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4.4.1.1.1 Time Orientation
Every culture makes assumptions about the nature of time and has a basis orientation toward the
past, present or future (Redding & Martyn Jones, 1979). Understanding a groups assumptions
about time allows us to know the culture of that group from a better perspective. Time is one such
commodity that is totally at the disposal of individual, but to a large extent either wrongly utilized or
under utilized. Time cannot be stored and has to be spent. But, at the same time it is not
retrievable, thus making it a scarce commodity.
The time orientation has critical relationship to how an individual looks at his / her work activities
(past, present and future). Acoording to Sied (1995), the individuals with past orientation tend to
put off today what they can do tomorrow and as a result, spend lot of time responding to crisis or
deadlines that pop up suddenly. . In contrast, the individuals with future orientation take charge of
the day and accomplish what they set out do. Knowledge of time orientation can provide us with
insights into the importance that individuals give to deadlines, whether long term planning is widely
practiced the length of job assignments, and what constitutes lateness. Kanungo (1994) feels, most
individuals life physically in the present, but psychologically in the past, and are unconcerned about
the future. Emphasis on the past and a lack of futuristic orientation leads to lack of planning while
achieving the goals. Thus, jobs are handled as they come up, and problems are seldom anticipated
well ahead of time for making adequate preparation to solve them. Without prior preparation to
solve anticipated problems, most solving behaviour is chaotic, unplanned and unorganized. Making
the unpredictable and uncontrollable economic and political environment existing in the developed
countries responsible. Kanungo (1994) says the time orientation in these countries accentuates a
past and present orientation, and the action focus requires a short-term perspective (Triandis,
1984). Kluckhon and Strodtbeck (1961), in their comparative study of several cultures, found that
some were predominantly orientated toward past (traditional China), some toward the present
(Spanish Americans in the United States South East), and some toward near future (contemporary
United States).
4.4.1.1.1.1 Time Orientation and its Consequences
Large amount of research is already done on the time orientation and its impact on individuals
(personality, values and behaviour) and also on organizations (reward systems, performance, etc.).
Frederickson, Charles G (1988) examined the relationship between measures of temporal
orientation (past, present, and future) and pace and their influence on behaviours. Results
demonstrate the importance of both successive and durative components in determining temporal
influences on behaviour.
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4.4.1.1.2 Age Variations and Time Orientation
Dawson, Kim A (1992) tested the hypothesis that as biological age increases, important psychological
experiences may simultaneously collect in the past and be removed from the future. Age was
positively related to the number of distant past experiences recalled by the college students.
4.4.1.1.3 Time Orientation Construct
Nuri, Jari-Erik (1982) discusses problems of time and future from the viewpoint of cognitive
psychology and the theory of action. Empirical research on the individuals time orientation and
future orientation involves 2 problems: (1) The concept of time orientation in ambiguous, and (2)
methods of measurement display a large variation from one study to another. It is suggested that
human time orientation is developed in relation to cognitive activities resulting in the elaboration of
motives and values into temporally structured goals, plans, and strategies. The ideal objects of
motives and values involve a future-orientation.
4.4.1.1.4 Operational Definiton of Time Orientation
For the purpose of present study, time orientation is defined in the following way.
Time orientation is the tendency of individual/s to attribute significance to either past or future.
4.4.1.2 Reward Orientation
As discussed in the last chapter, subscribe of the individual and the dependents (family) in one of the
critical meanings that individual derives from work. Apart from subsistence, individual desires thathis work to be recognized. Reward is a form of recognition or worth of an activity. Rewards may
be in the economic and non-economic forms. But, reward plays a significant role in the
organizations, as it is one of the powerful tools in the hands of management to motivate employees.
Individuals may have different expectations about rewards from the work activities carried out by
them. The disposition about rewards of different kinds is what is called as reward orientation.
Apart from some significant research on the needs of individuals (Maslow, 1954; Herberg, 1966), in
last few decades, specific researches (Adams 1965; Lawler, 1971; Dyer and Parker, 1976; Guzzo,
1976; Kanungo and Hartwick, 1987) were conducted to analyze the reward orientation of individuals
and its effect on organizations. Herzberg popularized two-factor theory (1966) consisting of:
Intrinsic rewards (autonomy, recognition and challenging assignments) and Extrinsic rewards (pay,
benefits and praise from the supervisor or boss).
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4.4.1.2.1 Reward Orientation and Age
A large number of studies conducted in this area prove the point that Younger people tend to give
more importance to extrinsic rewards whereas the older generation is more inclined towards
intrinsic rewards.
4.4.1.2.2 Reward Orientation and Sex
The research studies conducted on reward orientation have varies results. According to Singh,
Satvir (1994) the women appeared to be more interested in making money, more involved in their
work, more enthusiastic, more socially bold, more opinionated, and more tense. The men were
more interested in seeking higher level jobs and a better standard of living, more aware of social
status, more emotionally stable, more assertive, more experimental, more socially precise, and more
autonomous. According to de Vaus, David; McAllister, lan (1991) who measured intrinsic and
extrinsic work orientations of men and women concluded that the women are more intrinsically
oriented that their male counterparts.
4.4.1.2.3 Reward Orientation and Educational Background
Studies by Brenner (1996) reveal that generally people with higher qualifications show a greater
desire for intrinsic job aspects, independence and the opportunity to perform managerial activities.
According to him these men looked towards attaining status, money, than their female counterparts
looked towards recognition.
4.4.1.2.4 Operational Definition of Reward Orientation
In the present study, reward orientation was defined as: Individuals preference for either intrinsic or
extrinsic rewards.
4.4.1.3 System Salience
System or the organization of which the individuals is a part decides the critical relationship the
individual has with the system or the organization. An individuals understanding about the relation
that one has with the system has critical dimensions as to how the individual works in the
organization. Individuals may fall in two broad categories, the ones who believe individual as
dominant or primordial and the other system as primordial to individual. Tonnies (1968) has come
out with a typology of individuals, whether they are Geminishaft (low individualism) or Geselleschaft
(high individualism): Hofstede Geert (1980) based on his research on culture across nations has
come out with a typology of individualism and collectivism. According to Hoftede (1980), the
norm prevalent in a given society as to the degree of individualism / collectivism expected from its
members will strongly affect the nature of relationship between a person and the organization to
which he or she belongs.
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The concepts of individualism or collectivism are based on self-concept. Parsons and Shils (1951)
describe individualism as orientation to self and collectivism as orientation to common goals and
objectives. According to them the high frequency in which there is a disharmony of interests
creates the problem of choosing between action for private goals on behalf of collective goals.
Merton (1968) came out with a similar typology as individualism / collectivism. Merton
differentiates between locals versus cosmopolitans. According to him, the local type is largely
preoccupied with problems inside the organization and cosmopolitan maintains a minimum set of
relations with the organization.
The present study is taking up the typology of individual salience versus system salience. Individual
salience is the importance the individual attaches to himself or herself in contrast to the importance
he or she attaches to the system. System here cannotes organization.
4.4.1.3 Operational Definition of System Salience
In the present study system salience is defined as the relative importance that an individual
attributes to the system / organization against the individual (including himself) towards the
sustenance of the organization / system.
4.4.1.4 Locus of Control
Locus of control I s the third dimension chosen for this study, and which forms part of the
assumptions of individuals related to work. Individuals beliefs about the controllability of what
happens to them is a core element of their understanding of how they life in the world (Shapiro,
Schwartz, & Astin, 1996). Locus of control discusses the individuals belief regarding what controls
s/he, whether inside the self (internals locus of control or internality) or outside the self (external
locus of control or externality). The review of literature on this concept gives us a distinct
ideological favour towards internal locus of control. In fact, Rotter (1975) cautioned practitioners to
avoid falsely assuming that characteristics of individuals with an internal locus of control are all
positive and qualities of individuals with an external locus of control are all negative. This caution
notwithstanding, research and practice in the area has been biased by the popular assumption that a
belief in internal control is more desirable than a belief in external control (Evans, Shapiro, & Lewis,
1993; Furby, 1979).
