu et rêve, image et représentation, Délachaux et Niestlé, 1945.

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Dealing with indecision and ambiguityin school organization

Florin MARINA1st of December 1918 University of Alba Iulia

Abstract: Today’s management of the school organization challenge is to avoid typical platitudes such as Change is the only constant, and to focus on actually being productive in a changing environment. This type of environment puts people in an ambiguous state, such as: being in a situation that is inexplicable, doubtful or obscure, or being in a situation in which there are two or more possible outcomes. It’s an uncomfortable state; it can hinder productivity dramatically. So the goal is to understand how to cope with ambiguity; how to be productive while it exists, and how to reduce it whenever possible. The work is dealing with the ways of finding the possible and real solutions.

1. OUR VIEWToday’s management of the school organization challenge is

to avoid typical platitudes such as Change is the only constant, and to focus on actually being productive in a changing environment. This type of environment puts people in an ambiguous state, such as: being in a situation that is inexplicable, doubtful or obscure, or being in a situation in which there are two or more possible outcomes. It’s an uncomfortable state; it can hinder productivity dramatically. So the goal is to understand how to cope with ambiguity; how to be productive while it exists, and how to reduce it whenever possible. The present work is dealing with the ways of finding the possible and real solutions.

A key step in coping with ambiguity is to understand the root causes that create the feeling. Some are internal and some are external. A manager can become stymied by risk aversion, linear thinking, reliance on past, procrastination, and personal stress. On the other hand the most common external causes are the speed of change and the amount of available information.

People create their own paralysis when they’re not willing to take risks or learn from taking risks. Managers should do a three-

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisquestion analysis of their own risk aversion in order to build comfort with risk.

1) When have you taken a chance and it turned out well? What did you learn?

2) When did you take a risk that didn’t turn out well? What did you learn?

3) When did you play it safe and why? Was it the right or wrong decision?

The learning element in this exercise generally proves that the manager is no worse off having taken a risk than not taking it. Often, upon reflection, the risk would have been the right choice in all three scenarios, successful or not. The key here is the value of the learning. We always learn when we take new action; we rarely learn by being repetitive or safe.

Linear thinking, like reliance on the past, are root causes because they inhibit straying into creative arenas or new territories. They’re linked to risk aversion because they tend to be the safer alternative. However corporate-identified competencies clearly show that executives are looking for creativity, new ideas, and challenges to existing systems and processes.

Procrastination is a cause of ambiguity, but is often disguised by the external reasons of change and information. In reality, regardless of the level of information, a good manager can make a reasonable decision at any time. It is procrastination that will prevent the manager from deciding when enough is enough, or the time is now. Managers need to seek out reasonable facts and figures to optimize decision-making, but they cannot obsess over them. Another common procrastination is getting started. The I-don’t-know-where-to-start syndrome is pervasive in many organizations. We recommend two techniques:

Start with the end in mind. Work backwards. The other alternative is to start in the middle, back-up to what you need to know or have; and then move toward resolution. The key issue of any ambiguous challenge is to start working on it. Delaying the attack only enlarges the ambiguous nature of the chore.

Personal stress is what can prevent managers from seeing the forest from the trees. Sometimes it’s necessary for a manager to accept that the limitations are from within. To overcome these types of problems, you need to separate yourself from the problem, either by time, distance, or attention. If time allows, put the dilemma aside. Out of sight doesn’t always mean out of mind. Let the subconscious play with it for a while. Another solution is to walk away from the project by delegating, going somewhere

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiselse to think, or aggressively finishing another project in the interim. Most people admit their best and real thinking is in the car or in the shower, etc. Just go somewhere else to think.

There is some legitimacy to speed of change and information overload being the two external causes of ambiguity. However, they should not create paralysis. For example, if so inclined, any manager could do a chart of the Standard & Poors performance for one, five, or ten years back. The data are readily available. However, all the information in the last decade will not predict, undisputedly, what will happen in the stock market today. A manager either makes an educated investment or keeps all the money in a mattress.

2. PRODUCTIVITY SKILLSHaving the skill to learn constantly can quickly address at

least two causes of ambiguity: risk aversion and linear thinking. Energy allows you to overcome procrastination. Focus allows you to reduce stress and deal with the plethora of information. Simplicity is an excellent counterpoint to speed of change. Inner sense and well being helps one deal with the reliance on the past. To know that each day is an accomplishment, reassures us that the past and present can merge comfortably to prepare us for the future.

A manager should become a full-time learner. Skill sets change. Processes change. Opinions and trends change. What better skill to arm managers with, then, to learn how to learn? It certainly will smooth their paths.

3. REDUCING AMBIGUITY It’s important to stress that not all work situations must

remain ambiguous. The timing of a company reorganization, or a potential merger, may be out of the manager’s control; but the more immediate job challenges, work processes, and staffing decisions are always a function of management. For example, one of the most common complaints is the reluctance to hire because they’re not sure if the position is long-term. However, at the same time, work is not getting done, or staff are getting burned out trying to complete the work. Then, morale drops, managers get stressed, they procrastinate about hiring, and staff become resentful. Then, morale drops, managers get stressed, etc., etc.

The best way to reduce ambiguity is to follow some very basic steps.

Identify everything over which you have some reasonable degree of control. Focus in that area.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisShift your perspective. Often, items are blown out of

proportion or totally ignored. If events seem blown out of proportion, develop perspective by relating your area to the overall performance of the department, the company, the industry, even the universe. Is this decision all that important? If events are being ignored, just as hiring, reevaluate your perspective. Determine if lack of attention or lack of activity is causing more problems than would occur from actual attention or activity.

Weigh the risks. A good manager calculates risk and converts risk into an adventure, not a danger.

Overcome negative fantasies. People have the ability to imagine consequences worse than actually occur. A calling on the carpet is more likely than a firing. Rarely when a manager hears someone say you’re not going to like this, does the manager actually say, I hate it. Most often it is welcome, although not desirable, information.

Identify manageable parts. Most huge situations fraught with numerous ambiguous states can be broken down into manageable subsets. We can work on the new inventory system, but let’s hold back on relocating the warehouse. One way or another, we’ll track inventory even if we don’t ever decide on a location.

Plan for the unknown. After all is said and done, something will happen that no manager could anticipate. An inner sense of courage and comfort with one’s own capabilities will serve every manager during tough times.

References:American Psychological Association. (1927-). Publication abstracts. Washington, DC: BAUSELL, R.B. (1994), Conducting meaningful experiments, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.BLALOCK, H. (1991), Are there any constructive alternatives to causal modeling? Sociological Methodology, 21, 325-335.

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The function of perceived competence in practising physical education and sports by

1 Decembrie 1918 University students

Conf. univ. dr. Costel BELIZNA1 Decembrie 1918 University, Alba Iulia

Abstract: All the research that has been done so far, prove the existence of the multiple aspects of implication in sports activity from the part of the young people. The most frequent pattern of their motivation for this kind of activity is the desire for performance, the competition aspects, as well as the social ones.

As formal groups are gradually readjusting, motivation evolves from the pluralist ones to the individual ones, which are typical to older individuals, and which are adhering to programs that give them satisfaction.

For the newly formed groups (the transition from high school to university), the way in which the young man perceives success or failure on this side of his activity, is important.

Its perception as a means of performance (promotion of self image) is turning either towards ability: the young man is making efforts to prove what they are in control of, and to minimize what they cannot execute, or towards the target: the young man wants to perform as well as he can, no matter the result, or towards social approval, which he wants to obtain from all those who are important to him.

Young people, in general, especially students have an interior effusion towards capacity and efficient approach of the environment (physical, social). Three specific domains for perceived competence are identified, totally independent one from another: cognitive (scholastic), physic (sports), and social (human relationships). Those who consider themselves competent in a certain way will longer persist in a domain, will raise interest in a particular activity.

KEY WORDS: motivation, performance, failure, socialization.

IntroductionAll the research that has been done so far, prove the

existence of the multiple aspects of implication in sports activity from the part of the young people. The most frequent pattern of their motivation for this kind of activity is the desire for performance, the competition aspects, as well as the social ones. As formal groups are gradually readjusting, motivation evolves from the pluralist ones to the individual ones, which are typical to older individuals, and which are adhering to programs that give

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisthem satisfaction. For the newly formed groups (the transition from high school to university), the way in which the young man perceives success or failure on this side of his activity, is important. Its perception as a means of performance (promotion of self image) is turning either towards ability: the young man is making efforts to prove what they are in control of, and to minimize what they cannot execute, or towards the target: the young man wants to perform as well as he can, no matter the result, or towards social approval, which he wants to obtain from all those who are important to him. Young people, in general, especially students have an interior effusion towards capacity and efficient approach of the environment (physical, social). Three specific domains for perceived competence are identified, totally independent one from another: cognitive (scholastic), physic (sports), and social (human relationships). Those who consider themselves competent in a certain way will longer persist in a domain, will raise interest in a particular activity.

Working hypothesisThis study wishes to establish the way in which perceived

competence favors the participation in the sports and physical education activity, and exactly which of achievement motivation orientations have bigger chances in extending their time of active and constant involvement in a specific activity.

Research organizationStarting with the present working hypothesis, there were

identified the potential motivating factors for practicing physical activities, this study emphasizes team activities, the pleasure of self competing and competing with the others, obtaining a certain social status (the experience of success), to create pleasure to the others, and obtaining approval and rewards from these, for their own fun, for health, for a great physical condition, affiliation with a social group. Then, a questionnaire was made up, containing 36 questions, 4 for each factor, and it was applied to a group of 54 students – 29 girls and 25 boys from Science Faculty, “1 December 1918” University.

The results of the research and their interpretationAfter taking down and operating the obtained data, we have

determined: Girls give much more importance to social motivations –

79%, than boys – 49%; Boys chose motivations related to competition and

achievement as being the most important (62% - 33%) for sustaining the physical education and sports activity;

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis Although they admit the positive impact of physical

education activity over health, only 17% of the girls and 19% of the boys give one of the first three places as importance to this motivational factor, boys giving the physical condition a bigger importance than girls did (12% - 86%);

The young people, who obtained certain results in sports activity, persist in continuing it, and they show a bigger interest than the others who, deprived of satisfactions, wish to completely abandon any form of physical movement (68% - 32%);

The desire for fun and affiliation is making itself pretty obvious to girls and boys as well (71% - 92%), sports activity organizations being preferred to the politic or religious ones (82% sports, 5% political, 13% religious).

CONCLUSIONSThis study proves the fact that motivation that has as a basis

realizations of the individual with the purpose of obtaining social approval from important persons are those that sustain the interest of the students a longer period of time for practicing sports activities. The pleasure of taking part in such activities develops ability perceptions towards sports in general, even though they are not always proved through valuable results. In this way we can talk about a positive influence of the perceived competence over the real one, but also about a negative influence over continuing an activity in which the student doesn`t obtain a minimum of satisfaction. As practical implications we remark in the end, on one hand the necessity of organizing the training of the students in sports classes, in order to promote those program structures to which they adhere, and in which they take part with pleasure, and on the other hand the need of restructuring the angular syllabus, crimped, and inhibitory for the young people that show imperfections in motion and physic training, as an important part of education, in general.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:*** Semnificaţia sportului pentru societate, vol. I, Impactul sportului asupra societăţii, CCPS, Bucureşti, 1996.*** Semnificaţia sportului pentru societate, vol. II, Impactul sportului asupra societăţii, CCPS, Bucureşti, 1996.

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Motivation and Social Context in Foreign Language Learning

Greta CamaseToronto University, Canada

Abstract. In this paper I argue that motivation is strongly linked with and part of social context. First, I present some conceptual problems in the second language learning (SLL) literature on motivation; second, I describe two models of language learning that emphasize the importance of social context in shaping learners’ attitudes towards foreign/second language learning; third, I discuss how social context changes the status of a language that in turn influences the motivation or orientation of the language learners towards the target language; last, I consider social context and motivation in relation to English - the ‘world language’. Key words: motivation, social context, language learning.

Introduction

The question posed by Noels et. al. in the title of an article published in 2003: ‘Why do students learn a second language?’, provides a concise definition of motivation and orientation in second/foreign language learning. The ‘why’ of language learning has been pursued by research and it has been subject of debate in the Second Language Learning (SLL) literature: following a survey of three databases specialized in education of the number of investigations carried out between 1985 and 1994 on individual differences, Gardner (2002) found the overwhelming number of 218 studies that dealt with motivation. Researchers in the field of SLA have provided definitions, models of interpretation, and raised different challenges and issues in regards to motivation. The distinction between motivation and orientation, instrumental and integrative, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and the importance of the social context and social identity are the most salient concepts tied into the broad topic of motivation.

In an effort to disentangle and clarify conflicting hypotheses, Kruidenier and Clement (1986) categorized the issues into conceptual problems, related to the operationalization and definitions of concepts, and contextual problems, referring to the sociocultural context that influences learning. In this paper, first, I will focus on conceptual problems, second, on

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisthe sociocultural context of learning a foreign language and I will argue that motivation is strongly linked with and influenced by social context.

Motivation: Conceptual Problems

Ellis (2004) groups the key factors accounting for individual differences according to abilities, propensities, learner cognitions about L2 learning, and learner actions. Motivation is among the factors that constitute propensities, defined by the author as “cognitive and affective qualities involving preparedness or orientation to language learning” (p. 529). Motivation is most often linked with learners’ attitudes towards learning of a foreign or second language, and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. In the field of SLA in regards to motivation, the debate between researchers seemed to be centered around the following areas: first, the most appropriate definition of motivation itself as a process; second, the identification of motivational factors that affect learning; third, the relation between motivation and social context.

Research on motivation has its roots in the work conducted by Gardner and Lambert (1972) on the social psychology of second or foreign language learning. Gardner and Lambert distinguished between ‘orientation’ and ‘motivation’, and argued that orientation is related to the learners’ goals for learning an L2, while motivation consists of the intensity and the effort learners are prepared to invest into learning. Orientation is described as instrumental if it is related to practical purposes, such as profession, and integrative, involving the learner’s desire “to learn more about the other cultural community because he is interested in it in an open-minded way, to the point of eventually being accepted as a member of that other group”. (p.3) The terms integrative and instrumental are widely used in the literature about motivation and learners’ attitudes; however, some authors have found the definitions of the two terms to be lacking in clarity and describing motivation “in too static a way” (Ellis 2004 p.537).

First, in terms of clarity, the two terms seem to overlap or even replace each other in some situations; for example, learning a language while traveling abroad was considered instrumental orientation by some researchers (Spolsky 1969 cited in Kruidenier 1986) and integrative by others (Cooper and Fishman 1977 cited in Kruidenier 1986 and Norton 1995). However, Gardner and Lambert argue that it could be both depending on the learner’s intentions. After showing the above-mentioned limitation of Gardner and Lambert’s socio-psychological perspective, Kruidenier and Clement (1986) added other orientations distinct from either

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisinstrumental or integrative, such as travel, friendship, prestige and knowledge.

Second, Dornyei (2000) proposed a ‘dynamic’ approach to motivation, as opposed to the ‘static’ one described above, that permits researchers to follow how motivation changes over time. Dornyei prefers the terms choice motivation and executive motivation instead of ‘orientation’ and ‘motivation intensity’, thus considering learners’ attitudes towards the target language at the beginning of the learning process (choice motivation) and their ability to maintain it throughout the learning process until they accomplish their goal (executive motivation). He also adds another variable, that of evaluation at the end of the process. Dornyei (2000, Dornyei and Czisar 2002) considers motivation a process that changes in time, and can be broken down in temporal segments, starting with the initial desires and ending with the accomplishment of the goal and the evaluation of the process.