4.4.1.4.1 Socio-cultural Influences on the Concept
According to Lawrence I Marks (1998) western culture has always place a high value on personal
autonomy, and this value has influenced the development of the locus of control concept. In turn,
the continued concentration within psychology on personal control is parallel to societys
preoccupation with independence (Furby, 1979; Stam, 1987). Embedded in Rotters concept is the
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Protestant ethic, which argues that there is a correlation between hard work and social
achievement. It is an ethic of individual effort and has little if anything to say about external,
structural impediments to achievement (Sampson, 1983). Indeed, researchers have shown
internality to be related to the Protestant ethic and traditional American values (Fink & Hjelle, 1973;
Mirels & Garrett, 1971; Rotter, 1975). This bias is resounded in Lefcourts (1982) assertion, Man
must come to be more effective and more able to perceive himself as the determiner of his fate if he
is to life comfortable with himself. Furthermore, Wong and Sproule (1984) contended, Since the
early 1960s, control psychologists have been busy demonstrating the importance of internal
control. Their main practical concern is how to enhance a persons belief in self-efficacy or internal
control (p. 354). The emphasis on internality served to reinforce and perpetuate the unchanging
view of and assumptions about locus of control.
According to Gurin, Gurin and Morrison (1978), the bias toward internality was present in the
1960s as locus of control attained a distinction with the rise in new social programs and
interventions. Belief in external control was viewed as a potentially critical problem among the
lower socioeconomic and minority groups who were the primary targets of these intervention
(Gurin et al., 1978). In fact, these authors asserted that it is simply a coincidence that Rotters lucus
of control concept (and scale) became avaialbe at the same time social scientists were interested in
the role of powerlessness in certain societal phenomena. A more appropriate measure may have
assessed individuals ideological control (described below), a distinct aspect of external locus of
control. Explaining social problems from a control perspective placed responsibility for managing
social problems in the hands of those who perceived themselves as having more power, or an
internal locus of control. Those who could provide opportunities eventually developed programs
for those with physical handicaps, for those in minority groups, and for individuals with other
disadvantages (Lefcourt, 1992).
Driven by the belief that internality is more desirable than externality, researchers have continually
found confirming evidence for their hypotheses. For example, Duke and Nowicki (1974) reported
internality in male college juniors to be positively related to achievement. Nowicki and Duke (1983)
saw a theme in their sample of research that internality and positive social characteristics were
related. Internal locus of control for academic achievement was positively related to achievement
scores for a sample of school children, even when controlling for gender, socioeconomic status, and
ethnicity (Young & Shorr, 1986). According to a review by Renn and Vandenberg (1991),
employees with an internal locus of control were rated higher than those with an external locus of
control on important job variables, such as performance or satisfaction. Even among mental health
professional, those with a greater sense of internal beliefs reported higher satisfaction with their jobs
and life and expected more favourable outcomes for their clients (Koeske & Kirk, 1995).
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4.4.1.4.2 Locus of Control and Gender Differences
A large number of studies (Kunhikrishna, K; Stephen, P.S, 1992; Lee VictoriaL; Dengerink, Harold A,
1992; Peter B Smith; Shaun Dugan; Fons Trompenaars, 1997; Kuther, Tara L, 1998) conducted to
analyze the differences in locus of control based one differences in gender have got varied results
based on cultural and national differences. Overall women are found with more externality than
their male counterparts.
4.4.1.4.3 Experience & its Relationship with Locus of Control
According to the meta-analysis of 12 studies conducted to determine the cumulative relationship
between locus of control and tenure among teachers by Sadowski, Cyril J (1993) longer tenure was
moderately associated with an internal locus of control orientation.
4.4.1.4.4 Locus of Control & Extrinsic and Intrinsic Needs
The existing research (Cravens & Worchel, 1977; Dailey, 1978; Spector, 1992; Feehan, Gregory G.;
Enzle, Michael E, 1991) on locus of control and its relationship with the intrinsic and extrinsic
motivating factors suggests that extrinsic needs are associated with external locus of control.
4.4.1.4.5 Locus of Control and Time Orientation
Brannigan, Gary G.; Shahon, Amy J.; Schaller, Juli A. (1992) Results support the hypothesis that
externals are more past oriented than internals.
4.4.1.4.6 Locus of Control and Job SatisfactionStudies (Tarver, David; Canada, Richard, Lim, Mee-gaik, 1999) conducted in the area of
understanding a relationship between locus of control and job and work satisfaction suggested of a
strong positive correlation between internality and satisfaction with the job or work.
4.4.1.4.7 Locus of Control and Indian Studies
According to Kanungo (1994), in India across organizations individuals suffer from high externality
which are acquired primarily through socialization practices related performance non-contingent
reward allocation in the family, school, work organization or other social institutions. Kanungo also
feels that because of high externality individuals tend to become insecure and demonstrate a strong
need for dependence on other to alleviate their feeling of insecurity.
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4.4.1.4.8 Conceptualization of Locus of Control
The design of studies of locus of control and subsequent interpretations or results by researchers
and practitioners are influenced by differing conceptualizations of the construct. Probably the most
variability in conceptualization comes from the different dimensions that have been hypothesized
concerning locus of control. Initially, Rotter (1966) conceived locus of control as being
multidimensional; howere, later her operationalzed locus of control as being unidimensional. He did
not look for other factors empirically because previous findings yielded only one factor (Coombs &
Schroeder, 1988). Assessing the multidimensionality of locus of control is supported by factor
analyses of lucus of control scales (e.g., Coombs & Schroeder, 1988; Ganellen & Blaney, 1984; Garza
& Widlak, 1977; Lefcourt, 1982; Mirels, 1970). In general, these studies have revealed more than
one factor and have revealed that certain factors (i.e., aspects of external control) may be better
predictors of specific dependent variables.
A current multidimensional view is Levensons (1974, 1981; Levenson & Miller, 1976) separation of
external beliefs into control by powerful others and fate or chance control. According to Ganellen
and Blaney (1984), Levenson followed other investigators who suggested separating external control
into dimension of powerful others and chance or luck. In fact, Rotter et al. (1962) had previously
suggested that there are four kinds of beliefs in external control: belief that events occur because of
luck or chance, belief that events occur because of fate, belief that events are controlled by powerful
others, and belief that the world is too complex to be predicted. Levenson (1974, 1981)
hypothesized that beliefs in control by powerful others lead to different thoughts and behaviours
than beliefs in control by chance. According to Levensons (1981) conceptualization, externality
may reflect a belief in control by powerful others that may express a genuine appraisal of certain
sociopolitical situations and not a maladjusted personality. For example, after a period of
democratization in Poland, Polish university students scored slightly more internal or over all locus
of control, and significantly more internal on a political control subscale compared to a matched
sample of Polish students surveyed before the political changes began (Tobacyk, 1992). Thus,
studies that use Rotters (1966) unidimensional scale may be missing important factors that could be
revealed with Levensons scale. Similar multi dimensional approach towards locus of control is
taken by Pareek (1996) who after factor analyses of his 31 item scale found that the external locus of
control combines together two dimensions, namely chance and others.
A useful conceptualization of locus of control is provided by Gurin et al (1978; Gurin, Gurin, Lao, &
Beattie, 1969) who proposed a differentiation between personal control, which refers to individuals
beliefs about the potential for control in their society at large. Gurin et al. (1978) found that this
distinction was made by all of their samples and was especially prominent in individuals of lower
socioeconomic status and in African Americans. Specifically, they insisted that these groups high
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external scores were a function of personal control beliefs resulting from their experience with
discrimination, not their beliefs about the effect of a persons effort in society. Gurin et al (1987)
argued that scores of greater externality on measures of locus of control among minority groups
were incorrectly altered, when in fact their sense of low personal control reflected a correct
perception of a harsh environment over which they had control. That is, early evaluations did not
distinguish between personal and ideological aspects of control; thus, it was not possible to
demonstrate which factors actually accounted for the observed differences in external control.
In their examination of locus of control, Wong and Sproule (1984) offered valueable contributions to
this literature. First, they noted the importance of realism and idealism. When locus of control was
assessed, respondents reality considerations tended to account for external scores and their ideals
seemed to underlie internal scores. Second, the authors conceptualization of locus of control
involved a dual dimensional view. Dual control, or shared responsibility, was described in terms of
internal and external control compared with internal versus external control. They labeled the
unstudied group of individuals who understand control to be from both internal and external
sources as bilocals. That is, bilocals are individuals who strike a healthy balance between their
beliefs in internal and external control. Although individuals falling in the middle of the locus of
control continuum were distinguished as a notable group by Roter et a. (1962), the possible
meaningfulness of this group has been largely ignored. Wong and Sproule (1984) hypothesized that
bilocals cope more effectively because they observe an optimal mix between personal responsibility
(internal control) and faith in appropriate outside resources (external control). Emphasizing the
importance of both internal and external aspects of control instead of focusing only on the benefits
of being internal or the distresses associated with being external is a sensible alternative to prevailing
views of locus of control.
With this multidimensional focus has come the perspective that to have external control beliefs is
not necessarily dysfunctional. An external belief may be derived from powerful others, in which a
potential for control exists, as opposed to chance, as in Levensons (1981) description. Similarly,
Guin et als (1978) personal control, in which the individual is making accurate judgments about
situations as opposed to ideological control, may account for an external belief moreover, bilocals
may be better adjusted than controllers (those with internal control beliefs) and controllers (those
with external control beliefs) in many ways (Wong & Sproule, 1984). Alternatively, an external
locus of control may be reflecting cultural values or beliefs as described above. Having an external
locus of control may be an effective or adaptive way of believing and functioning in certain situations
or cultures.
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In an interesting analysis of control in Americal and Japanese cultures, Weisz et al. (1984) offered a
distinction between primary and secondary control. In primary control, individuals influence
existing realities, whereas in secondary control, individuals accommodate to existing realities.
Weisz et al. described forms of secondary control: predictive (preparing for future events and their
impact), vicarious (enchancing ones sense of control by aligning with powerful others), illusory
(enhancing acceptance of chance of fate), and interpretive (altering perspectives of reality in order to
understand the meaning of events). They demonstrated the emphasis on primary control in
American-Western culture and the reliance on secondary control in Japanese culture, and they
noted both positive and negative connotations of each from of control in the cultures. Primary
control in America, for example, was associated with autonomy and self-expression, but also
self-absorption and loneliness. Secondary control in Japan was associated with self-discipline and
attentiveness but also with excessive conformity and oversensitivity. The parallel between primary
and secondary and internal and external is evident. Primary and internal control places the person
as having responsibility for acting on the einvorioment. Secondary and external control has the
person adjust to being acted upon by the environment. Although Weisz et al. suggested that both
forms of control are important, they did not escape the Western bias discussed earlier. Labeling
external control as secondary seems to connote an inferior way of being (Shapiro et at., 1996).
A final and important consideration for practitioners with respect to the conceptualizations of locus
of control is whether it is used as a generalized expectancy or applied in specific situations. Rotter
(1966) noted the worth of developing precise measures for specific situations, especially in practical
applications. Using measures tailored for certain populations with special concerns is preferable for
maximizing predictions rather than using global assessments (Lefcourt, 1982, 1991; Rotter, 1975).
Schulz, Heckhausen, and Locker (1991) suggested that generalized locus of control remains relatively
stable over the life course, but perceptions of control over specific domains may change (cf Gatz &
Karel, 1993).
4.4.1.4.8 Operational Definition of Locus of Control
The present study considers locus of control as a unidimensional concept and the following
operational definition is arrived at.: locus of control is a general tendency to attribute success or
failure either to oneself or to causes outside the self.
4.4.2 Values
According to operation definition of work culture in this study, values form the second layer of
work culture. Thus, values regarding work aspects a group of individuals within an organization or
across organizations are supposedly are formed on the basis of the basic assumptions discussed
above and many more. According to Schein (1985) all cultural learning ultimately reflects
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someones original values, their sense of what ought to be as distinct from what is. Table 4.1.
gives number of definitions of values.
TABLE 4.1
DEFINITIONS OF VALUES
Author Definitions
Klukhohn, 1951 Value as a conception of what is desirable or implicit, distinctive
characteristic of an individual or a group which influences the selection
from available modes, means, and ends of an action.
Rokeach, 1972 Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or
end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite
or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence
Lau, 1979 Values are things, ideas, beliefs and acts that are regarded as good or
bad, right or wrong, desirable, beautiful or ugly, contributing o
detrimental to human welfare and so on.
Manford, 1981 Values are peoples belies on what is desirable and undesirable
Parameswaran EG &
Beena, 1988
Values are general and directed. They indicate what one is looking for
and what one want to achieve.
Ravi Paturi, 1991 Value is the basis which helps for selecting between dualities
Form the above listed definitions of values, it could be said that values are beliefs or preferable
modes of conducts and ideal goals or end states of existence, underlying attitudinal or behavioural
processes. Once established, values act as built-in, normative guides to behaviour.
4.4.2.1 Work Values
Values in the context of work simply mean the rewards and end states for which the individuals
would strive for. George & Jones in their article on Experiencing work have referred to Nord,
Brief, Ateih & Dohertys (1990) definition of work values as: Desired end-states that a person things
he/she should be able to realize through working and desired modes of behaviour at work.
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It is important to recognize that peoples work values determine the meaning that work, jobs and
organizations have for them. Moreover, as values have motivational properties, it is understood
that work related values include all those motivationally relevant factors that energize, direct and
sustain human behaviour at work.
4.4.2.2 Review of Literature on Work Values
Douglas (1920) conducted one of the early studies on work values when he studies 2,844 high
school seniors, who mentioned several reasons for preferring a particular job. Kornhauser (1936)
and Centers (1949) are some of the other early studies on work values. According to Elizur, Dov;
Koslowsky, Meni, (1996) three main stream of research were identified in the field of work values.
4.4.2.3 Factors Influencing Work Values
The significant among the factors influencing work values are (1) individual factors, (2) organizational
factors, and (3) social & other factors.
4.4.2.3.1 Individual Factors
At the individual level, each person possesses a unique set of personal values that are relevant to
multiple life areas, with some especially appropriate to the work context, which are referred to as
individual work values (Sage & Elizur, 1996). The work value systems that are developed by
individuals are dependent on the demographic characters of the individuals along with several other
factors. Here we have considered a few demographic variables that are possible causative factors in
the development of individual work values. These are:
* Age
* Gender
* Education
4.4.2.3.1.1 Work values and Age
Several studies have been conducted on an individuals age as a deciding factor of his/her work value
system. These studies reveal that age has a direct positive effect on the work value systems of
individuals.
4.4.2.3.1.2 Work values and Gender
Traditionally, two broad approaches have been used to explain gender differences in work values:
the gender socialization model and the social structural model. Proponents of the gender
socialization model argue that observed differences in work values (e.g., mens greater emphasis on
pay and career advancement and womens greater concern for social aspects of their work) reflect
traditional patterns of gender socialization Surveys (Elizur, Dov, 1994; Rowe, Reba; Snizek, William
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E, 1995; Mason E Sharon) conducted on the effect of gender differences on work values reveal that
there is hardly any differences in the work values of male and female employees. Instead, the
findings suggest that regardless of gender, ones preference for a given work value depends, in large
part, on ones age, education, and occupation prestige.
4.4.2.3.1.3 Work Values and Education
Work values of people with different educational backgrounds are said to show variations with
respect to the type of work related aspects they consider important.
4.4.2.3.2 Influence of Organizational Factors on Work Values
In organizations, work values develop through a variety of ways. There are a few
charismatic leaders in some organizations, through their relationship with their subordinates
establish some guides to behaviour, build some work values. In other cases, the workvalues of the original founders are inculcated into the work life of the firm. In the
day-to-day working of the organization, the work values come to light in the form of certain
shared set of values that are exhibited by the various groups and individuals within the
organization. Company (often referred to as organizational or institutional) level work
values are said to exist when the groups and individual members within the company, share
a common set of values with regard to their functioning. These unique company level
values stem from such factors as management policy, leadership style, organizational culture,
organizational learning, reward systems, selection processes and formal and informal intra &
extra organizational communication (Goodman, Olivera & Ramanjujam, 1997; Pratt &
Kleiner, 1989; trice & Beyer, 1993). The typology of an organization & its technology base,
are some of the other factors that are responsible for the value systems of organizations.