The distinction between intrinsic (self-determination) and extrinsic motivation has been explored in depth by Noels et. al. (2003). They identified three types of extrinsic motivation: external regulation, very much related to the instrumental definition of motivation; introjected regulation, motivation that learners impose on themselves; and identified regulation, motivation for more personal reasons. Intrinsic motivation is defined as stemming from the learners’ desire for more knowledge, accomplishment, and stimulation created by learning something new. The lack of motivation in learning is called amotivation, and it may change over time.

The above-mentioned concepts have not been studied exclusively in pairs as they have been presented above (i.e. integrative vs. instrumental). Bonney et. al. (2008) for example, carried out a complex study to explore whether integrative or intrinsic motivation stand out as significant predictors for learning strategies. They found that each type of motivation was a predictor for different learning strategies: integrative motivation is a strong predictor of collaborative strategies, while students with a strong intrinsic motivation are more prone to get involved in extracurricular activities.

An important predictor of the level of motivation and orientation acknowledged by most researchers, and contested by some (Krashen, Chomsky cited in Norton 1995), is social context or social world (Norton 1995).

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisMotivation: Contextual Problems

Models of Language Learning and Social Context

Social relations with parents, friends, classmates, historical events and facts influence and form the social context that in turn forms the social identity of an individual. Identity is referred to by Norton (1997) as the way “people understand their relationship with the world” (p. 411). S he goes on to argue that the question is not that of how motivated the learner is, but rather what is his/her investment in the language. The word ‘investment’ implies giving with a profit in return, showing a higher degree of involvement on the learner’s part than ‘motivation’. In the same line of thought, Gardner (2002) implies that learning a second language changes the social identity of the learner as “to learn a language involves some degree of identification with the group that speaks it”. (p.160) Identification towards a certain group is usually possible in a second language context, while attitudes are more salient in a foreign language context. Kruidenier and Clement (1986) argue that positive attitudes towards the cultural group who speaks the target language is translated into a higher level of motivation, whereas negative attitudes are articulated as prejudice and discrimination not leading to an ideal language learning environment.

The terms motivation, orientation, and investment, and the various motivational factors are strongly linked with social context. Motivation to learn a foreign language stems directly from the social world, as a desire to communicate, work, or become part of another culture, and the final product of learning goes back into the social world. The definition of integrativeness explained above involves the learner’s self-identity changing to become more or someone else in order to function in the social world; the instrumental motivation, even though affectively more distant from the target language culture than integrative one, is also related to the ability to be more productive economically, politically, in sum, socially. Motivation is continually fed by the world and the needs that arise out of the learner’s contact with the world; therefore, a poststructuralist perspective is more appropriate to study the multiple layers of affective variables that prompt individuals to learn a foreign/second language. Social context surrounds the learners and their motivations; it is the basis for learning and at the same time the end. Some researchers showed the importance of social context in different models of language learning.

Barkhuizen (2004) proposed a basic model of language learning (Figure 1) in which the learner, and therefore the learner’s attitude toward language is framed by and part of the social context.

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Figure 1: Barkhuizen’s (2004) Basic Model of Language Learning

In the heuristic pyramid proposed by MacIntyre, Clemens, Dornyei and Noels (1998) (Figure 2), social context was placed at the base of language learning. MacIntyre, Clement, Dornyei, and Noels’ (1998) model included six levels, with communication behavior at the top, and social and individual context at the bottom.

Even though, MacIntyre et. al.’s model is more cited and referred to in the literature, and it looks more complex showing more variables, Barkhuizer’s (Figure 1) managed to capture the all surrounding social context better. The learner in the middle may be understood as comprising all the individual differences including attitudes and motivation. In the same way, input may be viewed not only in terms of linguistic information, but as a source of motivation as well. Therefore, output, that may be the product of learning in terms of a more knowledgeable or integrated individual, who, in turn, goes back and changes the social context.

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output

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Figure 2. Heuristic Model of Variables Influencing WTC (willingness to communicate) (MacIntyre, Clement, Dornyei and Noels 1998)

Social Context: Foreign Language Learning

The degree of identification with the cultural group that speaks the target language is diminished in a foreign language- learning situation as opposed to second language- learning. The factors distinguishing the foreign language from second language learning, as described by Kruidenier and Clement (1986) are “a) the degree in which the learner will use the language in every-day life”, and b) the prestige accorded the language being learned”. (p. 12)

The degree in which the learner will use the language in every-day life in a foreign language learning situation is very low, compared to a second language learning context. Dornyei (2004) hypothesized that in the absence of an L2 group in the learners’ environment “the identification can be generalized to the cultural and intellectual values associated with the language, as well as with the language itself” (p. 453) However, he argues further that in a foreign language context, motivational integrativeness is

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisactually a “form of identification process within the individual’s self-concept.”

The social distance between the learners and the target language group results in a distance in space and time, and it makes the content and target language abstract. (Norton 1995) In a review of the SLA literature of social context political influences on motivational factors, Kruidenier and Clement (1986) noticed that most authors emphasized the importance of instrumental orientation for foreign language learning, and integrative orientation as more prominent in the case of second language learning.

Social Context Language Status Motivation/

Amotivation

The status of a language was one of the three contextual factors that Kruidenier and Clement (1986) found as potentially important predictors of orientation. In a foreign language learning context, the immediate environment, as well as historical events and intercultural issues influence the learners’ attitudes towards a language and the status of that particular foreign language; therefore, a foreign language might be perceived by the learners as the international/global language, the language of aristocracy, the language of the oppressor, ‘critical-need’ language (Taha 2007) or the ‘language of the enemy’ (Pavlenko 2004).

A foreign language is not void of ideology (Fairclough 2004) and its status has a direct impact on learners’ attitudes and motivation to either learn or resist learning the target language. Due to political changes and new governments’ affiliations, the status of the language and the learners’ attitudes change over time. Eastern European countries offer a good example of change in attitudes and motivation that follow political changes: until 1989, during the communist rule, Russian was compulsory in schools but very few learnt it as it was considered the language of the oppressor; however, the collapse of communist governments in 1989 and early 1990’s and the new political affiliation to Western norms and values brought an array of new directions in the field of foreign language education and Russian was generally replaced by western languages. Later on, almost two decades after the fall of the communism, Russian is starting to regain the status it deserves, that of a language that represents a rich culture and in which literary masterpieces were written. (Dornyei & Csizer 2002)

Taha (2007) considered in his research another language whose status changed due to political pressure, state of national emergency and

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiswar. He described the effects of President Bush’s initiative to increase the number of American students who speak “critical-need” languages in light of the 9/11 events. Taha conducted his research on the perceptions and motivations of the American students to learn one such critical language: Arabic. The intended motivation behind learning Arabic is that of national security; however, Taha found that even though the students acknowledged the importance of learning Arabic, some of them did not see its usefulness in terms of their careers ((instrumental motivation). The motivation suggested by the government did not match the motivational factors that usually prompt students to learn a foreign language. Nevertheless, the most important aspect is that by introducing the National Security Language Initiative, President Bush and the government in power in the US have actually induced a negative attitude towards these languages by calling them “critical-need” and linking them to the 9/11 events. Learning of foreign languages should be encouraged for intercultural communication and cultural awareness, not because of security threats.

One language that maintained its status as one of the primary and most popular languages spoken in the world is English. Its popularity is continually increasing and many programs have been opened in English-speaking countries for individuals coming from abroad who want to improve their skills in the target language for a short period of time. In addition, a large number of ESL instructors travel abroad every year to teach English in countries around the world. In the last section of my paper I will refer to the global context, as part of the social world.

Global Context: English as the World Language

The success of English as an international language surpasses any other language, so much so that it became the language associated with globalization, and it gained the status of ‘the global language’. According to a recent survey, around 375 million people speak English as their first language, and another billion speak it as their second/foreign language. (Kaplan)

What is the springboard for such a high level of motivation even in countries that do not have a border with English-speaking countries? In Brazil, for example, a country surrounded only by Spanish speaking nations, English is still favored over Spanish. Motivation to learn English as a foreign language, therefore, goes beyond proximity and desire to communicate with neighboring nations.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisA study that sheds light on some of the motivational factors behind

learning English as a foreing language is that of Dornyei and Csizer (2002). Dornyei and Csizer carried out two large-scale surveys (N = 8,593) in Hungary in 1993 and 1999 to describe the motivational characteristics of the Hungarian foreign language-learning students towards five languages: German, French, Russian, English and Italian, and how these characteristics changed over time. They identified the following motivational variables: learners’ attitudes toward the L2, the L2 community, and L2 learning at school; the intended effort; parents’ proficiency in the target language and their support; contact with the L2 and its speakers, and through TV; fear of assimilation; self-confidence in L2 learning and use; and personal variables, such as gender. Contrary to Kruidenier and Clement’s (1986) findings, data analysis showed that the most salient factor in learning foreign languages was integrativeness, followed by instrumentality, direct contact with native speakers, cultural interest, and vitality of the community. The fact that in their study, integrativeness overtook instrumentality, is viewed by the authors as “rather ironic” (p. 444)

Their findings show that compared to the other languages, English always obtained the top position; moreover, while integrativeness and instrumentality scores for some languages decreased from 1993 to 1999 (even for German, the regionally dominant language), the scores for English increased significantly. After examining the results, Dornyei and Csizer divided the languages in two groups: English as the world language and other foreign languages, and concluded that interest in non-world languages was decreasing while interest to learn the world language was highly endorsed. However, the popularity of English as a foreign language is viewed by the authors as a threat to other languages and the explanation behind the lack of motivation in learning foreign languages in English-speaking countries:

“The threat that the learning of languages other than World English is impeded by the global ‘Englishisation’ is real, and we may speculate that this phenomenon may explain, for example, why language learning as a school subject is rather unsuccessful in English-speaking countries such as the USA and the UK: because the population there speaks the world language as their mother tongue, in these contexts only non-world language learning can take place, and at the time of accelerating globalization this appears to be, motivationally speaking, a losing battle” (455)

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisIt seems that individuals are ‘over-motivated’ to learn English, so

much so that it becomes a threat for the other languages, or a strong reason for monolingualism in English-speaking countries. This ‘over-motivation’ stems out of social context as well, and the need to access information and be understood.

Conclusion

In this paper I chose a more global approach to motivation by exploring some of the research carried out in relation to motivation and social context. Some of the contextual factors that determined motivational orientations of learners are the sociolinguistic context (foreign language vs. second language learning), the political changes or pressures that shape individuals’ attitudes towards languages, and the status of a language (language of the oppressor, global language, language of the enemy, critical-need language).

The fact that foreign language learners’ orientation and motivation depends on the social changes was substantiated by examples in Eastern European countries and the fluctuating status of Russian, in the US by the ‘critical-need’ language following 9/11. In addition, the increase in popularity and the high level of motivation of learning English imposed it as a ‘world’ or ‘global’ language, and in turn determined the decrease in popularity and motivation towards learning of other languages confirming Norton’s statement that “speech, speakers and social relationships are inseparable” (1995 p.410).

References

Barkhuizen, G. (2004) Social Influences on Language Learning. The Handbook for Applied Linguistics. Blackwell Publishing, pp. 552 - 576

Bonney, C. R., Cortina, K. S., Smith-Darden, J. P., Fiori, K. L. (2008) Understanding Strategies in Foreign Language Learning: Are integrative and intrinsic motives distinct predictors?, Learning and Individual Differences (18) pp. 1-10

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisDornyei, Z. (2000). Motivation in Action: Towards a Process-oriented

Conceptualization of Student Motivation. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 70 pp. 519-570

Dornyei, Z and Csizer, K (2002). Some Dynamics of Language Attitudes and Motivation: Results of a Longitudinal Nationwide Survey Study. Applied Linguistics 23 (4) pp. 421 - 462

Ellis R. (2004) Individual Differences in Second Language Learning. In A. Davies and C. Elder (Eds.) The Handbook for Applied Linguistics. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 525-552

Gardner R. C. (2002) Social Psychological Perspective on Second Language Acquisition. In BR.B. Kaplan (Ed.) The Oxford Handbook for Applied Linguistics. Oxford University Press

Gardner, R. C. (2001). Integrative Motivation and Second Language Acquisition in Z. Dornyei and R. Schmidt (Eds.): Motivation and Second Language Acquisition. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i

Gardner, R. C. and Lambert W. E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning

Kruidenier, B. and Clement, R. (1986) The Effect of Context on the Composition and Role of Orientations in Second Language Acquisition. Quebec: International Centre for Research on Bilingualism

MacIntyre, Clement, Dornyei, Noels (1998) Conceptualizing Willingness to Communicate in a L2: A Situational Model of L2 Confidence and Affiliation. The Modern Language Journal 82 (4) pp. 545 - 562

MacIntyre, P. D. (2007) Willingness to Communicate in the Second Language: Understanding the Decision to Speak as a Volitional Process. The Modern Language Journal, 91 (iv) pp. 564 - 576

Noels, K., Pelletier, L, Clement, R. & Vallerand, R. (2003). Why Are You Learning a Second Language? Motivational Orientations and Self-Determination Theory. Language Learning, 53, pp. 33-64

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisNorton, B. (1995) Social Identity, Investment and Language learning.

TESOL Quarterly 29 (1) pp. 9 - 31

Norton, B. (1997) Language, Identity and the Ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly 31 (3) pp. 409 - 429

Pavlenko, A. (2003) Language of the Enemy: Foreign Language Education and National Identity. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 6 (5) pp. 313-331

Taha, T.A. (2007) Arabic as a “Critical-Need” Foreign Language in Post-9/11 Era: A Study of Students’ Attitudes and Motivation. Journal of

Instructional Psychology 34 (3) pp. 150 - 159

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Computer Pedagogy Adopted in Computer Technology Courses at Colleges of Education: What do Preservice Teachers Really Want?

Salah Zogheib1

Bashar Zogheib2

Ali EL Saheli3

1. English King Abul Aziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

2. Sciences Nova Southeastern University Fort Lauderdale, USA

3. Lebanese International University, Beirut, Lebanon

ABSTRACT.The purpose of this study was to explore the factors that influence preservice teachers’ computer technology use in computer courses offered at Colleges of Education, as well as the way the pedagogy adopted in these courses can enhance computer use. To achieve this purpose, a two-phase study was conducted. The framework that emerged in the quantitative phase incorporated specific determinants of computer use--demographics, experience, learning style, motivation, and personality—that represent prominent themes in theories of human motivation. Interestingly, experience was the most significant predictor of computer use. The qualitative phase revealed that preservice teachers favor a pedagogy-based training that incorporates two main categories: (a) computer technology as “main content focus” and (b) computer technology as “part of teaching method.” The quantitative and qualitative findings indicate that experience should be at the core of a larger digital literacy framework that can best explain computer use. Key words: pedagogy, computer, motivation, originality.

Introduction

The use of Information and communication technology (ICT) in schools is viewed as essential “both to prepare students for today’s economy and to make the most of new learning tools” (Statistics Canada, 2005, p. 43). According to a report published by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD 2001), many countries are making substantial investments in computers and Internet connections for schools

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisbecause students with little or no exposure to ICT may not be able to make a smooth transition to the labor market.

Educational computing research revealed that acess and professional development are essential for a successful implementation of computer technology in the classroom (e.g., Becker, 1999; Vanfossen, 2001). However, access seems to be no longer a major issue: The National Center for Education Statistics (2002) reported that 92 % of public schools in the United States have access to computers/Internet. In Canada, the number rises to 99 % (Statistics Canada, 2005).