4.4.2.3.3 Influence of Social Factors on Work Values
The individual, group and company are subject to forces outside their control like society
and nation at large. These forces have their own unique cultures that some work values to
become more important and compelling than others. Some of these forces influencing the
formation of specific work values are as follows:
* Family influence
* Group influence
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4.4.2.3.3.1 Family and Work Values
The family systems are a source of significant influence in the development of specific types
of work value systems that lead to specific behaviours in individuals. Studies conducted in
this area by Watanbe Shimichiro & Kiyoshi Takahashi (1997) and Sheldon Zedeck et al
(1997) indicate that specific facets of work and family are responsible for specific behaviours
of people at work. Likewise, the type of family builds specific value systems in individuals
i.e. to say, the work value systems of individuals who are part of a joint family systems are
different from those who are part of nuclear or for that matter atomic families, and
vice-versa. However, it is not possible to say that the value systems of one type of family are
better than the other. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages in shaping the right
kind of value systems in people.
4.4.2.3.3.2 Group Influences & Work Values
Every individual is a member of some group or the other. Group-level work values are developed
from the interactions of people within these groups and value systems they bring them into the
group. The groups in turn influence the formation of specific work values in individuals. According to
Klein, Dansereau & Hall (1994), although interpersonal difference in the work values are inevitable,
the values are relatively homogeneous within the group. This means that the group members aremore similar, with regard to their work values, than they are dissimilar. The teamwork, collective
decision-making, social loafing, etc. all re responsible for the generation of certain type or work
values in individuals, that lead to specific behavioral outcomes. A lot of work in this area has been
done by Ravlin Medlino & Adkins (1991); Shaw (1981); Vecchio (1995) and others.
4.4.2.3.4 Consequences of Values
In the above discussion, an attempt is made to explain regarding various factors influencing the
development of specific work values in individuals. All these work values guide the behavior and
thought processes of individuals with regards to the work they do. For the effective functioning of
an organization, a certain level of congruency is a must, between the individual and the organizational
work values. Incongruence beyond a certain level will lead to situations that will affect the individual
as well the organization. It is therefore essential for an organization to provide the proper
atmosphere in the work place that will maximize the congruence between the organizational and
individual work values.
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4.4.2.3.5 Operational Definitions of Work Values
For the purpose of present studying values, the framework adopted by Sinha(1991) from the Work
Importance Study is taken. Values are studied in terms of the importance given by the individuals and
the chance that they perceive for fulfilling these values. As for as typology is concerned values arestudied under three heads namely work oriented values, people oriented values, and self-oriented
values. The following are the operational definitions of these three types of values.
4.4.2.3.5.1 Work Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)
Values that express the individuals desire to excel at work place and do the best kind of work..
4.4.2.3.5.2 People Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Change for Satisfaction)
Values that express the individuals desire to be associated with people working with him/her at the
work place.
4.4.2.3.5.3 Self Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)
Values that individuals desire to achieve a sense of fulfillment through work
4.4.3 Orientations
English and English (1958) have stated that orientation is cognitive when it consists chiefly in knowing
the situation; positively or negatively or cathective when it consists primarily in feelings; evaluative
when comparisons are made and relations of the situation to personal goals are brought out.
According to Tinbegen (1951) orientation id property of the innate disposition that it directs the
conditioning to special parts of the receptual field. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1951) singled out five
crucial that is common to all human groups not only influencing work activities but also all the other
non-work activities. These are:
- Human nature orientation dealing with the character of innate human nature.
- Man-nature orientation dealing with the relation of the man with nature.
- Time orientation dealing with temporal focus of life.
- Activity orientation dealing with modality of human activity.
- Relational orientation dealing with the modality of mans relationship to other men.
Pareek (1997) discusses about action orientation. He sees it as integral part of personal efficacy.
According to him, an action-oriented person shows some amount of self-discipline, or what
McClelland (1975) has called activity inhibition. He works hard, denies himself opportunities for
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immediate gratification of some of his desire, sticks to his schedules, spends long hours on job and
so on.
Sinha (1990) had studied job clarity and time salience as orientations relating to work. The present
stud has taken up task orientation and self-role integration as orientation towards work. Teachingbeing a role is considered while self-role integration is chosen to understand the amount to which
the teaching staff in educational organizations see their self being closer to the roles that they are
(supposed to be) playing, i.e. seeing themselves in the role/s they are performing. Task orientation is
chosen to understand to see the contrast that the teaching staff understands with regard to role and
vice versa.
4.4.3.1 Task Orientation:
Tasks are bits and pieces forming part of work activities. The tasks that are in the form bits pieces
combine together to make a large work activity or a combination of activities. Having an
understanding (cognition) how these tasks make part of work activities is task orientation. The task
orientation further has two dimensions. The first dimension is the task darity, and other is the task
focus.
4.4.3.1.1 Operational Definition of Task clarity
Task clarity is the understanding the individuals have about the details making part of task and how they
are related to each other.
4.4.3.1.2 Operational Definition of Task focus
Task focus is individuals disposition to focus or concentrate on work until it is completed.
4.4.3.2 Self-role Integration
Self and role are one of the widely discussed, but the same time one of the most complex areas inthe literature or organizational behavior literature. Concept of self is discussed widely both by
philosophers as well as psychologists. Concept of self often is synonymously used with words such
as ego person.
4.4.3.2.2 Self
Bobby Turnaisky & Paul A Hare (1998) define self as the sum of individual beliefs or knowledge
about his or her personal qualities, and social identity as the part of the self-concept that comes
from the group membership. Rosenberg (1979) defines self as the totality of individuals thoughts
and feeling having reference to himself as an object. Turner (1968) defined it as typical himself
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conception. Esptein (1973) suggests that self concept can be viewed as a theory that a person held
about himself as experiencing and functioning being in interaction with the world. Self concept seems
to link individual with other social structures like family, work organization, etc. on one hand and
with his activities and positions that the carries. Role is one such concept, which is total interwoven
with the concept of self.
4.4.3.2.2 Role
Role is often confused with position in the office. These two are separate concepts. According Kart
and Kohn (1964), position is a relational concept and role is obligational concept. Keith Devis (1998)
defines role as the pattern of actions expected of a person in activities involving others. Role
reflects a persons position in the social system, with its accompanying rights and obligations, power
and responsibility. For Pareek (1997) role is the position one occupies in a social system, and is
define by the functions one performs in response to the significant members of a social system, and
ones own expectations from that position in the office. The concept of role is vital in integrating the
individual with the organization. The concept of role widens the meaning of work and the
relationship of the worker with others in the system. Individuals perceive role conflict when others
have different perceptions or expectations of a persons role. According to Pareed (1993), for
resolving the role conflict, the individual needs to develop role clarity and shopped strive towards
achieving self role integration. While elaborating self-role integration, Pareek (1997) suggests that
the individuals should try to be aware of their unique strengths, experiences, technical training,special skills, and contributions by putting all these into use in the role. Many a time there will be a
gap between the self and the role and with the increase in the distance between the role and the self
feels more and more role conflict. The reduction of distance between the self and the role will
eventually lead to self-role integrating resulting in meaningfulness of the role activities. The present
study is mainly concerned with understanding this dimension self-role integration and the spread of
such an orientation among the teaching staff working in educational organizations.
4.4.3.2.3 Operational Definition of Self-role Integration
In the present study self-role integration was defined as: individuals disposition of seeing one self in the
role-played by she while being at work.
4.4.4 Behaviours
As is already mentioned one of the key dimensions of work culture is the behaviour or the activity.