As professional development is required to integrate computer technology into the curriculum, today, Colleges of Education all over North America are providing microcomputer courses to prepare future teachers to meet the demands of the new technological innovations. Unfortunately, efforts to meet those demands can be described as marginal and not satisfactory (Bober 2003; Fulton, Glenn & Valdez, 2004): For example, despite the fact that most Canadian teachers (75 %) have had in-service training on computer use for educational purposes, the majority (83 %) believe that they are not adequately prepared to integrate computer technology in their classes and lesson plans (Industry Canada, 2003). In the United States, only 53 % of the whole teacher population revealed that they were “somewhat” prepared to use computer technology for instruction (The CEO Forum, 2001). On the preservice teacher level, many preservice teachers reported being unprepared to use computers in the classroom (Albee, 2003).

The need to link professional development, especially at the teacher education level, to implementing the new innovation is supported by educational theories as well. Fullan and Hargreaves (1991) in their view of “educational change” stated that an effective implementation of innovations “consists of alterations in curriculum materials, instructional practices and behaviour, and beliefs and understanding on the part of teachers involved in given innovations” (p. 1). Understanding preservice teachers’ system beliefs seems essential to developing a model that can explain computer use as well as enrich the computer pedagogy adopted in computer courses. Such a model has to incorporate factors that represent prominent themes in theories of human motivation and decision making with respect to preservice teachers’ computer use: for example, learning style, motivation, and personality.

Literature Review

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisThough learning styles are believed to play a potentially important

role for students’ success in the various learning environments, very rare were the studies that investigated their influence on computer technology use. For example, Ross, Dayle, and Schulz (2001) examined the relationship between academic performance and learning styles of 168 preservice teachers in a computer application course. The focus of the computer course was on familiarizing students with computers and how to apply computer technology to the school curriculum. The Gregorc Style Delineator (Gregorc, 1982) was used to collect learning style data. Results showed that dominant Abstract Sequential (AS) learners achieved the highest score and dominant Abstract Random (AR) learners the lowest. However, there is a need to investigate the role of learning styles in the presence of other influential factors, such as motivation.

Investigating a possible influence for motivation on computer use seems essential especially since motivation not only influences peoples’ performance but also how and why people learn (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Moreover, the studies that investigated motivation have mainly focused on achievement (e.g., Chapula, Chen and Charles 2001; Shish & Gamon 2001). The authors found that motivation correlated highly with and predicted achievement in computer courses. Intrinsically motivated students achieved higher grades than the extrinsically motivated ones.

While there is an abundance of research related to using personality traits inventories or scales in education, there is considerably much less research that investigated the influence of personality traits on computer technology use (e.g., Chambers, Hardy, Smith & Sienty 2003; Jones, 1994; Smith, Munday & Windham 1995). The literature revealed that learners of different personality types reacted differently to computer courses. Whereas persons with certain personality types felt more comfortable about taking or being enrolled in a computer course (for example, the Intuitive/thinking category on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator), others (for example, the Sensory/Feeling types) were more conservative about the value of computers and its role in attaining knowledge. Unfortunately, the literature shows that researchers have never investigated the influence of personality traits on preservice teacher computer technology use particularly in the presence of other influential variables.

As far as prior experience is concerned, the literature showed that computer experience correlated with computer and Internet use (Jaber & Moore, 1999; Vanfossen, 2001; Wiesenmayer & Koul, 1999). However, the literature distinguished between two types of experiences: experiences using computers in general and experiences using computers for instruction. Among the group of novice preservice teachers, who have no teaching

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisexperience, it would be reasonable to focus on the role that experience with basic and general computer skills might have on this group’s ability to use computers for their own development. Also of great interest is investigating the level and type of experiences computer technology courses provide preservice teachers with.

Based on this evaluation of the status of educational computing, the goal of the present research study was to develop a model that can best explain preservice teachers’ computer use in computer courses offered at Colleges of Education. This was accomplished by: (a) examining influential variables representing prominent themes in theories of human motivation and decision making with respect to preservice teachers’ computer use, and (b) expanding on these finding through interviews with preservice teachers. Five variable-clusters have emerged that might potentially have an impact on preservice teachers’ computer use in computer technology classes. They are the following:

1. Demographic (age, gender, marital status, program of study, children, educational level, and racial status)

2. Experiential (familiarity with computer terminology and prior online/computer experience)

3. Learning Style (active/reflective, visual/verbal, sequential/global, and sensing/intuitive)

4. Motivational (intrinsic, extrinsic, task value, control of learning beliefs, success, and self-efficacy)

5. Personality (shyness, organization, nervousness, sympathy, and originality)

Methodology

The Rationale

“Explanatory mixed-method design” was adopted in this research study to examine variables or cluster of variables that influence preservice teachers’ computer use in microcomputer courses. Creswell (2002) suggests that the rationale for this approach is that “the quantitative data results provide a general picture of the research problem; more analysis, specifically through qualitative data collection is needed to refine, extend, or explain the general picture” (p.566).

Correlational research methodology was used for the quantitative phase of this study. This methodology is chosen since the purpose of the study was to determine whether, or to what degree, a relationship might

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisexist between the independent variables (preservice teachers’ motivations, learning styles, demographics, prior experiences, personality) and preservice teachers’ computer use for personal and educational purposes.

Subjects

Subjects in this study were 484 preservice teachers enrolled in a one-year consecutive Primary/Junior (P/J), Junior/Intermediate (J/I), and Intermediate/Senior (I/S) preservice program at the College of Education at a Canadian university. The program provides teachers in the P/J and J/I groups with training in all subject areas. I/S preservice teachers receive training in their field of speciality (teachable).

As part of the program, preservice teachers were required to receive computer training that focuses on providing them with hands-on computer experience. Such experiences would allow preservice teachers to apply computer technology within all subject areas. However, no separate computer courses were provided to P/J preservice teachers. Computer training was provided to them as part of the “Issues in Education” course. The focus of this course is on exploring various Canadian educational issues such as religious pluralism, racism, Information and Computer Technology integration in the classroom, sex, education, standardized testing, and other issues of interest to students. This indicates that only a very little portion of this course is focused on providing computer training.Instrumentation

The first instrument solicits demographic information about the participants such as gender, age, marital status, and familiarity with computer terminology (see Appendix). The second instrument collects information about preservice teachers’ perceived prior experience with computer technology software or programs: for example, email, printing software, and Word processing skills (see Appendix).

The Index of Learning Styles (Felder & Soloman, 1991) was used to assess learning preferences on four dimensions (active/reflective, sensing/intuitive, visual/verbal, and sequential/global). A student’s learning style profile provides an indication of probable strengths and possible tendencies or habits that might lead to difficulty in academic settings.

The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1991) was designed to measure students’ motivational orientations for learning and learning strategy use. The Motivation section was adopted for this study. It is made up of two scales: expectancy and value. Expectancy components refer to students’

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisbeliefs that they can accomplish a task. Two expectancy-related subscales were constructed to assess students’ (a) perceptions of self-efficacy and (b) control beliefs for learning. Value components focus on the reasons why students engage in an academic task. Three subscales are included in the MSLQ to measure value beliefs: (1) intrinsic goal orientation (a focus on learning and mastery), (2) extrinsic goal orientation (a focus on grades and approval from others), and (3) task value beliefs (judgments of how interesting, useful, and important the course content is to the student). The number of questions comprising each motivational scale was reduced from 5 to 3 questions in order to reduce the overall length of the questionnaire and to increase response rate. Redundant questions were eliminated. Qureshi (2003) adopted the reduced form in her research study that investigated factors affecting students’ satisfaction with online course components. The author reported reliability rates that ranged from .74 on the Intrinsic Goal Orientation scale to .87 on the Expectancy for Success scale.

The SONSO Personality Inventory (SPI) (Kentle, 1994) was used to measure personality. The SPI was derived from factor analyses of the “Big Five” model of personality which include Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Openness (Culture), Introversion, and Neuroticism. In revising the original five factors, the SPI measures five personality factors based on similar factor loadings as original “Big Five” factors. These factors are Shyness, Organization, Nervousness, Sympathy, and Originality. Each factor is made up of ten items. Subjects rate themselves on a self-report 5-point Likert scale. Answers vary from “strongly describes me (5) to “doesn’t describe me at all” (1).

The last instrument collected data related to computer technology use in computer pedagogy/training courses. The focus was on items such as email, printing software, Word processing software, search engines, Blogs, etc.

A 5-point Likert scale was used throughout this study in order to maintain consistency. An answer of 5 on this scale would indicate strong agreement and an answer of 1 strong disagreement.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Almost 51 % of the participants (N = 244) were between 21 and 25 years of age, 22 % were between 26 and 30 (N = 108), and almost 13 % were between 31 and 35 (N = 63). Thirty-five preservice teachers (7. 2 %)

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiswere between 36 and 40 years of age. Thirty-three (6.8 %) were above 41 years of age. Only one person did not answer the age question. As to gender, female participants represented 70 % of the sample. This large number of female participants (N = 340 out of 484) as compared to that of males (N = 144) reflects the typical imbalance between both groups in Colleges of Education. The majority of preservice teachers (almost 62 %) were single (N = 299). The second largest group (almost 35 %) were mainly married or living with a partner (N = 169). With respect to the program of study, 52.7 % of the preservice teachers were enrolled in the Primary/Junior (P/J) program (N = 255), 31.4 % were enrolled in the Junior/Intermediate (J/I) program (N =152), and almost 16 % were enrolled in the Intermediate/Senior (I/S) program (N = 77). As to educational level, the majority of the participants (89.5 %) reported having a bachelor’s degree, 9.3% a master’s degree, and 1.2 % a Doctoral degree. The majority of the participants (almost 88.2 %) live in urban areas (N = 427). As to familiarity with computer terminology, almost 76 % of preservice teachers were familiar with computer terminology.

With respect to prior computer experience (familiarity with using computer software), 37% of the participants indicated that they “strongly disagree” or “disagree” with the notion that they have prior computer experience. It appears that a large of portion of the preservice teachers sample lacks experience with computers: About 60% believed that they had experience. Descriptive statistics (see Table 1) shows that preservice teachers had a great experience using email, Word processing software, search engines, and printing software. Statistical packages and Web boards were the least commonly used.

Table 1

Means and Standard Deviation of the Various Computer Experience

Items (N = 484)

Experience Items Mean SD

Word processing Software 4.55 1.05

Spread Sheet Software 2.99 1.44

Statistical packages 1.85 1.02

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisExperience Items Mean SD

Web Based Database 2.54 1.29

Library Database 2.56 1.30

Software Database 3.27 1.50

Printing Software 4.10 1.38

Scanning Software 3.30 1.54

E mail 4.75 .82

Chat 3.54 1.62

Graphics 3.10 1.47

Text/Hypertext 2.82 1.43

Search Engines 4.19 1.31

Games 3.19 1.52

Movies 2.87 1.53

Web boards 2.35 1.34

E books and Online Newspapers 3.02 1.50

Blogs 2.73 1.47

As to computer technology use (see Table 2), descriptive statistics revealed that email was the most commonly used; search engines and Word processing software were the next highest. Statistical packages and movie editing software were the least commonly used.

Table 2

Means and Standard Deviation of the Various Computer Use Items

(N = 484)

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisComputer Use Mean SD

Statistical packages

1.21 .60

Movies 1.43 .94

Games 1.49 .96

Web board 1.58 .97

Spread Sheet 1.73 .94

Web based Database

1.74 1.06

Scanning software 1.76 1.09

Chat 1.77 1.24

Library Database 1.78 .95

Text/Hypertext 2.13 1.24

Graphics 2.17 1.15

Blogs 2.19 1.20

Software Database 2.63 1.53

Printing software 2.69 1.41

Word Processing 2.87 1.34

Search engine 2.97 1.48

E mail use 3.17 1.56

E books 1.83 1.05

Multiple Regression Analysis

A standard multiple regression analysis was run for each of the five clusters of variables (demographic, experiential, learning style, motivational, and personality) as independent variables and computer use in a computer course as a dependent variable (see Table 3). Multiple R, R ,

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisAdjusted R , F value, and significant F were reported for each cluster (model).

Table 3

Summary of Results from the Multiple Regression Analyses for Each of the

Five Sets of Variables with Computer Use as the Dependent Measure

Models R R Adjusted

R

Std. Error of

the Estimate

F Sig F

Demographics .20 .04 .02 .64 2.85 .00

Experience .27 .08 .08 .63 19.4 .00

Learning

Styles

.15 .02 .01 .65 2.79 .02

Motivation .25 .06 .05 .63 5.18 .00

Personality .22 .04 .03 .64 4.68 .00

The experiential cluster was the most significant predictor of computer use in a computer course. It was responsible for 8 % of the variance in computer use. The lowest prediction was that of the learning style cluster (R = .02). When checking for individual variables within each model (see Table 4), the program of study, experience, visual-verbal learning style, intrinsic motivation, and originality were the only significant predictors of computer use. The unstandardized coefficients (B), the standardized coefficients (Beta), t value, and significance of these predictors were reported.

Table 4

Summary of Results from the Multiple Regression Analyses for Each of the

Independent Variables that Significantly Predicted Computer Use

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisIndependent Variables B Beta t P

Program of Study .14 .16 3.36 p < .01

Experience .21 .26 5.57 p < .001

Visual/Verbal -.11 -.12 -2.61 p < .01

Intrinsic .20 .24 4.57 p < .001

Originality .18 .18 3.85 p < .001

Based on the multiple regression analysis results, the five variables that significantly predicted computer use (program of study, experience, visual-verbal LS, intrinsic motivation, and originality) formed the basis for the final model that was used to explain/predict computer use among preservice teachers. Regression results of the final model showed that these variables accounted for a significant percentage of the variance in computer use, R = .16, F (5, 467) = 17.7, p < .001. Overall, among these variables, the unique contribution of computer experience (beta = .21, p < .001); intrinsic motivation ((beta = .19, p < .001); program of study (beta = 14, p < .01); and originality (beta = .10, p < .05) was significant.

Qualitative Phase

Introduction

Given the prominence of the role of experience which emerged from the quantitative results, there was a clear rationale to explore various aspects of experience in more depth. In particular, this phase would allow a clearer understanding of computer technology experiences related to courses offered at the College of Education. Moreover, preservice teachers’ expectations about the computer experience they prefer to receive in the preservice program were investigated.

Methodology

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisData analyses were based on interviewing preservice teachers and

transcribing the interviews. Before commencing with quantitative data collection, preservice teachers who were interested in the follow-up phase of the study were asked to write down their phone numbers so that the researcher could contact them. Fifteen preservice teachers have agreed to do the interviews; however, only twelve showed up on the interview date. Table 5 provides background information about gender, age, and program of study of the twelve preservice teachers who participated in this phase of the study. For purposes of confidentiality names were not mentioned. Each preservice teacher was given a letter. For example Student A will represent one of the participants. Student B will represent another one, etc.

Interviews were conducted during February 2006 in the researcher’s office at the College of Education. By this time preservice teachers had been enrolled in the preservice program for almost six months. This period represents 75% of the whole program. Moreover, by the time preservice teachers were interviewed, they had two practicums completed and only two were left.

The use of advanced technology (Digital Multi Media Player and Recorder) to audiotape the interviews has helped in easily listening to and interpreting the data. For the sake of consistency the researcher alone transcribed the interviews. Transcriptions were done using a pencil and paper. Creswell (2002) suggests the use of hand analysis when the researcher is dealing with a small data base (less than 500 pages of transcripts) and when he/she “wants to be close to the data and have a hands-on feel for it without the intrusion of a machine” (p. 261).

Table 5

Background Information of the Twelve Preservice Teachers who

Participated in the Qualitative Phase.

Student

ID

Gender Age Program Professor Degree

Student

A

Female 21-25 JI Dr. X History

Student B Female 35-40 PJ Dr. O English

Student C Female 21-25 PJ Dr. Z Business

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisStudent

D

Male 21-25 PJ Dr. Z P. science

Student E Female 36-40 IS Dr. X Drama

Student F Female 36-40 PJ Dr. Y History

Student

G

Female 26-30 JI Dr. X Biology

Student

H

Female 31-35 PJ Dr. Z Psychology

Student I Female 41-

Over

PJ Dr. Z Psychology

Student J Male 36-40 JI Dr. X Music

Student

K

Female 26-30 JI Dr. X English

Student L Female 26-30 PJ Dr. O Psychology

After reading the transcripts several times to obtain a general sense of the data, the focus was on examining the data in detail to develop themes or broad categories of ideas from the data. Coding was the procedure followed to help acquire this aim. Coding is the process of assigning a code word or phrase that accurately describes the meaning of a paragraph or sentences that relate to one idea (Creswell 2002). After the whole material was coded, similar codes were brought together to form major ideas in the database. Out of these ideas, major and minor themes were obtained.

The interviews have addressed the following questions:1. Does the preservice teacher program provide you with the

computer training and experiences that are enough to successfully and efficiently implement computer technology in your future classrooms? (Preservice teachers were also asked about computer experiences related to teaching practicums).

2. What should professors and people in charge do to make instruction in the computer course more influential? (Preservice teachers were also encouraged to report on the whole BEd program in general).

Results

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisComputer Experience Acquired in the BEd Program

The qualitative findings showed a significant difference between the seven Primary/Junior preservice teachers’ responses on the one hand and the five Junior/Intermediate and Intermediate/Senior responses on the other hand. This difference is because computer training was provided to P/J preservice as a part of another course (Issues in Education). Preservice teachers agreed that the experiences acquired in the Issues in Education course were not enough. For example, Student B said: “A computer technology component is not enough. The Issues in Education Course should be technology oriented. We need to learn computer stuff.” Similarly, Student D said: “Not much computers! Any of the people who don’t have the basic skills won’t learn at all. It is not satisfying at all.” Another female preservice (student H) said: “We learned how to set a blog in the Issues course. I am not going to set up a blog for my grade 3 students. It would be useful to know how to make a Power Point presentation.”

On the other hand, the five J/I and I/S students who participated in this study (Students A, E, G, J, & K) stated that the computer technology course was helpful, but there was a need to teach basic computer skills: For example, Student J said: “They are helping a lot. The focus is mainly on how to incorporate skills than on teaching skills. However, we need computer basic skills first. There are programs I don’t know how to use.” Similarly Student K said: “Definitely good, but we could do more. It is a good start but I think there should be more expansion on it. To me it is fine but to others with little skills it is not.” Another preservice teacher (Student A) said the she has learned to do blogs and how to use new software like Smart Ideas and Math Tracker: “My computer class here introduced me to programs that I never heard about before. [However, she added] There is an assumption we already know how to use them, to a certain degree. “

As to computer experience provided by other courses in the program, the twelve interviewees revealed that there is no real focus on computers. Preservice teachers mainly use computers to type assignments and do online search. However, such use was rarely initiated or encouraged by professors. Very rare were the professors who encourage the students to use computers. For example, one preservice teacher (Student D) said, “Aside from psychology classes we are a generation behind. Professors haven’t had the experience the younger teachers had.”

As to the teaching practicum, significant findings were noticed: First, all preservice teachers reported that computers were available in the schools. However, computers were not used by associate teachers: For example, Student C said: “Associate teachers are not interested in

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisintegrating technology. They don’t know how to check email.” Another one (Student B) said: “Computers [were] just sitting there. Nobody was using them. Only one teacher (Student K) stated that the associate teacher encouraged her to use computers. Five preservice teachers reported that they used computer in at least one of the two placements.

Another important comment that was common to all preservice teachers was that students know more about computers than their teachers: For example, Student E said, “High school students know more than we do.” Student F said, “Lot of teachers are in a situation they want to teach their students about computers and their students know more than they do.”Expectations about the BEd Program

Preservice teachers strongly suggested a change in the pedagogy of computer training courses: Computer training courses should focus on teaching basic computer skills as well as how to incorporate these skills in the classroom. For example, a P/J preservice teacher (Student L) said:

If a professor is teaching a course that involves the use of computers and computer programs, he shouldn’t assume that the students are familiar with that program. Basic skills should be provided for those students who don’t have much experience.

This attitude was also shared by J/I and I/S preservice teachers. For example, Student E said: “We should have one semester for skills and one for methodology.” Student K said: “The course should be divided into two classes, one for skills and one for how to implement these skills.” Similarly, Student G said: “They should introduce it [computer technology] better to people. It is important to teach skills and methodology.”

Interestingly, the five J/I and I/S preservice teachers reported that the time dedicated for these courses was not enough. For example, Student A said: “Maybe professors need more time to do a better job.” Student E said: “Most of the problem is because we have to take so many things in a short period.”

Another suggestion raised by a couple of preservice teachers was the need to have computer classes that train teachers to implement computer technology in the various classes: Student E said: “We should have computer for specific courses, like history, math, etc.” Similarly, Student A said: “Give me something that I can use in the history class, language class.”

Discussion

The finding that the program of study preservice teachers’ enrolled in was a significant predictor of computer use raises many concerns about

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisthe educational policies adopted at Colleges of Education, particularly those that pertain to the role of computer technology in the educational process: There seems to be an underestimation of the value of providing computer technology training to preservice teachers, particularly at the P/J level. This is evident in the amount of time dedicated to computer technology courses provided to P/Js. The qualitative findings also showed that even those in the J/I and I/S sections are not satisfied with the quality of computer training they are receiving. Moreover, the finding that experience was the dominant predictor of computer use indicates the need to provide computer technology courses that focus mainly on providing hands-on experiences that would help preservice teachers adopt computer technology more efficiently.

The pedagogy adopted in computer courses seems basic to enhancing preservice teachers’ computer knowledge and experiences. The qualitative findings revealed that computer technology training provided at the Colleges of Education adopts a “pedagogy-based” approach at the expense of a “technical-based” approach. The “pedagogy-based” approach focuses on teaching computer technology as part of the teaching methods (Collis & Jung, 2003). The emphasis is on providing preservice teachers with the training on how to integrate computer technology in an educational context (Jung, 2005). However, this should not undermine the necessity to provide training about basic computer skills. There is a need to adopt a “technical-based” approach in the computer classroom. As many preservice teachers suggested, “half the time should be dedicated to teaching computer skills.”

On the other hand, intrinsic motivation was the only motivational construct that predicted computer use in a computer course. This is consistent with other research findings demonstrating that achievement in a computer course was mainly dependent on intrinsic motivation (Chapula, Chen, & Charles, 2001; Chen & Chapula, 2003). This is also supported by the qualitative findings: Preservice teachers stated that tasks should be provided in a way that will keep them motivated and enthusiastic about learning in a computer class. For example Student B said: “They should keep us motivated.” Preservice teachers emphasized the need to have assignments that focus on hands-on experiences and not only on reading and critiquing journal articles. Therefore, the learning task needs to be presented in a situation that is engaging and meaningful to the learner. Students can be motivated through activities and applications that capture their imagination and stimulate a desire to seek more knowledge. Moreover, instructors in a computer course can show students how the course, assignments, and projects are relevant to their academic, professional, and personal needs.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisThis could be done by planning and encouraging discussions that both relate the learning material to the learners’ personal experiences, and show how it can be used in their own classrooms. One should also emphasise the help that can come from other courses in the program. Preservice teachers mentioned that very few professors encouraged them to use computers. It might be lack of experience that led those professors to ignore or underestimate the importance of encouraging computer use among their students. Other factors might exist.

Last but not least, motivating preservice teachers of the various personality traits seems essential particularly since the originality trait was found to be a significant predictor of computer use. Originality could be influential due to the fact that people who are not creative and imaginative may find it very difficult to adapt to the new innovation (computer technology).

Conclusion

The findings of this research served two main purposes, both of which are very important to the field of teacher education: First, the study has provided a conceptual framework that can help explain computer use among preservice teachers: A number of factors combined together to provide such a framework. Among these factors, prior experience with computer technology, intrinsic motivation, program of study, and originality were the only significant predictors.

Moreover, the research findings revealed that the pedagogy adopted in computer courses influences preservice teachers’ readiness and ability to use computer technology effectively: Colleges of Education have to adopt a computer pedagogy that incorporates two main categories: (a) computer technology as a “main content focus” and (b) computer technology as a “part of teaching methods.” Put simply, preservice teachers need to learn computer skills first, then how to incorporate these skills into the real classroom.

However, for this pedagogy to be effective there is a need to dedicate more time to computer courses. Moreover, professors other than those involved in computer courses should incorporate computer technology in their teaching and encourage preservice teachers to use this technology. Encouragement should not be limited to verbal talk. There might be a need to prepare professors themselves to use computers in their classrooms. Once they are ready to adopt the innovation, they will feel comfortable asking others to use it. In sum, it is important to mention that participants in this study represent a large sample of preservice teachers who come from a variety of

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisbackgrounds and provinces. As such, findings from this research can be generalized to the whole preservice teacher population in Canada. However, it would be interesting to conduct further research to find out if the current model can be generalized to other disciplines such as nursing, business, etc.

Last but not least, from the instructors’ perspective, there is a need to do research on faculty who teach at Colleges of Education. Particularly, there is a need to investigate the factors that might be impeding instructors from encouraging and demanding that their students use computer technology for assignments and activities in courses other than those that focus on computer training.

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Bober, M.J. (2003). Using technology to spark reform in preservice education. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 3(2), 205-222.

Chambers, S. M., Hardy, J., Smith, B., & Sienty, S. (2003). Personality indicators and emergency permit teachers’ willingness to embrace technology. Journal of instructional technology, 30(3), 185-188.

Chapula, M., Chen, C., & Charles, T. (2001). An analysis of college students’ motivation and learning strategies in computer courses: a cognitive view. The Delta Phi Epsilon, 43(4), 185-199.

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Collis, B., & Jung, I.S. (2003). Uses of information and communication technologies in teacher education. In B. Robinson, & C. Latchem (Eds.), Teacher education through open and distance learning (pp. 171-192). London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Creswell, J. W. (2002). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. (2 nd Ed.). London: Sage.

Felder, R., & Soloman, B. (1991). Index of Learning Styles. Retrieved Nov 03, 2005, from http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html

Ferreiro, E. (2005). Librarian and basic education: Teachers in the context of digital literacy. IFLA Journal 31(1), 35-44.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisFullan, M., & Hargreaves, A. (1991). Teacher development and educational

change. London: The Falmer Press.Fulton, K., Glenn. A.D., & Valdez, G. (2004). Teacher education and

technology planning guide. Retrieved June 15, 2008, from http://www.learningpt.org/pdfs/tech/guide.pdf

Gilster, P (1997). Digital Literacy. New York: Wiley and Computer Publishing.

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Industry Canada (2003). An investigation of the integration of information technology into Canadian schools and classrooms. Retrieved Dec 12, 2004, from http://www.ctf-fce.ca/archive/docs/bilingual/publication/ctfreport/ICTenglish.pdf

Jaber, W. E., & Moore, D. E. (1999). A survey of factors which influence teachers’ use of computer-based technology. International Journal of Instructional Media, 26(3), 253-266.

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Jung, I. (2005). ICT-pedagogy integration in Teacher training: Application cases worldwide. Educational Technology and Society, 8(2), 94-101.

Kentle, R.L. (1994). An examination of five personality factors. Personal and Individual Differences, 16, 793-798.

National Center for Education Statistics (2002). Internet access in U.S public schools and classrooms. Retrieved June 20, 2008, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002018.pdf

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Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Pintrich, P., Smith, D., Garcia, T., & McKeanie, W. (1991). A manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). The Regents of the University of Michigan. Ann Arbor, MI. Used with Permission.

Qureshi, E. (2003). Investigation of factors affecting students’ satisfaction with online course components. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Windsor, Ontario.

Ross, J. L., Drysdale, M., & Schulz, R. (2001). Cognitive learning styles and academic performance in two postsecondary computer

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Shih, C., & Gamon, J. A. (2001). Relationships among student motivation attitude, learning styles, and achievement. Journal of Agricultural Education, 42(4), 12-20.

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Vanfossen, P. J. (2001). Degree of Internet/WWW use and barriers to use among Secondary social studies teachers. International Journal of Instructional Media, 28(1), 57-74.

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SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT VERSUS SELF-ACCEPTANCE SCORES IN PROBLEM-BASED

LEARNING CLASSES FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

Florin Marina and Ioan Scheau“1st. of December 1918” University Alba Iulia, Romania

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to determine whether a statisically significant relationship exists between science achievement and self-acceptance scores of intermediate students in problem-based learning classrooms. It is believed that students will perform better academically and feel better about themselves when exposed to an instructional strategy that accomodates all learners.

Key words: students, classroom, needs, self acceptance

Introduction

A. General Statement of the ProblemEducation is always in a state of flux. Ideas, instructional methods and strategies for educators are constantly changing. Currently, most teachers are experiencing the need to reintegrate learning disabled students into regular classrooms on a full-time basis. Teachers are faced with the challenge to meet the needs of gifted, average and learning disabled students all in one classroom. The traditional classroom setting can be overwhelming for students with special needs. Often, they may feel like they are incapable of achieving success. Also, the gifted student may feel unchallenged in the regular classroom and fail at achieving success.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisAnother area of concern for educators is the need to develop the self-esteem and self-concepts of all students. Teachers are responsible in some way for the development and maintenance of students’ self-esteem. Low self-esteem has been associated with low academic achievement. The Oregon Resiliency Project (2003) argues that teaching problem-solving skills and community buliding exercise helps to build self-esteem. An additional challenge is education’s need to keep older students motivated to learn. With older students, making students feel good about going to school can be extremely challenging. Making older students feel good about themselves and keeping them motivated to learn is equally frustrating.

Teachers feel overwhelmed with the demands of provincial curriculum and programming for different needs. Differentiated instruction is a method that teachers can use to meet the needs of all learners in the same classroom (Tomlinson, 1997). In this instructional model, teachers are able to change the process of how material is taught. One instructional strategy that allows teachers to differentiate instruction is problem-based learning. Differentiating instruction is said to be one way that teachers can help make students feel better about themselves.

Howard Barrows developed problem-based learning at McMaster University for its medical school. Problem-based learning is an instructional method that is used daily in medical schools and nurse education programs. Teachers in elementary and secondary schools are using this strategy in everyday classrooms. This cooperative learning strategy reflects a teacher’s philosophy about how students learn and how they are motivated to learn. Teachers design ill-structured problems around any subject area. Ill-structured problems are authentic, vague, real-life problem situations. Students are responsible for solving this problem. The goal of problem-based learning is to use what a students know and merge that learning with new information. The teacher’s role moves from instructor to guide. The teacher is also known as the tutor in this process. Students work collaboratively to search for information for the unknown and use what they know to solve problems. This model is an effective instructional tool because it can be adapted to a variety of learning styles and levels. In addition, students use real-life skills such as working with others to achieve learning goals. (Deslile, 1997).