This behavior could be manifested in any form. A Variety of such manifestations are recorded
(Etzioni 1961, Ouchi, 1981, Sinha, 1990, Kanungo, 1993). According to Etzioni (1961) work culture is
exhibited in the form of workers commitment to the identification with the group and theorganization as well as their sense of involvement with their work assignments. For Super (1982, the
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involvement, interest and the engagement show the activity of work behaviour. Ouchi (1981) strong
believes the work culture is to be seen in the form of commitment and productivity of the work
group. Sinha (1990) sees time distribution as the critical variable of activity dimension of work
culture. Taking cue from Super & Nevill (1986) Sinha has made an effort to measure the activity
component or the extent of participation in the work role by asking how much time one devotes in
working compared to the other life roles. As Sinha sees this time distribution measure suffering from
constraint of incapable of measuring the resultant quality of work, uses hard work (1990) as another
dimension to measure the activity component. The present research would study work commitment
and performance satisfaction as behavioral (activity) measures.
4.4.4.1 Work Commitment
Since Perry (1968) has conducted one of the early comprehensive works on commitment and gave
first indication that commitment is an observable phenomenon and can be subjected to empirical
investigation. Numbers of studies are conducted on organizational commitment (Modway, Porter &
Steers, 1982: Reichers, 1985; Salancik, 1977; Scholl, 1081; Staw; 1977); career commitment (Card,
1978); union commitment (Michael E Gordon, John W Philpot, Robert E Burt, Cynthia A
Thompsom, and William E Spiller, 1980); occupational commitment; and work commitment. All
these studies on commitment may be classified under two heads, (1) with studies focused on
commitment of an individual with regard to an entity (organization, union), activity (work and job) or
an issue (career, occupation) under one category and (2) the studies based on how commitment asconstruct is understood (ex: attitude, behaviour, and response set). Among the first category of
studies on commitment, organizational commitment is the most explored one.
4.4.4.1.2 Commitment: What it is?
Commitment is one among those topics in organization studies which is researched quite
extensively and hence difficulty in coming to a consensus in defining the term. According to Modway
et all (1982), researchers from various disciplines ascribed their meaning to the topic thereby
increasing difficulty in understanding the construct. The complexity of understanding the meaning of
the term commitment increases with related terms such as allegiance, loyalty, identification,
involvement, and attachment.
As organization culture and work culture are used synonymously, many scholars would use
organizational commitment (Allen & Mayaer, 1998) when they actually mean work commitment or
other way. In fact, in iarge amount of literature on commitment the phrase work commitment is
used to denote a plethora of commitments related to work activities, like organizational
commitment, occupational commitment, and career commitment and many other attitudinal and
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behavioural attributes (Morrow, Paula C; McElroy, james C, 1987; Kubes, Marian, 1990; Randall,
Donna M; Cote joseph A, 1991; Bastos Antonio V. 1992 Cohen Aron, 1993).
Morrow, Paula C; McElroy, james C. (1987), tested four measures of work commitment (job
involvement, organizational commitment, work ethic endorsement, and intention to remain). Kubes,Marian (1990) investigated the discriminant validity of 3 measures of work commitment (job
involvement, career commitment, and organizational commitment) in 93 research workers (mean
age 38 yrs). Randall, Donna M; Cote, Joseph A. (1991) presented a model of work commitment
which specifies multivariate relationships among organization commitment, career salience, work
group attachment, job involvement, and the Protestant work ethic. Bastos, Antonio V. (1992)
studied the discriminant validity of instrument measuring workers relationship to 4 aspects of the
work environment: (1) organization, (2) Union, (3) profession, and (4) job. Cohen, Aaron (1993)
assessed how forms of work commitments (job, occupational, union, and organizational
commitment) are related to withdrawal intentions and union effectiveness, studied four facets of
work commitment (occupation, value, organization, and job). Ogasawara Etsko (1997) studied the
relationship between job satisfaction and work commitment among the Japanese and American
Collegiate coaches adopting Blau, Paul, and St. Johns (1993) general index of work commitment
which contained 31 items to measure four facets of work commitment: organizational commitment,
occupational commitment, job involvement, and value of work.
It was observed that most of the above-mentioned studies could not take work commitment as adistinct construct from that of organization commitment. As alredy mentioned, work commitment is
different from all the other kinds of commitment, especially organizational commitment.
Organizational commitment is the commitment to an entity called organization, whereas work
commitment is commitment of an individual towards the activity called work. Thus an independent
operational definitional definition work commitment is developed for the purposed of present
study. But, the spirit from the definition of organizational commitment given by Modway & Porter
(1982) is adopted for this definition.
4.4.4.1.2 Operational Definition of Work Commitment
According to the definition for the purpose of present study, work commitment is defines as:
individuals strong belief in the intrinsic worth of the activities and willingness to put considerable effort.
4.4.4.2 Performance Satisfaction
As a resultant behaviour ar as an outcome variable, conventionally job satisfaction, role satisfaction
and performance satisfaction are studied. The present study has chosen to study performance
satisfaction, as teaching is not just a job, work or even a task. It is more a role, and that too a role to
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made and not to be taken. It is for this reason the measure performance satisfaction is chosen. It is
to be noted here that teaching is some thing like a sports, acting where performance means
presenting oneself in totally in that role. A teacher role does not end with taking few sessions each
day and conducting examinations to the students.
Brayfield and Croketts (1955) assumption that employee satisfaction directly affects job satisfaction
permeates the literature on the relationship between performance and satisfaction. According to
Pestonjee DM (1991), since an initial study in 1932, by Kornhauser and Sharp numerous studies
have considered relationship between these two variables. Some studies have tried to establish that
satisfaction leads to performance, though, this logic was questioned by Vroom (1964) and Organ
(1976). Some other think other wise.
According to Porter and Lawler (1968) satisfaction rather than a cause, is an effect of performance
i.e., good performance results in satisfaction. Though, some studies (Cherrington, Reitz, and Scott,
1971; Greene, 1973) argue of rewards as mediating role between performance and satisfaction,
some other studies talk of a significant, direct and strong causal relationship between performance
and satisfaction. A large-number of studies (Haney, Colleen J.; Long, Bonita C. 1995; Waung, Marie,
Maurya; Vancae, Robert J, 1995; Schul, Yaacov; Schiff, Miriam, 1995; Boyd, Michael; John, 1994)
especially conducted on sportsmen prove the point that performance results into satisfaction.
A study conducted by Mossholder, Kevin W; Bedean, Arthur G.; Niebuhr, Robert E.; Wesolowski,
Mark A(1994) on dyadic duration and impact of performance on satisfaction, as anticipated, in
shorter duration dyads, subordinate performance was positively associated with satisfaction with the
nature of work, characteristics of supervision and more so in cases where role become important as
in case of teaching staff working in educational organizations.
4.4.4.2.1 Operational Definition of Performance Satisfaction
In the present study, performance satisfaction is defined as: pleasurable and positive emotional state
resulting out of a perception of performing to ones expectations.
Thus, the following are the dimensions that were taken up as the dimensions of work culture under
this study.
Assumptions:
- Time orientation (Past Future)
- Reward Orientation (Extrinsic Intrinsic)
- System Orientation (System Salience Individual Salience)
- Locus of Control (External Internal)
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Values
- Work Oriented Values Importance & Perceived Chance for Satisfaction
- People Oriented Values Importance & Perceived Chance for Satisfaction
- Self Oriented Values Importance & Perceived Chance for Satisfaction
Orientation
- Task Clarity (Synergetic Non-Synergetic)
- Task Focus (Confused Distracted)
- Self Role Orientation (Integration Distance)
Behaviours
- Work Commitment
- Performance Satisfaction
4.4.1 Dependent Variables
4.4.1.1 Organizations:
One of the independent variable for this study is educational organizations operating at college level.
The demographic factors of teaching staff working in these organizations will be studied as factors
affecting work culture. The following factors would be taken up for study as organization related
factors.
- Age of the organization
- Management type
-
Student categories as three different factors.
4.4.1.1.1 Age of Educational Organizations
Educational organization were categorized as new educational organizations (10 years and below),
middle aged educational organizations (between 10-20 years), and old educational organizations (25
years and above).
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4.4.1.1.2 Management Type of Educational Organizations
Educational organizations were categorized as entrepreneurial education organizations (those
started with profit motive, under privatization of education), trust educational organizations (which
are basically non-profit trusts established for public cause), government and quasi governmenteducational organizations (University constituent colleges come under the quasi government
educational organizations), and minority educational organizations (educational organizations
established as religious minority educational organizations).
4.4.1.1.3 Educational Organizations based on Type of Students (Sex)
Educational organizations were categorized as girls educational organizations, boys educational
organizations, and co-educational organizations.
4.4.1.2 Teaching Staff Working in Educational Organizations
Teaching staff working in educational organizations form another part of independent variable. The
following demographic factors of these staff chosen for the present study
- Age of the Staff
- Sex of Staff
- Work Experience of the Staff
- Monthly Salaries of the Staff- Monthly Family Income
- Subject Focus of the Staff
4.4.1.2.1 Age of Staff
Based on age, the staff was categorized as (1) below 30 years; (2) between 30 40 years; (3)
between 40 50 years; and (4) above 50 years.
4.4.1.2.2 Sex of Staff
The variations in work culture between men and women staff was selected for the study.
4.4.1.2.3 Work Experience of Staff
Based on work experience, the staff was categorized as (1) less than 5 years; (2) between 5 10
years; (3) between 10 15 years; and (3) above 20 years.
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4.4.1.2.4 Monthly Salaries of Staff
Based on monthly salaries, the staff was categorized as those getting (1) less than Rs. 5000; (2)
between Rs. 5000 10000; (3) between Rs. 10000 15000; and (4) more than 15000
4.4.1.2.5 Monthly Family Income of Staff
Based on monthly family income, the staff was categorized as having (1) less than Rs. 1000; (2)
between Rs. 10000 15000; (3) between Rs. 15000 20000; (4) more than Rs. 20000.
4.4.1.2.6 Subject Focus of Staff
Based on subject focus, the staff was categorized as those teaching (1) general subjects; (2) technical
subjects; and (3) professional subjects.
4.5 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
The present study basically rests on the primary data (especially in case of dependent variable)
collected with the help of a detailed questionnaire items measuring all the above mentioned
dimensions.
4.6 TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION
A through review of the existing instruments was done to suit to the above-mentioned operational
definitions and to be adopted for the purpose of the present study. The review of literature helped
to locate two existing questionnaires to measure work culture (Sinha, 90; Sandhu & Daas, 96). As
the dimensions to be measured under the present study are to a large extent different from the
ones mentioned in the above-mentioned questionnaire, effort is made to develop a suitable Work
Culture Questionnaire (WCQ) for the purpose of the present study.
Review of literature of existing questionnaires is done before listing out the items for each of the
dimensions. Though there are questionnaires measuring some of the dimensions under study, like
locus of control, work commitment, time orientation and three work values (importance and
satisfaction), necessity of an independent and suitable questionnaire was seen for the present study.
Some of the items from already existing (Pareek, 1998) questionnaires are adopted.
4.6.1 Development of the Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ)
The entire process of questionnaire development is done in four stages. In the first stage, items for
various dimensions under the study were developed. In the second stage the face validity is
established. In the third stage, test-retest reliability is established. In the fourth stage reliability using
Cronbach Alpha.
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4.6.1.1 Stage: 1 Developing Items for the Questionnaire
Statements (items) which represent the meanings of each of the work culture dimensions based on
the following operational definitions were listed. For each of the dimension statements ranging
between 10 to 15 were written some of these items were taken from the earlier scales falling underthe respective that this study is interested in, especially in case of locus of control.
4.6.1.1.1 Assumptions
4.6.1.1.1.1 Time Orientation
Time orientation is the tendency of individuals to attribute significance to either past to future.
4.6.1.1.1.2 System Salience
System salience is the relative that an individual attributes to the system/ organization against the
individual (including himself) towards the sustenance of the organization/ System.
4.6.1.1.1.3 Reward Orientation
Individuals preference for either intrinsic or extrinsic rewards.
4.6.1.1.1.4 Locus of Control
Locus of control is a general tendency to attribute success or failure to oneself or to causes outside
the self.
4.6.1.1.2 Work Values
4.6.1.1.2.1 Work Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)
Values that express the individuals desire to excel at work place and do the best kind of work.
4.6.1.1.2.2 People Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)
Values that express the individuals desire to be associated with people working with him/her at
work place.
4.6.1.1.2.3 Self Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)
Values that express the individuals desire to achieve a sense of fulfillment through work
4.6.1.1.3 Orientations
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4.6.1.1.3.1 Task Focus
7Task clarity is the understanding the individuals have about the details making part of task and how
they are related to each other.
4.6.1.1.3.2 Task Clarity
Task focus is individuals disposition to focus or concentrate on work until it is completed.
4.6.1.1.3.3 Self-Role Integration
Individuals disposition of seeing one self in the role-played by she while being at work.
4.6.1.1.4 Behaviours
4.6.1.1.4.1 Work Commitment
Individuals strong belief in the intrinsic worth of the activities and willingness to put considerable
effort.
4.6.1.1.4.2 Performance Satisfaction
Pleasurable and positive emotional state resulting out of a perception of performing to ones
expectations.
For example statements such as pass is the most significant that the future in individuals life, the
experience of ones early leave an irreversible mark on ones life are written to represent past time
orientation and statements such as there is no meaning in continuing in a job unless it gets sufficient
salary, having job security is more important than whether the work interests us or not are written
to represent extrinsic reward orientation.
4.6.1.2 Stage: II (A) Face Validity Experts
The 10 to 15 items mentioned above along with the operational definitions of these dimensions on
the top portion of these items were given to five experts (noted behavioral scientists) for the
purpose of face validity.
4.6.1.2.1 The experts made the following comments
1. To go for a forced choice as far possible in case of polar dimensions like time orientation
(past orientation future orientation), reward orientation (Extrinsic rewards Intrinsic
Reward), system salience (individual Salience System salience), and locus of control
(Internal locus of control external locus of control).
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2. Some items are to be deleted, as they seem to have got a place under different dimensions
3. Rating is better than ranking
4. Task clarity should not be equated with task synergy
5. A clear distinction needs to be made between generic and generic and self-items.
6. For locus of control, loco inventory of Rotter of Pareek could be used.
7. In case of work commitment, some items of the Modway scale could be adopted.
8. Language and grammatical errors must be removed.
Apart from the above suggestions, doubts were expressed regarding of certain items
suitability to the operational definition.
Some of the suggestions could be followed for the inherent related to those suggestions.
For Example: Rotter or Pareeks scale could not be used for locus of control, as the number of item
too large which makes the questionnaire longer and may create problems for the respondents.
Based on these suggestions the items were redrafted and certain new items were added.
4.6.1.3
After following the suggestions of the experts and making necessary corrections, a tentative Work
culture Questionnaire (WCQ) was drafted using rating method. The items are arranged on a
Lickerts five point scale ranging between strongly agree to disagree in case of assumptions and
always to never in case of orientations and behaviours. For values Four point scale ranging between
1 and 4.
This tentative WCQ was circulated among the senior most the heads of educational organizations.
These heads of educational organizations were asked to give their comments on the suitability ofitems and also their nativity (Whether or not suitable specifically to educational organizations).
These senior academics were not asked to respond to the items in the questionnaire.
4.6.1.3.1 These experts gave the following comments
1. Ambiguity in some of the items must be removed
2. The items may be too many for the respondent to answer
3. Grammatical and typographical errors must be removed
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Based on these suggestions corrections were once again carried out.
4.6.1.4 Stage: III (A) Test Re-test Reliability
Corrections are carried on the basis of suggestions given by the senior Principals of the educational
organizations and the WCQ was given to a sample of 18 respondents in one of the educational
organizations (Degree College) essentially considering that these are the subjects for a test-retest.