The purpose of this study is to determine whether a statisically significant relationship exists between science achievement and self-acceptance scores of intermediate students in problem-based learning classrooms. It

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisis believed that students will perform better academically and feel better about themselves when exposed to an instructional strategy that accomodates all learners.

B. Definition of TermsBoard of Education: The Greater Essex County District School Board.Intermediate Students: students that are in grade eight in Windsor-Essex County area schools.Ill-Structured Problem: a vague, real-life problem that is presented to students. Students must solve this problem.Intermediate Teachers: a teacher in good standing with the Ontario College of Teachers (OCT) who educates students in the province of Ontario with intermediate qualifications and who has been teaching five years or less.Science Achievement: measured using achievement levels on the Ontario Provinical Report Card for grade seven and eight. Science marks are given as percentages for intermediate students.Problem-based Learning Classroom (PBL): a classroom that are designed to be: (a) student-centered, (b) meets the needs of all learners, (c) provides learners with a challenging ill-structured problem, (d) promotes collaboration and reflection, (e) promotes self-directed and lifelong learning, and (f) the teacher acts as a tutor instead of a leader (Charoula, 2002).Self-Acceptance: a component of self-esteem. A student’s perception of oneself, particularly, one’s beliefs in how other people act and react to one’s behaviours (Rathus & Nevid, 1992). Self-acceptance is characterized by feelings of self-worth and a belief in one’s personal abilities. This will be measured by using a Likert-type scale developed by Berger (1952) known as the Self-Acceptance Scale (SAS).Term: the amount of time that teachers have to instruct and teach before a report card is given to students. Will be measured from September to November of the school year.

C. Review of LiteratureThe research measuring the effectiveness of PBL first originated in universuty medical schools. Barrows & Tamblyn (1976) were the first of many medical school directors to implement the use of PBL in regular medical school curriculum. Their study of 20 students enrolled in medical school examined (1) student self-study skills, (2) student motivation to engage in clinical experience and (3) students’ abiltity to formulate problems. Ten students from this study were involved in a

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisPBL tutorial experience, the other ten were involved in regular medical school activities. After implementation of a pre and post-test, results showed that students’ abiltiy to formulate and solve problems were significant. This suggested that the PBL experience was worthwhile for medical students.

The research by Coles (1985) observed how students in medical school approached the task of studying when they were enrolled in PBL classes. The reseacher suggested that the process of PBL emphasized student understanding of concepts rather than memorization of facts. This longitudial compartive study used the Short Inventory of Approaches to Studying and indicated that PBL students study in such a way that they produced greater meaning from the materials. The author also suggested that beacause of this trait, PBL students learn in a more “desirable manner, unlike a conventional curriculum” (p. 309).

Further research on the understanding of information by PBL students was done by Newble & Clarke (1986). Newble &Clarke explored the relationship between educational context and approaches to learning. They maintained that PBL medical classes emphasized understanding of information, rather than memorization of facts. The Lancaster Approaches to Studying Inventory was used to determine the approaches that students used while they learned. Results indicated that PBL students have a deeper approach to learning rather than a surface approach. A deeper approach referred to students’ interest in subject matter, rather than surface approach that referred to students’ desire to complete the course. The reseachers suggested that the deeper approach towards learning meets the aims of medical school education. The reseachers also claimed that this study was the first evidence of the difference between students in PBL and traditional medical school approaches.

Einsentaedt, Barry & Glanz (1990) offered a PBL tutorial to Harvard sophomore medical students in lieu of traditional lectures. The group met for two hours, three times per week for over three years. A total of 59 students participated in the program. At the end of the three year study, researchers collected exam scores and showed that exam scores did not differ significantly between groups. However, the comments by PBL students revealed that they found the experience more enjoyable than the control group. The authors noted that more women and students with lower grade point averages tended to enrol in PBL more often.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisNorman & Schmidt (1992) reviewed how PBL is used in medical schools from a framework of cognitive psychology. They suggested that PBL allows students to acquire factual knowledge, activates prior learning and elaborates new knowledge. It was concluded that PBL students could retain knowledge for the long-term and were better able to transfer knowledge to new concepts about 90% of the time.

A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of PBL in medical schoools from 1972–1992 by Albanese & Mitchell (1993) indicated that the retention of knowledge by PBL and traditional students were the same. However, student perceptions of PBL were more favourable than those for traditional medical schools. Students that participated in PBL were more likely to be chosen for residency programs than other students. The authors suggested this was due to students’ ability to uncover important infomation on their own and to problem solve.

Doig (1993) studied the reasons behind why medical schools embrace PBL. The PBL experiences of Michigan State University were examined. Three of the reasons the author suggested were (1) PBL meets the needs of a diverse population, (2) medical students need to develop people skills and (3) the ability of students to consult with other doctors.

A meta-analysis by Vernon & Blake (1993) of the research from 1970-1992 looked at the strengths and weaknesses of PBL in medical schools. The authors wrote that students and faculty members expressed positive responses about PBL. Students indicated that their learning was more self-directed and did not focus on the memorization of facts. Students also reported that they enjoyed the subject matter more when they were able to participate in cooperative activities. The authors maintained that the cooperative learning environment of PBL guaranteed more independent study and hypothetic-deductive reasoning.

Blight (1995) conducted a two year randomized trial at Harvard University Medical School comparing PBL to traditional methods. The author discovered that all students scored equally well on knowledge acquisition regardless of instructional method. PBL students showed higher communication skills, more self-confidence and more flexible thinking. These results were also found to be similar at two other medical schools, McMaster University in Canada and Maastricht University in the Netherlands.

Vernon (1995) sent out 1, 287 questionnaires to the faculty of medical schools across the United States and Canada. The researcher surveyed

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisthe opinions and attitudes of faculty members about PBL versus traditional teaching methods. There was a 67% return response. Faculty rated that they felt students were better prepared for clinical practice after participation in PBL. Faculty also responded that they believed student interest and reasoning ability were positively influenced by PBL.

Medical schools are not the only places that utlize PBL. A descriptive study by Carey & Whittaker (2002) surveyed 58 nursing students. A self-completion questionnaire was administered to 97 nursing students in England that participated in PBL. Students indicated that they enjoyed the cooperative learning environment and stated that their understanding of multi-practice issues was greater. About 79% of these students claimed to have learned using PBL. The reseachers suggested that there was a positive correlation between enjoyment of the experience and students’ use of PBL. The authors argued that PBL was an “empowering process enhancing the opportunity for lifelong learning” (p. 662).

Another study by Cooke & Moyle (2002) also focused on a sample of nursing students in Australia. Evaluations by PBL students were examined over a four-week period. A sample size of 300 second-year nursing students completed questionnaires on (1) how they found their learning different, and (2) how they perceived themselves as a result of the experience. The study found that PBL promoted critical thinkng and problem-solving skills. It was found that students were more active participants in their learning. Students also felt that their learning was greatly enhanced by PBL. One student commented that “I was more motivated to understand and find new information” (p. 336). It was concluded that PBL was more rewarding, fun, interesting and satisfying for students.

Research regarding PBL in educational settings resulted years after PBL’s use in medical schools. Birch (1986) stated that PBL was the most effective means to develop the qualities of the mind that stimulate higher thinking skills. The author suggested that PBL increases the motivation of students to learn and leads to greater academic success. This environment creates self-directed learners. A skill that is necessary for the real world.

Aspy & Aspy (1993) examined the features of successful medical schools and how the features could be used in elementary and secondary education. The authors reviewed evidence that medical students mastered subject content just as well when using PBL. They hypothesized that if the instructional method works in the medical setting

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisit should be used in elementary schools. Their research indicated that students were able to transfer their learning to new situations more easily in PBL settings. Aspy & Aspy suggested that when PBL was used, classroom dynamics changed and students enjoyed their studies more.

A discussion about the experiences of the Center for Problem-Based Learning at the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy was made by Stepien & Gallagher (1993). They studied seventh and eighth graders and found that PBL was an effective inquiry learning model for children. Staff development was the key to a successful PBL experience. These two researchers along with Workman (1993) studied a gifted high school’s use of PBL in a unit. They suggested that PBL developed higher level thinking and promoted active student-centred learning. Students responded positively to the unit that they studied.

Gallagher, Stepien & Rosenthal (1994) studied grade 10-12 gifted PBL students and found they could indentify a problem better than a control group at Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy. The study showed that PBL students tended to have an easier time moving from the presentation of a problem to the implementation of a solution. The research also suggested that previous problem-solving techniques previously learned by the control group were not applied to new situations whereas PBL students used a variety of strategies.

An article by Rockey (1994) examined the experience of Lamphier High School in Springfield, Illinois and its use of PBL. An interesting characteristic of this school was that 40% of the population lived below the poverty line. The author suggested that the students involved with this program demonstrated more comprehension, understanding of information, better retention and became more reflective problem-solvers. Students and teachers self-reported positive reviews of the programme. Rockey quoted some teachers as saying that PBL worked especially well for disadvantaged students.

Gallagher, Sher, Stepien & Workman (1995) examined the use of a PBL science unit at a gifted high school. The results of the study indicated that long-term retention of information was greater using PBL than under a traditional teaching method. It was reported that students responded enthusiastically to the unit and indicated that they felt ownership over the learning process.

Gallagher & Stepien (1996) tried to determine the amount of basic history of World War II was acquired by PBL students versus those in

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisthe traditional classroom. The sample derived from six sections of American Studies sophomore gifted classes. An achievement test for American Studies administered both pre and post-tests. Results indicated that there was no significant difference between the two groups. Researchers stated that PBL did not adversely affect student achievement.

Krynock & Robb (1996) were interested in exploring if PBL students gained the same knowledge as those in a traditional setting. A random selection of 150 eighth grade students were used in standard and PBL classes over a 15-day genetics unit. Five percent of the population were identified as learning disabled and 13% were identified as gifted. After completion of the unit, students completed a test that was graded using a rubric. It was discovered that PBL students scored higher on the test than the control group. The researchers argued that PBL met the needs of curricula and at the same time promoted higher level thinking. Students reported that they became better researchers and worked better with a group after the PBL experience.

Project OMEGA was the focus of a study by Ljung & Blackwell (1996). One of the aims of the project was to develop self-esteem in at-risk students. Thirty students at a reading level two years below grade level were enrolled in the program. Students were enrolled in basic level courses in school that used non-traditional teaching methods, such as PBL. Research showed two-thirds of the students in the program received a grade of C or better in English and all students passed Math and History. The researchers suggested that this was a motivating factor to keep at-risk students in school and resulted in a positive school experience.

An action research by Dods (1997) compared the efficacies of PBL, traditional lecture and a combination of the two. Dods was interested to see how these methods promoted the understanding and retention of content in a high school biochemistry course. Pre and post-test evaluations of student understanding, a measure of depth of understanding and questionnaires to determine student self-satisfaction were adminstered by the researcher. Students reported that they found the course material more interesting and learned more information in the PBL setting. According to Dods, understanding and retention of information was promoted in the PBL context.

Hendrix, Gilbert, Kozoloski, Bradley, Austin & Valois (2002) studied the Healthy Challenges Project in American schools. The goal of the project

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiswas to increase health instruction for students in grades 3-12 using PBL. Teachers were trained to use PBL to increase critical thinking skills and depth of inquiry among their students. Using a repeated measures, quasi-experimental design, results indicated that the use of PBL increased and improved health education instruction. Pre and post-test measures showed teacher gains in knowledge and attitudes about PBL. At the post-test, teachers responded that they felt that the content of instruction was more meaningful for students when using PBL. Teachers also reported that passive and low-achieving students responded more positively to PBL compared with usual methods of instruction. The researchers maintained that the need for further study was needed to examine this perception.

An interview with ten teachers by Charoula (2002) asked open-ended questions about PBL. Each interview took two hours to complete. It was determined that PBL was a feasible instructional model for kindergarten to grade 12. Teachers stated that PBL focused on the transfer of knowledge not the memorization of facts.

An observational study by Cruickshank & Olander (2002) looked at how problem-solving could stimulate higher level thinking processes. Researchers examined one of two Instrumental Analysis Laboratory sections at the University of Northern Arizona that were converted into a PBL format. These classes used authentic problems and cooperative learning strategies. The researchers found that student engagement was higher in this setting. The authors argued that the PBL format addressed Bloom’s higher levels of thinking, such as, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. It was reported that student attitudes impacted the learning of material. Students were more personally invested in the task and showed higher levels of ambition and discipline. The authors suggested that this method enhanced student understanding of the application of chemistry.

D. Research Question and HypothesisFor the purposes of this research, the following question will be asked: Is there a relationship between science achievement and self-acceptance scores of intermediate students in PBL classes?

The following hypothesis, stated in the null, will be tested: There is no statistically significant relationship between science achievement and self-acceptance scores of intermediate students in PBL classes.

E. Significance of Study

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisOver the past several years radical changes in special education have occurred in Ontario. Students that once participated in full-time and part-time special education programs are now fully integrated in regular classrooms. Teachers are responsible for respecting the modifications and accommodations of Individual Education Plans. Teachers of regular classrooms at times may be planning and assessing students that range between three to four grade levels.

Problem-based learning is an instructional strategy that will benefit both students learning and teacher performance. Students will be able to work at levels that are comfortable for their learning level and learning style. Therefore, students at the same age level will do the same activities, yet gain skills and information that they need. This in turn will result in a change in how these students feel about themselves. There is evidence to suggest that different learners can benefit from a non-traditional classroom strategy (Delisle, 1997; Tomlinson, 1997). This study will provide evidence to the fact that students feel better about themselves and believe that others react positively to their behaviours when they are allowed the opportunity to direct their own learning and work with peers. Perhaps this will become a motivating strategy for older at-risk students who might likely find the educational system unresponsive to their needs. These students may be more likely to stay in school. Students will achieve academic success and personal success.

Design and MethodologySubjects

For the purposes of this study, a random sample of intermediate students from Windsor-Essex County area public schools will be utilized. A sample size of about 120 students from PBL classrooms will be needed. Based on the assumption that intermediate classes have on average 30 students per class, about 4 classes will be needed. Classes will be randomly selected from the list of intermediate teachers that participated in the PBL workshop offered earlier in the school term. Schools will be representative of all socio-economic areas.

InstrumentationThe Ontario Provincial Report Card for grades seven and eight will be used to determine student science achievement. The percentage given by students’ teachers will be used as being valid since it is determined using achievement levels in the Ontario Curriculum for Science and Technology (see Appendix A).

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisA student completed questionnaire on self-acceptance based on the Likert-type scale will be used to measure self-acceptance (see Appendix B). This scale has been adapted from the Berger Self-Acceptance Scale (SAS) developed by University of Minnesota’s E. M. Berger (1952). Berger (1952) originally prepared a 47 item instrument that was later reduced to 36 items that differentiates between high and low self-acceptance. Each item ranges on a five-point Likert scale of agreement from “not at all true of myself” to “true of myself”. The instrument can be given in questionnaire form. Twenty minutes is sufficient for administration. Scoring of the instruments consists of summing all 36 items in the direction of self-acceptance. This requires the reversal of some items (see Appendix C). This ensures internal validity of the scale. Items 2, 7, 15, 19, 21, 25, 27, and 32 are reversed. This instrument yields a range of scores from 36 – 180. Berger developed the scale to test the hypothesis that self-acceptance was positively correlated with acceptance of others. The researcher tested this hypothesis with various subject pools. Spearman reliability estimates of .75 or greater have been reported on various samples (Berger, 1952).