All the instruments were coded for the convenience of data analysis. The respondents were asked to
help in by giving suggestions regarding the ambiguity in the language, grammatical and typographical
errors and also mention the time taken for filling in the instrument. They were also asked to
mention their comfort/ discomfort regarding the closeness of the items to their work life
The respondents expressed some problems like the ambiguity in some items and also mentioned
regarding the typographical errors. Most of the respondents mentioned that the items reflected their
thoughts and feelings regarding their work life. A large number of respondents mentioned about the
inconvenience in the time taken for filing in the questionnaire. According to them 30 minutes to 2
hours were taken for completing the instrument.
4.6.1.4.1 The following are the major suggestions given by the respondents:
1. To reduce the number of items, if possible to make it more convenient for answering
2. To give the code for answering on all pages of the questionnaire.
3. To remove the grammatical errors.
These corrections were not carried, as the questionnaire to be given to the same respondents for
test-retest so that any external influence could be avoided on the respondents. The instruments
(coded) were once again given to the same respondents after a period of three weeks to mainly see
the stability in the response pattern.
4.6.1.5 Stage: III (B) Reliability Test
The instruments were given to a cross section of respondents (teaching staff) (30) from different
colleges. These respondents were asked to mention their suggestions regarding the ambiguity,
grammatical and typographical errors and also to tell how much time was taken by them to fill the
instrument.
The data from these questionnaires was analyzed under two different heads.
1. Test Retest Reliability
2. General Reliability
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4.6.1.7 Test-Retest Reliability
Peron product moment co-related for each of the dimension to see consistency in the response
pattern from the first attempt to the second attempt.
Dimension Co-relation Co-efficient(P
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TABLE 4.2
RELIABILITY OF WORK CULTURE DIMENSIONS CRONBACH ALPHA
S.No. Work Culture Dimension No. of
Items
Cronbac
Alpha
1 Time Orientation 8 0.67
2 Reward Orientation 8 0.59
3 Locus of Control 8 0.64
4 System Salience 8 0.64
5 Work Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction 7 0.76
6 Work Oriented Vales Importance 7 0. 69
7 People Oriented Values Importance 7 0.75
8 People Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction 7 0.82
9 Self Oriented Values Importance 7 0.76
10 Self Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction 7 0.74
11 Task Clarity 8 0.76
12 Task Focus 8 0.69
13 Self-role integration 8 0.57
14 Work Commitment 8 0.78
15 Performance Satisfaction 8 0.67
4.6.3 Calculating the Responses to WCQ
In the WCQ, four dimensions representing assumptions (time orientation, system salience, reward
orientation, and locus of control) contain eight items. 5 point Lickert type scale was used ranging
from strongly agree to strongly disagree. In case of assumptions, each of the dimension has two
poles, i.e. for time orientation past orientation and future orientation, for system salience
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individual salience and system salience, for reward orientation extrinsic reward orientation and
intrinsic reward orientation, and for locus of control internal locus and external locus. Thus, of
the eight items representing each of these dimensions, four are for one pole and four for another.
For example, in the case of time orientation, four items represent future time orientation and four
the past orientation. In all the four dimensions there is a desirable pole, i.e. for time orientation
future orientation in the desirable, for system salience system salience is the desirable, for reward
orientation intrinsic reward orientation is the desirable, and for locus of control the internal locus of
control (internality) is the desirable one. Keeping this in view, calculation of the scores of these
dimensions was done. Score of each of the four dimension is calculated with the help for a ration of
the desirable state being the numerator and the undesirable state as the denominator and is
multiplied by 10 (10 has particular significance, but for coming out with a number). For example if
the score of future orientation is 20 and past orientation is 4, then time orientation = 20/4X10=50.
Thus the maximum possible score for each of the dimensions representing assumptions is 50 and the
minimum possible score (calculated as the above) is 2.
Three dimensions representing orientations (task focus, task clarity and self-role integration) also
contain eight items each. Here again 5-point Linckert scale is used with strongly agree and strongly
disagree being the extremes and behavours (work commitment and performance satisfaction).
In case of values (work oriented, people oriented, and self-oriented) both in terms of importance
and chance seven items are taken. For values four point scale is used from frequently to never incase of chance and great deal to in case of importance. Thus each item score ranges from 4 to 1.
The Work Culture Questionnaire (WCX) is given in the appendix:1
4.7 SAMPLE
4.7.1 Educational Organizations
All the educational organizations selected for the study (satisfying the above-mentioned criterion)
are located within twin cities of Hyderabad and surrounding suburbs. A list of educational
organizations operating at graduate level involved in general education, professional education
(medicine), and technical education (engineering) was collected and keeping in view the scope of the
study, educational organizations are selected on basis of representative sampling and satisfying the
three organizations related factors (age of organizations, types of management, and types of student
base on sex).
For the purposes of possibility and plausibility, fifteen educational organizations are selected which
take care of at least two dimensions of the sample. For example an educational organization not
only represents organization based on the gender of the students, but also represents an old agedorganization. Table 4.2 gives brief details on the sample education organizations.
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TABLE 4.3
COMPOSITION OF EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
REPRESENTING THE SAMPLE
4.7.2 Staff Working in Educational Organizations
All the teaching staff working in the above mentioned fifteen educational organizations were given
the Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ) of which, maximum possible were returned. The final
number considered for data analysis were 302 thus making the sample size (N = 302).
4.8 TOOLS FOR STATISTICAL ANALYSES
The analyses of the data call for an examination of differences and relationships among variables. In
view of this, ANOVA for tests of variance and t test to assess the significant differences was
employed. Pearson product moment correlations are applied for assessing the relationship among
the variables.
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Chapter 5
UNDERSTANDING WORK CULTURE
IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
An attempt is made to arrive at an understanding of work culture in
educational organizations. With the help of mean scores, standard
deviations and the calculations of WCX, a overall picture of work
culture in educational organizations is given. An attempt is made to give
brief summary on each of the major dimension of work culture like
assumptions. Variations in work culture in educational Organizations
based on the variations in individual factors like age of staff and
organization related factors like age of the organization are mentioned.
Major findings of the present study are given.
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Understanding Work Culture
in Educational Organizations
In previous chapter, a detailed explanation was given on the research strategy and also on the
process of developing the 98-item Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ) to measure various
dimensions of work culture under study. This chapter focuses on the analysis and interpretation of
data collected from the respondents and to arrive at an understanding of their pattern of work
culture.
5.1 SNOITAZINAGRO LANOITACUDE NI ERUTLUC KROW FO NRETTAP LLA REVO
To arrive at an understanding of overall pattern of work culture in educational organizations, mean
scores and. standard deviations were calculated for four major dimensions (assumptions, values,
orientations, and behaviours) and sub-dimensions of the work culture among the total sample (N =301). The results are given in table: 5.1
TABLE 5.1
MEAN SCORES SDS OF WORK CULTURE VARIABLES *
Sl. No. DIMENSIONSMin. Pos
ScoreMax. Pos
ScoreActual MeanScores & SD
Percentage
ASSUMPTIONS
1. Time orientation 2.00 50.00 13.03 (4.04) 26.06
2. System Salience 2.00 50.00 11.12 (3.48) 22.24
3. Locus of control 2.00 50.00 12.22 (3.67) 24.44
4. Reward orientation 2.00 50.00 13.28 (4.83) 26.56
VALUES
5. Work oriented values importance 7.00 28.00 22.25 (3.08) 79.46
6. Work oriented values chance 7.00 28-00 18.01 (3.62) 64.28
7. People oriented values importance 7.00 28.00 20.32 (3.22) 75.57
8. People oriented values chance 7.00 28.00 17.87 (3.65) 63.82
9. Self oriented values importance 7.00 28.00 21,44 (3,53) 76.57
10. Self oriented values chance 7.00 28.00 17.73 (3.63) 63.32
ORIENTATIONS
11. Task clarity 8.00 40.00 32.93 (4.75) 82.32
12 Task Focus 8.00 40.00 30.15 (4.46) 75.37
13 Self role integration 8.00 40.00 27.31 (3.53) 68.27
BEHAVIOURS
14 Work commitment 8.00 40.00 31.06 (4.91) 77.65
15. Performance satisfaction 6.00 30.00 21.00 (3.41) 70.00
*Details of the method of calculations are given in the previous chapter. (4.6.3)
From the mean scores and percentages of these scores against the maximum possible score for
each of the ension the following observations are made.
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5.1.1 Assumptions
Time orientation, reward orientation, system salience and locus of control were the components of
assumptions part of work culture, i.e. belief systems.
5.1.1.1 Time orientation
The mean score given in table 5.1 against time orientation ( ) may give an impression that
the staff working in educational organizations are future oriented. In fact, if the mean score at =
10.00 is the line deviating between the past and future orientations (if the scores for past and future
orientations are equal, if use formula of arriving at time orientation the scores stand at 10.00. The
details are given in the previous chapter while explaining the scoring method) and as = 13.03 is
just on the edge and only 26.06% of the maximum possible score. Thus, though apparently the
subjects appear to be future oriented, in reality this does not appear to be so. These subjects appear
to be more different from other sections of society in not been highly future oriented, if not largely
past oriented. This tendency seems to similar to other sections of society, as earlier researches
(Kanungo, 1994; Triandis, 1984) point out that across organizations Indians are oriented towards
past.
5.1.1.2 Reward orientation
Mean score of reward orientation are given in table 5.1 is also on the edge ( ) as against
the minimum possible score ( =10.00) and only 26.56% of the maximum possible score. Therefore
it may be interpreted that across educational organization, staff share an extrinsic reward
orientation. This means that in educational organizations people attribute more importance to the
extrinsic rewards such as salary, promotion than intrinsic rewards such as recognition.
5.1.1.3 System salience
Mean score of system salience given in table 5.1 is also on the edge ( ) as against the
minimum possible score ( ) against this dimension which is only 22.24% of the maximum
possible score ( ). Hence, it may be concluded that across educational organizations the
staff share an individual salience, i.e. an orientation of considering individual more important than the
system.
5.1.1.4 Locus of control
Mean score of locus of control as can be seen from table 5.1 is also on the edge ( ) as
against the minimum possible score ( ) which is only 24.44% of the maximum possible
score ( ) of this dimension. Thus it may be interpreted that the subjects share an external
locus of control orientation. i.e. believing that mechanisms external to one self control one's success
or failure.
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5.1.1.5 Summary
The mean scores of all the four dimensions representing assumptions show that staff working in
educational organizations share past time orientation, extrinsic reward orientation, and external
locus of control. The past research (Iraindis, 1983; Kanungo, 1990; Kanungo, Mishra and others,
1996) on these dimensions show that these three dimensions are interrelated and the results of this
study confirm this. The significant variation seems to be that of individual salience. According to the
mean scores of system salience, the staff working in educational organization seems to be sharing
individual salience. According to previous research on cultural variations, individualism is noticed in
industrial societies such as USA as these nations also share a Protestant work ethic and are future
oriented. Internals, and believe in intrinsic worth of work activities. Whereas according to the
findings of the present study, the staff working in educational organizations are individual salient in
spite of being past oriented, externals and extrinsic reward oriented. Pearson Product moment
correlation's were calculated to observe the inter relationship among these four dimensions. The
subjects appear to be futuristic oriented and intrinsically reward oriented, though not very high,
appears to be result of the Western oriented education system and perhaps even the social
desirability and stereotyped perceptions.
To observe the interrelationship among these four dimensions. Pearsons Product moment
correlations are calculated, and are given in Table 5.2
TABLE: 5.2
PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATIONS AMONG ASSUMPTIONS
Sl.No.
Dimensions Time Orientation System SalienceReward
OrientationLocus of Control
1. Time orientation 1.00
2. System Salience 0.09 1.00
3. Reward Orientation o.22*** 0.96 1.00
4. Locus of Control 0.16** 0.12* 0.15** 1.00
Significance Level: * = P
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culture in this study. Following is an overview of the pattern of these dimensions among the
subjects..
5.1.2.1 Work oriented values - Importance
The mean score given in table 5.1 for work oriented value importance ( ) as against
maximum possible score ( ) is 79.46%. Therefore it may be interpreted that importance
given to work oriented values such as utilizing knowledge and skills at work, doing innovative things
at work is high among the subjects.
5.1.2.2 Work oriented values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction
The mean score given in table 5.1 for work oriented values - perceived chance for importance
( ) as against maximum possible score ( ) is 64.28%. Therefore it may be
interpreted that perceived chance of fulfilling work-oriented values such as utilizing knowledge and
skills at work, doing innovative things at work is moderate among the subjects.
5.1.2.3 People Oriented Values - Importance
The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented value importance ( ) as against
maximum possible score ( ) is 72.57%. Therefore it may be interpreted that importance
given to people oriented values such as helping colleagues at work, being interested in maintaining
relationships with others while being at work high among the subjects.
5.1.2.4. People Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction
The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented values - perceived chance for satisfaction
( ) as against maximum possible score ( ) is 63.82%. Therefore it may be
interpreted that perceived chance of fulfilling people oriented values such as helping colleagues at
work, being interested in maintaining relationships with others while being at work is moderate
among the subjects.
5.1.2.5 Self Oriented Value - Importance
The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented value satisfaction ( ) as against
maximum possible score ( ) is 76.57%. Therefore it may be interpreted that importance
given to self-oriented values such as being independent at work, improving personally, and earning
recognition through work is high among the subjects.
5.1.2.6 Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction
The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented values - perceived chance for satisfaction
= 17.73) as against maximum possible score ( = 28.00) is 63.32%. Therefore it may be interpreted
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that perceived chance of fulfilling self-oriented values such as being independent at work, improving
personally, and earning recognition through work is moderate among the subjects.
5.1.2.7 Summary
Further to above analyses, following observations are made with regard to all the three categories of
work values in general. It appears that as reported by the subjects, the three types of values are of
equal importance, none of the three more important than the others. Further, it is interesting to
notice that the perceived chance of satisfaction for all the three types of values are also consistently
low. Thus, there appears to be a gap between the attributed importance and perceived chances of
satisfaction. Perhaps, to some extent there appears the degree of alienation generally reported
among the college staff and also our finding that the levels of self-role integration in the group rather
low.
TABLE 5.3
PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATIONS AMONG VALUES
Sl. NO. Dimensions 1 2 3
1. Work Oriented Values Importance 1.00
2. Self Oriented Values Importance 0.53*** 1.00
3. People Oriented Values - Importance 0.58*** 0.60*** 1.00
Significance Level: *= P
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5.1.3.2 Task Focus
From mean score given in table 5.1 of this dimension ( = 30.15) as against the maximum possible
score ( = 40.00) which is 75.37%, it may be interpreted that task focus is high among the subjects.
Thus, it may be interpreted that the subjects focus on to their tasks until they are completed.
5.1.3.3 Self-role Integration
From mean score of this dimension ( = 27.31) given in table 5.1 as against the maximum possible
score ( = 40.00) which is 68.27%, it may be interpreted that the subjects share a moderate
self-role integration, which means that the subjects do not see their skills and competencies being
totally utilized in their work roles and thus resulting in distance between the self and the role.
The expressed high task focus indicates a keenness to complete the task on hand and get rid of it .
The fact that there is very low level of self-role integration suggests such an interpretation. A low
level of self-role integration leads to a low level of involvement and consequently a low degree of
intrinsic motivation. The result being a felt need and almost urgency to complete the tasks. One
wonders, a concept of role emerges at all among these staff.
To understand the interrelationships among these three dimensions representing orientations,
Pearson product moment correlation's are calculated and are given in table SA .. A strong positive
co-relation was observed between all the three dimensions representing orientations of work
culture.
TABLE 5.4PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATIONS AMONG ORIENTATIONS
Sl.No. Dimensions Task Clarity Task FocusSelf-role
integration
1. Task clarity 1.00
2. Task focus 0.57*** 1.00
3. Self-role integration 0.44*** 0.37*** 1.00
Significance Level: *= P
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indicate that the subjects are willing to exert more than required effort in their work activities.
5.1.4.2 Performance Satisfaction
From mean scores of this dimension ( = 21.00) given in table 5.1 as against maximum possible
score ( = 30.00) which is 70%, it may be interpreted that performance satisfaction among the
subjects is hi