There is evidence that there is convergent validity for the SAS. A correlation of .73 between the Berger Self-Acceptance Scale and Philips Self-Acceptance Scale and a correlation of .49 between the Berger Self-Acceptance Scale and the Bills Self-Acceptance Index have been reported (Mangen & Peterson, 1982). In general, based on research, it seems that the instrument has sufficient validity. It has been reported that one advantage of the Berger Self-Acceptance Scale is its relative ease of administration (Mangen & Peterson, 1982). Most recently this SAS was used by Schmid, Ostermann & Aldridge (2003) to measure the effectiveness of music therapy in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

Design and ProceduresThe proposed research study is an correlational study designed to identify the relationship between science achievement and self-acceptance scores of intermediate students in PBL classes. By using the SAS and the Ontario Provincial Report Card for grades seven and eight, the researcher will identify whether there is a relationship between science achievement and self-acceptance scores of intermediate students in PBL classes after one school term.

A letter will be constructed and sent to the Faculty of Education Research Ethics Committee at the University of Windsor outlining the intent of the study (see Appendix D). A similar letter will be sent to the School Board

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisResearch Review Committee (see Appendix E). Upon approval from the school board, all intermediate grade eight teachers will be invited to partake in a two-day workshop on PBL at the beginning of the school term in September. Independent instructors familiar with PBL will present the workshop. Teachers will learn about PBL, how to use the strategy in the classroom, and how to design PBL units for future use. All attendees will receive information and ill-structured problems to be used during one term of science instruction. The expectations of all problems will meet the needs of the Ontario Curriculum for Science and Technology for grade eight. Teachers will be asked to implement these problems in their own classrooms over the term.

From the teachers that attend the workshop, and have self-reported that they are using the PBL lessons, classes will be randomly selected for participation in this study. Letters of information will be sent to the principals of selected schools (see Appendix F). Letters of consent (see Appendix G) and letters of information (see Appendix H) will be set home to parents of intermediate students involved in the study. Students will also receive a letter of assent (see Appendix I) that explains various aspects of the study. Once permission has been obtained, students will complete a student completed questionnaire on self-acceptance at the end of the term. Instructions for teachers to administer and send back questionnaires will accompany packages (see Appendix J). A self-addressed stamped envelope will also be included in which the completed questionnaires can be returned. After completion of the term in November, report cards will be examined and data collected. Each student’s percentage will be recorded using a numerical code that will be matched to the student’s self-acceptance score.

The researcher will ensure the confidentiality of the subjects. Data from the individual schools will not be published or made available. Data collected will only be used to determine if a statistically significant relationship exists between student science achievement and the self-acceptance scores of intermediate students in PBL classrooms as outlined by the proposed research question and corresponding hypothesis.

Data AnalysisMean scores and standard deviations of all data will be calculated and reported. Science achievement will be recorded in the form of a percentage as indicated on the report card. The questionnaire sheets will be gathered and the interval scale data of self-acceptance scores will be scored according to the directions by Berger (1952) (see Appendix C).

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisResponses will be tabulated and summarized in an attempt to draw conclusions from the data. Raw scores for the SAS will be calculated using a five-point Likert scale with anchors of: (1) representing not at all true of myself and (5) true of myself. The higher the raw score, the higher the level of student self-acceptance. A Product-Moment Correlation analysis will be conducted between the variables of science achievement and self-acceptance scores. The researcher has determined that results will be deemed statistically significant at p < .05

Limitations of DesignWhile attempts will be made to limit threats to validity there will be certain conditions under which internal validity may be threatened. Though this study will train teachers within their first five years of teaching, it might be noted that teachers that will partake in the workshop on PBL, already appreciate and try differentiate instructional strategies on a daily basis. The self-acceptance of these teachers’ students might already be higher. Since questionnaires are being sent to participating schools, it will be impossible to ensure that each teacher and student follows the instructions and procedures properly. Extraneous variables like, tests and general mood towards the questionnaire may influence how students answer questions. A major limitation of using Likert-type questions is that respondents might not appreciate the nature of fixed-alternative questions. In addition, self-acceptance scores may be affected by students’ pre-existing cognitive or emotional problems. Mortality of students, in terms of moving from school to school, may directly impact the sample size. A smaller than desired sample size could negatively impact the generalizability of the study.

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Albanese, M. A. & Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: A review of the literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Academic Medicine, 68, 52-81.

Aspy, D. N., Aspy, C. B. & Quinby, P.M. (1993). What doctors can teach us about problem-based learning. Educational Leadership, 50(7), 22-24.

Barrows, H. S. & Tamblyn, R. M. (1976). An evaluation of problem-based learning in small groups utilizing a simulated patient. Journal of Medical Education, 51, 52-54.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisBerger, E. M. (1952). The relation between expressed acceptance of self and expressed acceptance of others. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 778-782. Birch, W. (1986). Towards a model for problem-based learning. Studies in HigherEducation, 11(1), 73-82.Blight, J. (1995). Problem-based, small group learning: An idea whose time has come. British Medical Journal, 311, 342-343.Carey, L. & Whittaker, K. A. (2002). Experiences of problem-based

learning: Issues for community specialist practionier students. Nurse Education, 22(8), 661-668.

Charoula, A. (2002). Teachers’ practical theories for the design and implementation of problem-based learning. Science Education International, 13(3), 9-15.

Coles, C. R. (1985). Differences between conventional and problem-based learning curricula in their students’ approaches to studying. Medical Education, 19, 308-309.Cooke, M. & Moyle, K. (2002). Students’ evaluation of problem-based learning. Nurse Education, 22(4), 330-339.Cruickshank, B. J. & Olander, J. (2002). Can problem-based learning stimulate higher order thinking? Journal of College Science Thinking, 31(6), 374-377.Delisle, R. (1997). How to use problem-based learning in the classroom.

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Dods, R. F. (1997). An action research study of the effectiveness of problem-based learning in promoting the acquisition and retention of knowledge. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 20(4), 423-437.

Doig, K. (1993). Adopting and adapting problem-based learning for laboratory science. Laboratory Medicine, 24(7), 411-416.

Eisenstaedt, R. S., Barry, W. E. & Glanz, K. (1990). Problem-based learning: Cognitive retention and cohort traits of randomly selected participants and decliners. Academic Medicine, 65, 511-512.

Gallagher, S. A., Sher, B. T., Stepien, W. J. & Workman, D. (1995). Implementing problem-based learning in the science classroom. School Science & Mathematics, 95, 136-146.

Gallagher, S. A., Stepien, W. J. & Rosenthal, H. (1994). The effects of problem-based learning on problem solving. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36(4), 195-200.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisGallagher, S. A. & Stepien, W. J. (1990). Cognitive acquisition in

problem-based learning: Depth versus breadth in American studies. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 19, 257-275.

Hendrix, K. H., Gilbert, G. E., Kozolowski, L., Bradley, E., Austin, L. & Valois, R. F.(2002). The impact of teacher training on utilization of problem-based learning in classroom health education. American Journal of Health Education,33(5), 258-264.

Krynock, K. B. & Robb, L. (1996). Is problem-based learning a problem for your curriculum? Illinois School Research & Development Journal, 33(1), 21-24.

Ljung, E. J. & Blackwell, M. (1996). Project OMEGA: A winning approach for at-risk teens. Illinois School Research & Development Journal, 33(1), 15-17.

Mangen, D. J. & Peterson, W. A. (1982). Research instruments in social gerontology. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota.

Newble, D. I. & Clarke, R. M. (1986). The approaches to learning of students in a traditional and in an innovative problem-based medical school. Medical Education, 20, 267-273.

Norman, G.R. & Schmidt, H.G. (1992). The psychological basis for problem-based learning: A review of the evidence. Academic Medicine, 67(9), 557-565.

Oregon Resiliency Project. (2003). Self-esteem in children and adolescents. University of Oregon. Retrieved on February 1, 2004 from http://orp.uoregon.edu.

Rathus, S. A. & Nevid, J. S. (1992). Adjustment and growth: The challenges of life.Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Bruce Jovanich.

Rockey, J. (1994, Jan. 6). Learning to think: Thinking to learn. Illinois Times, 19(20),9-11.

Schmid, W, Ostermann, T & Aldridge, D. (2003). Functionality or aesthetics? Music therapy as a component in an integrated medicine approach to the treatment of multiple sclerosis patients. Music Therapy Today, 6 (5), 1-14.

Stepien, W. & Gallagher, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: As authentic as it gets.Educational Leadership, 50(7), 25-29.

Stepien, W., Gallagher, S. & Workman, D. (1993). Problem-based learning for traditional and interdisciplinary classrooms. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 16(4), 338-357.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisVernon, D. T. A. (1995). Attitudes and opinions of faculty tutors about

problem-based learning. Academic Medicine, 70(3), 219-223.Vernon, D. T. & Blake, R. I. (1993). Does problem-based learning work?

A meta-analysis of evaluative research. Academic Medicine, 68, 550-563.

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REZUMATE ENGLEZA

Values of Modernity, Education and the Competition Spirit

Liviu ANTONESEIAl. I. Cuza University of Iaşi

Abstract: In the present paper I shall try to deduce the competition spirit of the Western civilization within the value frame launched by the Modernity and the role of education on cultivating and perpetuating it. Taking into account the approached perspective I hereby apologize myself for a certain bibliographic scrupulosity, maybe even a sort of academic aridity, which I have tried to avoid but it seems I have not been fully successful. When one wants to bring arguments too, and not only establish a certain position, the stylistic effects are not sufficient, evidence is also needed, the proof as a famous would-be academician would utter in front of the martial court… As far as I am concerned, I hope I have gathered some evidence, some proofs.

Keywords: values, modernity, education, competition.

Paradigms in Religious Education

Mariana MOMANUAl. I. Cuza University, Iasi

Abstract: In this study, we are trying to explore some aspects of religious education in the context of the contemporary Romanian school and society. After a period of tradition recovery and affirmation within the school framework, the issue of religious education is still present in the Romanian society. It's still room enough for queries on the need to achieve it in schools, the specific teaching principles or the ways of affirmation of religious values in school. In this context, we will examine three paradigms: the Instructional paradigm, the Christian paradigm and the Spiritualistic one, and we will discuss the particularities and relevance of each of them for the Romanian school.

Keywords: religious education, instructional paradigm, Christian and Spiritualistic paradigm.

Why do Children go to School - A Study on the Motivational School System

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Mihaela Păişi LĂZĂRESCUUniversity of Piteşti

Summary: Motivation is the factor that provides energy for learning and it is a condition for efficient learning. School performances can be explained through the motivational framing. The goal of the present study is to identify a hierarchy of learning motives at different categories of students. Using a questionnaire, I identified social, cognitive, affective, professional and self-fulfillment motives that reflects each students category aspiration. Knowing the motivation for learning is a key factor for intervention in order to manage students success.

Key words: learning, motives of school learning, school performances, questionnaire

The In-Service Mentor. A Skills Profile

Liliana EZECHILPetruţa COMAN

University of Piteşti

Abstract: The present paper highlights the partial results of the

CNCSIS research – Quality in the Educational Tutoring, carried out within the Teacher Training Department, Pitesti. The main objective of our research was to identify and validate some criteria, quality standards and psycho-pedagogic profiles that could be used as reference instruments within the in-service teacher training. An essential role to elaborate the design of the research was played by focusing on the concept of professional development tutoring (Clutterbuck, 2001; Clutterbuck & Sweeney, 2003; Hay, 1995; Klasen & Clutterbuck, 2002), which was considered highly relevant during the process of future teachers’ training. The theoretical reference frame is based on the most recent national and international research results and the practical-theoretical frame follows the standards for mentoring programs that have been established by the European Mentoring and Couching Council. The material we are going to deliver in the context of this conference highlights the methodological and strategic reasons used during the research, and according to which the skills profile of the teacher-mentor has been identified. As the research has had an empirical character, it has taken into account both processes and phenomena that are relevant to the future teacher’s development in the organizational context mentioned above and the specific needs of the highlighted professional category – the in-service mentors with which the institution mentioned above collaborates.

Keywords: mentor, in-service, skills, skills profile.

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Education and Social Constructivism

Anton ILICAAurel Vlaicu University, Arad

Abstract: I bring into discussion the concepts of education and communication from a postmodern society perspective. The man is educated according to the way the society desires, and the latter shapes him according to the quality of its culture. By the end of the present study which belongs to a speculative epistemology, we have analyzed the new perspectives of the institutes of education and these are provoked by a postmodernist mentality. Our study is a structured essay and it focuses on the meanings of certain concepts that require socio-cultural alterations and adjustments. I am in serious doubt as there still exists the possibility of a national confusion between education and learning. No matter how many definitions we might give, these would not be able to provide a coherent solution to these pedagogic fundamental concepts. Learning hinders my epistemological equilibrium because the psychological, biological and social mechanisms have not been unified into a definition that might represent process. The hypothesis of the present study has been anticipated by previous considerations in order to be represented by a pedagogic terminology: the education of the individual is achieved within, by and for the society while learning is provided in and by institutes of education. The problematic congruence does not challenge the formulation of the hypothesis but requires an explanation which we shall provide at the right moment. Our method is a speculative one, but it gets substance by observing the reality and the objective factor that result from the consequences of psycho-social practice. If a scholar is not an educated person, then, an educated person is not always a scholar. The negative cases do not negate my statement, they might give another shades to it. The educative intervention contributes to the transformation of the personality according to the society’s requirements. Who performs the intervention? Why does it aim at individuals’ transformation? Why does it shape according to the society? The answers to these questions might provide a clear determination of the concept of education. Individual biography interconnects with collective biography. Man is God’s creation but he develops according to the society. The new-born child does not stand as He, because the members of the society impose on him be like us, and us represents the social order. This is education: it socializes the biological individual, making him desirable in a collectivity. Which would the content of education be in order to construct a social being? The questions are answered in our study which beneficiates from a bibliography, focusing on the correlation between keywords/syntagms such as: social constructivism, education and learning, postmodern society, communication.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisKeywords: social constructivism, education, learning,

postmodern society, communication.

Consumer Education by Dolceta European Project

Dorin HERLOAurel Vlaicu University of Arad

Abstract: Between The New Educations we can put now Consumer Education also, taking in consideration the tendencies of our world, to consume more and more without a real education of the children, teenagers, students and adults. DOLCETA (Developing On-Line Consumer Education Tools for Adults at the beginning and now, Online Consumer Education) an EUCEN (European University of Continuing Education Network) project for the Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection (DG SANCO) of the European Commission, with 27 participants (each EU State), has the aims to assist in raising the level of awareness and understanding of European consumer rights in the Member States and to develop interactive web-based tools for consumer education to be used primarily by multipliers: primary schoolteachers, secondary teachers, trainers and adult educators in educational institutions, government bodies with consumer responsibilities, consumer associations etc. and secondly by individual consumers, directly. The Consumer Education Project, having until now four module: Consumer rights, Financial services, Food and Product Safety and Teachers’ corner displayed into the public domain www.dolceta.eu, will be followed by other modules: Sustainable Consumption, Services of General Interest and Financial Literacy until 2010, and all of it with the same goal – to be helpful for consumer education in an interactive way. In the mean time a Teacher’s Kit was done under the DG SANCO financial effort, in all languages of EU Member States, very useful for schoolteachers and for adult education trainers, which will be spreaded in the Secondary Education System, Adult Education Institutions and Universities.

Keywords: New Educations, Consumer Education, www.dolceta.eu, Teacher’s Kit, Secondary Education System, Adult Education Institutions and Universities.

School Curriculum focused on Competencies for a Postmodern Society

Mihai STANCIU (1) Doina STANCIU (2)

(1) University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,Teachers Training Department, Iaşi

(2) « Stefan Barsanescu » School, Iasi

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Summary: This article underlines relevant elements regarding the effort of focusing the school curriculum on competencies, from a post modern didactic point of view. Following this direction, we are proposing a systemic-cybernetic approach of the educational process (Mihai Stanciu, 1999, 2003). This “logic of complexity” (Edgar Morin, 1990) can be utilized for explaining the school curriculum concept. The logic of competencies is part of a critical movement, based on which, the education’s first goal is to transmit the collective knowledge (Jean-Paul Bronckart & Joaquim Dolz, 2002, In Dolz J., Ollagnier E., Éds). The definition is built on a metaphoric perspective (transferring knowledge and mobilizing or mobilizing the subject resources) (Perrenoud Ph., 2002, In op.cit.). The mobilization metaphor suggest a coordonation of the multiple and heterogenic resources of the individual, a continue combination of resources. The curriculum for preschool and primary school education in Quebec, focuses on developing competencies organized in two categories: transversal competencies and competencies related with learning. Also, the article presents the implications of this perspective on evaluation process.

Key words: curriculum, post modernity, systemic approach, competencies, evaluation

Long Life Learning of the Staff from Italian Universities

Prof. Dr Franco BOCHICCHIOUniversity of Salento (Lecce, Italy)

Abstract: The study documented in a revised and detailed form, the results of a research training conducted in 2008 by Italian universities, public and private, for the administrative staff. The research was coordinated by me and lives, in my role as Director of the Interuniversity Consortium on Education (CO.IN.FO.). The research findings are incorporated into national XII Report on training in Public Administration and have been submitted to the Italian Parliament. The research was coordinated by myself and lives in my current capacity as Director of the Interuniversity Consortium on Education (CO.IN.FO.). The results of this research led to the XII National Report on the training in Public Administration have been recently submitted to the Italian Parliament.

Key words: long life learning, research, university staff.

Instruments of systemic observation for the analyze of the necessity of social formation

Drd Pasquale Luigi Di VIGGIANO

Abstract: The analysis of training needs represents a most delicate and complex tool for the planning and management of training processes,

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Annales Universitatis Apulensiseither in a formal context (institutions and enterprises) and in a wider civil society context (non profit). Civil society organizations, unlike what happens at a formal level, don’t have analysis models nor field experience as to pinpoint (one or more sets of) conceptual and effective tools for handling surveys and analyses of training needs at a scientific level. The paper we present means to be a theoretical introduction to a major work of research (in this field) and aims to single out conceptual tools and identify strategies to conduct surveys and training needs analyses in a social context starting from a systemic an constructivist point of view. The objective to achieve, on the one hand, is the quality assessment of the used search tools and on the other hand, the testing of a theoretical model up to today absolutely unique in a social organization context.

Key words: long life learning, training, constructivist perspective.

The Distance Education Through the Internet

Dr Mirela MAZILUAssociate Professor, Craiova University

Abstract: Regardless of the degree of content organisation and of the degree of control of the computer on the learning process, all the learning experiences which use a computer are classified by the generic term of Computer Based Learning (IMC/CBL). The computer can be used either as a means of communication, case in which we talk about the Computer Based Communication, or as a tutor which monitors and leads the student’s learning, case in which we talk about the Computer Assisted Instruction. This distinction is useful because sometimes the terms used as being synonymous, as the ones from the INTEC University do when they identify the CBL with the CAI saying that CBL means the teaching and the learning with the help of the computer where the one who studies interacts with a computer and its program, and this one controls and directs the instructional sequence according to the student’s answers. CBL (the wider meaning of the term) means indeed an active style of learning rather than passive, as the ones at INTEC believe, because the student follows the information shown on the screen, determines the rhythm of the presentation either through the click of the keyboard to pass to the instructional sequence which comes next or to a previous one (in the case of the CAI), or through sending an answer to the request arrived through the network from the other students, or instructors involved in the process of distance education through the network of computers.

Key words: pedagogic, e-learning, communication, risk, research.

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IL METODO FEUERSTEIN. PROGRAMMA DI ARRICCHIMENTO STRUMENTALE

Dr Daniel MARAAssociate Professor, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu

Abstract:Instrumental Enrichment Program is the result of researches conducted by psychologist Reuven Feuerstein of romanian origin and consists of a methodology for intervention in improving cognitive abilities: memory, reasons, attention, and especially to increase the capacity of coordination of these mental functions autonomously and active moods. Instrumental Enrichment Program is composed of 14 instruments used to develop cognitive and metacognitive capabilities. Instruments permit the skills training to mental concepts used in different situations. Each instrument is focused on a specific cognitive function and provide pre-acquisition to go deeply and develop the cognitive capacities involved in solving tasks.

Methods for prevention and therapydisorders of behavior to school children

Professor Dr. Marioara LUDUSANAssistant professor Angela Monica BARA1 December 1918 University off Alba Iulia

Abstract: In the literature are presented many experiences of best practices and prediction of therapy used in schools by teachers, educational programs, methods and therapeutic techniques, forms of prediction, questionnaires and psychological tests. Assessments made in the application through direct observations, the repetition of questionnaires and psychological tests have shown predictive several conclusions: reduction of risk factors; recognizing the effectiveness of predictive tools and therapy deviations of behavior in general to work in school.

Key words: behavior disorders, prevention, intervention

Comment intégrer le jeu en classe de FLE

Lect . dr. Adina CURTAUniversite Le 1er Decembrie 1918 Alba Iulia

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisRésumé : À partir de quelques définitions célèbres du jeu, nous

envisageons l’exploitation de celui-ci en tant que méthode d’enseignement-apprentissage en classe de FLE. Les critères des définitions données sont mis en relation avec l’activité didactique proprement dite afin d’assurer une grande efficacité de la méthode.

Mots-clé : jeu didactique, définition, critères, activité

Dealing with indecision and ambiguity in school organization

Florin MARINA1st of December 1918 University of Alba Iulia

Abstract: Today’s management of the school organization challenge is to avoid typical platitudes such as Change is the only constant, and to focus on actually being productive in a changing environment. This type of environment puts people in an ambiguous state, such as: being in a situation that is inexplicable, doubtful or obscure, or being in a situation in which there are two or more possible outcomes. It’s an uncomfortable state; it can hinder productivity dramatically. So the goal is to understand how to cope with ambiguity; how to be productive while it exists, and how to reduce it whenever possible. The work is dealing with the ways of finding the possible and real solutions.

Key words: school organization, management, ambiguity

The function of perceived competence in practising physical education and sports by

1 Decembrie 1918 University students

Conf. univ. dr. Costel BELIZNA1 Decembrie 1918 University, Alba Iulia

Summary: All the research that has been done so far, prove the existence of the multiple aspects of implication in sports activity from the part of the young people. The most frequent pattern of their motivation for this kind of activity is the desire for performance, the competition aspects, as well as the social ones. The way in which the young man perceives success or failure on this side of his activity, is important. Young people, in general, especially students have an interior effusion towards capacity and efficient approach of the environment (physical, social). Three specific domains for perceived competence are identified, totally independent one from another: cognitive (scholastic), physic (sports), and social (human relationships). Those who consider

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisthemselves competent in a certain way will longer persist in a domain and will raise interest in a particular activity.

Key words: motivation, performance, failure, socialization.

Motivation and Social Context in Foreign Language Learning

Greta CAMASEToronto University, Canada

Abstract: In this paper I argue that motivation is strongly linked with and part of social context. First, I present some conceptual problems in the second language learning (SLL) literature on motivation; second, I describe two models of language learning that emphasize the importance of social context in shaping learners’ attitudes towards foreign/second language learning; third, I discuss how social context changes the status of a language that in turn influences the motivation or orientation of the language learners towards the target language; last, I consider social context and motivation in relation to English - the ‘world language’.

Key words:motivation, social context, language learning.

Computer Pedagogy Adopted in Computer Technology Courses at Colleges of Education: What do Preservice Teachers Really Want?

Salah Zogheib1

Bashar Zogheib2

Ali EL Saheli3

1. English King Abul Aziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia2. Sciences Nova Southeastern University Fort Lauderdale, USA

3. Lebanese International University, Beirut, Lebanon

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore the factors that influence preservice teachers’ computer technology use in computer courses offered at Colleges of Education, as well as the way the pedagogy adopted in these courses can enhance computer use. To achieve this purpose, a two-phase study was conducted. The framework that emerged in the quantitative phase incorporated specific determinants of computer use--demographics, experience, learning style, motivation, and personality—that represent prominent themes in theories of human motivation. Interestingly, experience was the most significant predictor of computer use. The qualitative phase revealed that preservice teachers favor a pedagogy-based training that incorporates two main categories: (a) computer technology as “main content focus” and (b) computer technology as “part of teaching method.” The quantitative and qualitative findings indicate that experience should be at the core of a larger digital literacy framework that can best explain computer use.Key words: Pedagogy, computer, motivation, originality.

222

Annales Universitatis ApulensisScience achievement versus self-acceptance scores in problem –

Based ;earning classes for High School Students

Florin MARINAIoan SCHEAU

1 Decembrie 1918 University

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to determine whether a statisically significant relationship exists between science achievement and self-acceptance scores of intermediate students in problem-based learning classrooms. It is believed that students will perform better academically and feel better about themselves when exposed to an instructional strategy that accomodates all learners.

Key words: Students, classroom, needs, self acceptance.

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REZUMATE ROMANA

Valorile modernităţii, educaţiei şi spiritului competitiv

Liviu ANTONESEIUniversitatea Al. I. Cuza, Iaşi

Rezumat: În prezentul articol, voi încerca să analizez spiritul competitiv al civilizaţiei vestice prin prisma valorilor modernismului şi rolul educaţiei în cultivarea şi perpetuarea acestui spirit. Luând în considerare perspectiva de abordare, trebuie să mă scuz pentru o oarecare scrupulozitate bibliografică, poate un fel de ariditate academică, pe care am încercat să o evit dar se pare că nu am reuşit în măsura propusă. Când cineva doreşte să aducă argumente şi nu doar să se poziţioneze în raport cu un subiect, efectele stilistice sunt insuficiente. Dovezile ştiinţifice sunt, în acest caz, necesare.

Cuvinte cheie: valori, modernitate, educatie, competiţie.

Paradigme ale Educaţiei Religioase

Mariana MOMANUUniversitatea Al. I. Cuza, Iasi

Rezumat: Prezentul studiu are ca şi scop explorarea câtorva aspecte ale educaţiei religioase în contextul şcolii româneşti contemporane, prin prisma a trei paradigme: instrucţională, creştină şi spirituală. După o perioadă postcomunistă de recuperare a tradiţiilor şi valorificare a acestora în şcoli, problematica educaţiei religioase este încă actuală. Sunt puse sub semnul îndoielii: necesitatea achiziţiei acestei educaţii în şcoli, principiile specifice şi modalităţi de afirmare a valorilor promovate.

Cuvinte cheie: educaţia religioasă, paradigme instrucţionale.

De ce merg copiii la şcoală? Un studiu al sistemului motivaţional în şcoli

Mihaela Păişi LĂZĂRESCU

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisUniversitatea din Piteşti

Rezumat: Motivaţia constituie factorul care furnizează energia necesară învăţării şcolare şi în acelaşi timp o condiţie a învăţării eficiente, productive. Ea explică nu numai performanţele şcolare ale elevilor la un moment dat ci şi dinamica acestora de la o etapă la alta. Obiectivul studiului îl reprezintă identificarea unei ierarhii a motivelor învăţării şcolare la diferite categorii de elevi. Prin intermediul unui chestionar au fost identificate şi ierarhizate motive sociale, cognitive, afective, profesionale şi de autorealizare care reflectă capacităţile şi aspiraţiile fiecărei categorii de elevi. Cunoaşterea motivelor reale ale învăţării oferă posibilitatea să se intervină în mod adecvat pentru asigurarea succesului şcolar al elevilor la toate nivelele de vârstă.

Cuvinte cheie: învăţare, ierarhizarea motivelor pentru învăţare, performanţă şcolară.

Profilul competenţelor mentorilor

Liliana EZECHILPetruţa COMAN

Universitatea din Piteşti

Rezumat: Prezentul articol subliniază rezultatele parţiale ale cercetării CNCSIS – Calitate în Tutoring-ul Educaţional, cercetare realizată de Departamentul de Pregătire a Personalului Didactic, Piteşti. Printre obiectivele principale ale cercetării se numără identificarea şi validarea unor criterii, standarde de calitate şi profile psihologice care ar putea fi utilizate ca şi instrumente de referinţă în pregătirea personalului didactic. Un rol esenţial în elaborarea designului cercetării este atribuit conceptului de dezvoltare profesională a mentorilor (Clutterbuck, 2001; Clutterbuck & Sweeney, 2003; Hay, 1995; Klasen & Clutterbuck, 2002). Framing-ul teoretic se bazează pe cele mai recente cercetări naţionale şi internaţionale, urmând standardele programelor pentru dezvoltarea mentorilor, implementate de Consiliul European. În acest articol, vor fi prezentate direcţiile metodologice şi strategice utilizate pentru identificarea profilului profesorului mentor. Având un caracter empiric, cercetarea ia în considerare aspectele relevante pentru pregătirea profesorilor şi nevoile specifice ale categoriei profesionale menţionate mai sus.

Cuvinte cheie: mentori, competenţe, profilul competenţelor.

Educaţia şi Constructivismul Social

Anton ILICAUniversitatea Aurel Vlaicu, Arad

Abstract: Articolul are ca şi scop, abordarea conceptelor de educaţie şi comunicare din perspectiva societăţii postmoderniste. Omul

225

Annales Universitatis Apulensiseste educat având ca şi punct de reper expectanţele societăţii, aceasta din urmă modelându-l în funcţie de calitatea valorilor promovate. Spre sfârşitul studiului, care aparţine epistemologiei speculative, sunt analizate noile perspective în educaţie, rezultate ale provocărilor mentalităţii postmoderniste. Studiul este un eseu structurat şi se focalizează pe sensul unor concepte care necesită modificări şi adaptări socio-culturale. Se va dezbate posibilitatea existenţei unei confuzii la nivel naţional, între conceptele de educaţie şi învăţare. Focalizarea pe definirea conceptelor nu este o soluţie viabilă pentru elucidarea acestei confuzii. Ipotezele prezentului studiu sunt anticipate de considerente anterioare pentru a fi reprezentate de o terminologie pedagogică: educaţia individului este dobândită în cadrul, de către şi pentru societate, în timp ce învăţarea este oferită în cadrul şi de către instituţiile educaţiei. Congruenţa problematică între aceste două concepte necesită o abordare detaliată. Metoda utilizată este una speculativă, dar nu lipsită de substanţă, deoarece se bazează pe observarea realităţii şi factorilor obiectivi rezultanţi ai practicii psiho-sociale. Intervenţia educativă contribuie la transformarea personalităţii în funcţie de nevoile societăţii. Cine este iniţiatorul acestei intervenţii? De ce ţinteşte spre transformarea individuală? De ce se modelează în funcţie de societate? Răspunsurile la aceste întrebări ar putea să ofere o clarificare a conceptului de educaţie. Biografia individuală se intersectează cu cea colectivă. Omul este creaţia divinităţii dar se dezvoltă în funcţie de normele societăţii. Individualitatea este estompată datorită nevoii de pliere pe normele impuse de societate. Aceasta este educaţia. Ea socializează individul biologic pentru a-l integra într-o colectivitate. Care ar fi conţinutul educaţiei pentru construcţia unei fiinţe sociale? Răspunsurile la aceste întrebări vor fi prezentate pornind de la următoarele concepte: constructivism social, educaţie şi învăţare, societate postmodernă şi comunicare

Keywords: social constructivism, education, learning, postmodern society, communication.

Educaţia consumatoristăProiectul European Dolceta

Dorin HERLOUniversitatea Aurel Vlaicu, Arad

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisRezumat: Luând în considerare tendinţele actuale în materie de

consum ca nevoie în sine şi lipsa unei educaţii a populaţiei în acest domeniu, printre noile educaţii, poate fi inserată cu success educaţia consumatoristă. DOLCETA (Developing On-Line Consumer Education Tools for Adults) şi EUCEN (European University of Continuing Education Network), proiecte ale direcţiei pentru sănătate publică şi protecţia consumatorului (DG SANCO) cu participarea a 27 de ţări member ale Uniunii Europene, au scopul de a facilita creşterea gradului de conştientizare şi înţelegere a drepturilor consumatorului şi de dezvoltare a unui instrument online pentru realizarea educaţiei consumatoriste, instrument adresat unei game largi de beneficiari: profesori, formatori în educaţia adulţilor, dar şi consumatorii înşişi. Proiectul are până în present, patru module: Drepturile consumatorului, Servicii de interes general, Servicii financiare şi Calitatea produselor, având ca şi scop realizarea educaţiei consumatoriste printr-o modalitate interactivă. În acelaşi timp a fost elaborate un kit pentru profesori, care va fi distribuit în sistemul educaţiei secundare, instituţii pentru educaţia adultului şi universităţi.

Cuvinte cheie: Noile Educaţii, Educaţia Consumatoristă, www.dolceta.eu, kit-ul profesorului, sistemul educaţional secundar, instituţii de educaţie a adultului şi universităţi.

Curriculum şcolar centrat pe competenţe pentru societatea postmodernă

Mihai STANCIU (1) Doina STANCIU (2)

(1) Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară, Departamentul de Pregătire a Personalului Didactic, Iasi

(2) Şcoala« Stefan Barsanescu », Iasi

Rezumat: Această lucrare subliniază elemente ale unui demers didactic postmodern, referitoare la efortul modernizării curriculumului şcolar centrat pe competenţe. În acestă direcţie, propunem o abordare sistemico-cibernetică a procesului educaţiei (Mihai Stanciu, 1999, 2003). Această adevărată “logică a complexităţii” (Edgar Morin, 1990) poate fi valorizată de asemenea pentru explicarea curriculumului şcolar. Logica competenţelor se înscrie într-o mişcare critică, aparent dominantă, în urma căreia, educaţia vizează în principal, transmiterea cunoaşterii colective (Jean-Paul Bronckart & Joaquim Dolz, 2002, In Dolz J., Ollagnier E., Éds). Definirea se poate realiză dintr-o perspectivă metaforică (transferal cunoştinţelor sau mobilizarea resurselor subiectului la un moment dat) (Perrenoud Ph., 2002, In op.cit.). Metafora mobilizării sugerează o orchestrare, o coordonare a resurselor multiple şi heterogene ale subiectului, o combinare permanentă a resurselor. Programul de formare a şcolii din Quebec (2001) pentru educaţia preşcolară şi primară, vizează dezvoltarea competenţelor repartizate în două categorii: competenţe transversale şi competenţe relaţionate domeniului învăţării. De asemenea, lucrarea noastră prezintă implicaţiile

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisacestei perspective asupra evaluării continue, articulării curriculumului şcolar cu componenta de evaluare.

Cuvinte cheie: curriculum, postmodernitate, abordare sistematică, competenţe, evaluare formativă (continuă).

Formarea continuă a personalului în universităţile italieneRezultatele unei cercetări

Prof. Dr Franco BOCHICCHIOUniversitatea Salento (Lecce, Italy)

Rezumat: Studiul documentează într-o formă revizuită şi argumentată, rezultatele unei cercetări conduse în 2008, de universităţile publice şi private din Italia, pentru personalul din administraţie. Rezultatele cercetării sunt incorporate în raportul naţional referitor la training-ul personalului administrative, raport înaintat parlamentului Italian.

Cuvinte cheie: training, formare continuă

Instrumente de observare sistematică pentru analiza necesităţii formării sociale

Drd Pasquale Luigi Di VIGGIANO

Rezumat: Analiza nevoilor de training este un aspect delicat şi complex în managementul procesului de formare, fie într-un context formal fie în contextual lag al societăţii civile. Organizaţiile non-profit din cadrul societăţii civile, nu au modele de analiză şi experienţă practică pentru a conduce cercetări şi analize ale nevoilor de training la nivel ştiinţific. Lucrarea prezentată se doreşte a fi o introducere teoretică într-o arie largă de cercetări în acest domeniu şi are ca şi scop identificarea instrumentarului conceptual şi a strategiilor ce pot fi utilizate în identificarea nevoilor de training în context social pornind de la o perspectivă constructivistă. Scopul este, pe de o parte, analiza calităţii instrumentarului utilizat în evaluare, iar pe de altă parte, testarea unui model theoretic, updatat pentru contextual organizaţional.

Cuvinte cheie: managementul procesului de formare, training, perspectivă constructivistă

Educaţia la distanţă prin intermediul internetului

Dr Mirela MAZILUProfesor asociat, Universitatea din Craiova

Rezumat: În ciuda gradului ridicat de organizare a conţinutului instructive-educativ şi a controlului asupra procesului de învăţare, toate

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Annales Universitatis Apulensisexperienţele de învăţare, care utilizează calculatorul, sunt clasificate prin termenul generic de Învăţare mediată de calculator (IMC). Calculatorul poate fi utilizat ca un mijloc de comunicare, situaţie în care se vorbeşte despre comunicare bazată pe calculator, sau ca un tutor, care monitorizează şi direcţionează învăţarea, situaţie în care se vorbeşte despre instrucţie asistată de calculator. Distincţia este necesară, deoarece termenii sunt adesea utilizaţi ca şi sinonimi, aşa cum se întâmplă în cadrul INTEC University, când termenul de învăţare mediată de calculator presupune predarea şi învăţarea cu ajutorul calculatorului, interacţiunea cu calculatorul şi programul respectiv care direcţionează şi controlează secvenţele instructive în funcţie de răspunsurile elevului. Învăţarea mediată de calculator, presupune un stil activ şi individual de învăţare, elevul având control asupra ritmului succesiunii informaţiilor.

Cuvinte cheie: pedagogie, e-learning, comunicare, risc, cercetare

Metoda Feuerstein

Dr Daniel MARAAssociate Professor, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu

Rezumat. Programul de Îmbogăţire Instrumentală este rezultatul cercetărilor conduse de psihologul de origine română Reuven Feuerstein. Acest program constă într-o metodologie de intervenţie pentru dezvoltarea capacităţilor cognitive: memorie, raţionament, atenţie dar în special a capacităţilor de coordonare a funcţiilor mentale în mod autonom şi activ. Programul de Îmbogăţire Instrumentală este compus dintr-un ansamblu de exerciţii subdivizate în 14 instrumente, care sunt utilizate ca mijloace pentru dezvoltarea capacităţilor mentale. Instrumentele nu au conţinut disciplinar deoarece nu vizează achiziţia de cunoştinţe specifice, ci achiziţia de abilităţi mentale, de concepte utilizabile în situaţii diferite.

Metode de prevenţie şi terapie a tulburărilor de comportament la elevi

Profesor Dr. Marioara LUDUSANAsist. Drd. Angela Monica BARA

Universitatea 1 December 1918, Alba Iulia

Rezumat: În literature de specialitate sunt prezentate numeroase experienţe ale celei mai bune practici şi predicţii ale metodelor utilizate în şcoală de către profesori. Prezenta lucrare are drept scop inventarierea etapelor şi metodelor de prevenţie şi intervenţie realizate în cadrul şcolii şi evidenţierea beneficiilor acestora. Identificarea factorilor de risc şi elaborarea de programe de prevenţie prin care să se intervină asupra acestor factori, sunt startegii eficiente pentru reducerea riscului de a dezvolta tulburări de comportament.

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Annales Universitatis ApulensisCuvinte cheie: tulburări de comportament, prevenţie, intervenţie.

Integrarea jocului în clasele de FLE

Lect . dr. Adina CURTAUniversitatea 1 Decembrie 1918, Alba Iulia

Rezumat : Pornind de la câteva definiţii celebre ale jocului, lucrarea are ca şi scop, explorarea valenţelor educative ale acestuia în predarea limbii franceze. Criteriile utilizate în definiţiile prezentate, sunt puse în relaţie cu activitatea didactică propriu-zisă, urmărindu-se ca finalitate, eficacitatea metodei.

Cuvinte cheie: joc didactic, criterii, activitate

Indecizie şi ambiguitate în organizaţiile şcolare

Florin MARINAUniversitatea 1 Decembrie 1918, Alba Iulia

Rezumat: Provocările managementului organizaţiilor şcolare rezidă în evitarea platitudinii tipice cum ar fi “Schimbarea este singura constantă” şi focalizarea pe productivitate în managementul condiţiilor de mediu şcolar. Acest tip de mediu determină adesea crearea unor situaţii ambigue, incerte sau pentru care există mai multe explicaţii contradictorii. Scopul acestei lucrări este de a identifica modalităţi de adaptare la situaţii ambigue sau de clarificare a acestora, dacă este posibil

Cuvinte cheie: schimbare, management, situaţii ambigue

Rolul percepţiei competenţelor în practicarea educaţiei fizice şi a sportului

Conf. univ. dr. Costel BELIZNAUniversitatea 1 Decembrie 1918, Alba Iulia

Rezumat: Cercetările anterioare dovedesc existenţa unei palete largi de motive pentru care, tinerii se implică în activităţi sportive. Cele mai frecvente motive rezidă în dorinţa de performanţă, aspectul competitiv şi cel social. Percepţia succesului şi eşecului şi semnificaţia acordată performanţei au o influenţă majoră asupra implicării în sport. Aceasta din urmă poate fi direcţionată fie spre abilităţi (tânărul depune efort pentru a dovedi că deţine controlul şi minimalizează ceea ce nu poate să execute) fie spre activitatea în sine (tânărul este motivat de dorinţa de a

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Annales Universitatis Apulensispractica sportul respectiv şi nu de rezultate), fie de nevoia de aprobare socială. Articolul îşi propune evidenţierea domeniilor de competenţe percepute şi influenţa acestora în motivaţia pentru activităţi sportive.Cuvinte cheie: motivaţie, performanţă, socializare

Motivatie si context social in invatarea limbilor straineGreta CAMESE

Universitatea din TorontoRezumat. Acest articol abordează relaţia dintre contextul social şi motivaţia pentru

învăţarea limbilor străine. În prima parte vor fi prezentate aspecte conceptuale relaţionate specificului motivaţiei în învăţarea limbilor străine. Vor fi descrise două modele care subliniază importanţa contextului social în modelarea atitudinii faţă de învăţarea limbilor străine. În al treilea rând se va prezenta rolul contextului social în schimbarea statutului unei limbi şi implicit în influenţarea motivaţiei pentru învăţarea acelei limbi. Cuvinte cheie: Motivatie, context social, invatarea limbilor straine.

Computer Pedagogy Adopted in Computer Technology Courses at Colleges of Education: What do Preservice Teachers Really Want?

Salah Zogheib1

Bashar Zogheib2

Ali EL Saheli3

1. English King Abul Aziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia2. Sciences Nova Southeastern University Fort Lauderdale, USA

3. Lebanese International University, Beirut, LebanonRezumat. Scopul prezentului studiu este de a explora factorii care influenţează utilizarea tehnologiei informatice în cadrul cursurilor oferite de Colegiul Educaţiei şi modul în care pedagogia adoptată în aceste cursuri stimulează utilizarea calculatorului. Pentru aceasta, s-a realizat un studiu în două etape. În prima etapă s-a utilizat un design cantitativ în care s-au incorporat determinanţi specifici ai utilizării calculatorului: determinanţi demografici, experienţă, stil de învăţare, motivaţie şi personalitate, teme predilecte în teoria motivaţiei umane. Experienţa s-a dovedit a fi predictorul cel mai semnificativ pentru utilizarea calculatorului. În a doua etapă s-a utilizat un design calitativ prin care s-a relevat faptul că profesorii utilizează tehnologia informatică fie ca parte integrantă a metodelor de predare fie ca şi conţinut al învăţării. Rezultatele studiilor cantitative şi calitative subliniază importanţa experienţei în utilizarea calculatorului. Cuvinte cheie: pedagogie, calculator, motivatie, originalitate.

Realizari stiintifice versus acceptare de sineFlorin MARINAIoan SCHEAU

Universitatea 1 Decembrie 1918 Alba IuliaRezumat. Scopul studiului este de a identifica dacă există o relaţie semnificativă din punct de vedere statistic între performanţele şcolare în învăţarea ştiinţelor şi performanţe în rezolvarea de probleme de învăţare. Se porneşte de la premisa că utilizarea de strategii instrucţionale individualizate va favoriza creşterea performanţelor elevilor.Cuvinte cheie: studenti, sala de clasa, nevoi, acceptare de sine.

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

CUPRINS

Editorial 5

The values of Modernity Education and the Competition SpiritLiviu ANTONESEI

5

Parce 2009 17

Paradigms in Religious EducationMariana MOMANU

17

Why do Children go to School. A study on the Motivation School SystemMihaela Paisi LAZARESCU

25

The in-Service Mentor. A Skills ProfileLiliana EZECHIL, Petruta Coman

34

Education and Social ConstructivismAnton ILICA

43

Consumer Education by Dolceta European ProjectDorin HERLO

47

Le curriculum scolaire centresur des competences pour la societe postmoderneMihai STANCIU, Doina STANCIU

56

Miscelanaea 65

La formazione continua del personale nelle Universita italiene. I risultati di una ricercaFranco BOCHICCHIO

65

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Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Strumenti di osservazione sistemica per l’analisi dei bisogni di formazione nel socialePasquale Luigi DI VIGGIANO

100

The Distance Education Through the InternetMirela MAZILU

117

Il metodo Feuerstein. Programma di arricchimento structuraleDaniel MARA

123

Methods for Prevention and Therapy Disorders of Behavior to School ChildrenMarioara LUDUSAN, Angela BARA

133

Comment integrer le jeu en classe de FLEAdina CURTA

138

Dealing with Indecision and Ambiguity in School OrganizationFlorin MARINA

145

The Function of Perceived Competence in Practising Physical Education and Sports by 1 December 1918 University StudentsCostel BELIZNA

149

Motivation and Social Context in Foreign Language LearningGreta CAMASE

152

Computer Pedagogy Adopted in Computer Technology Courses at Colleges of Education: What do Preservice Teachers Really Want?

Salah Zogheib1

Bashar Zogheib2

Ali EL Saheli3

1. English King Abul Aziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia2. Sciences Nova Southeastern University Fort Lauderdale, USA3. Lebanese International University, Beirut, Lebanon

164

Science Achievement versus Self-acceptance Scores in Problem – Based Learning Classes for High School StudentsFlorin MARINA, Ioan SCHEAU

183

Rezumate engleza 201

233

Annales Universitatis Apulensis

Rezumate romana 211

Cuprins 219

234