comunicare de specialitate in limba engleza

8/8/2019 Comunicare de Specialitate in Limba Engleza

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UNIVERSITATEA TITU MAIORESCU – BUCUREŞTI FACULTATEA DE INFORMATICĂ SPECIALIZAREA: INFORMATICĂ

COMUNICARE DE SPECIALITATE ÎN LIMBA ENGLEZĂ

Suportul de curs pentru anul I ID conţine:

I.

PROGRAME ANALITICE

II. CONŢINUT CURS

III. TEME DE CONTROL

IV.

BIBLIOGRAFIE


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I. PROGRAME ANALITICE

PROGRAMA ANALITICA

Denumirea

disciplinei

COMUNICARE DE SPECIALITATE ÎN LIMBA ENGLEZĂ

Codul disciplinei I.1.1.6 Semestrul 1 Numarul de credite 2

Facultatea Informatica Nr. ore pe sem/activitati

Profilul Informatica Total SI TC AT AA

Specializarea Informatica 14 0 10 4 0

Categoria formativa a disciplineiDF-fundamentala, DG-generala, DS-de specialitate, DE-economica/manageriala, DU-umanista DGCategoria de optionalitate a disciplinei: DI-impusa, DO-optionala, DL-liber aleasa (optionala) DI

Disciplineanterioare

Obligatorii (conditionate) -Recomandate -

Obiective 1.

Revizuirea cunoştinţelor lingvistice şi gramaticale de limbă engleză generală;2.

Asimilarea şi fixarea elementelor de limbaj specializat, tehnic;3. Exersarea celor patru abilităţi necesare pentru o comunicare fluentă în limba engleză :

citit (reading), vorbit (speaking), scris(writing) şi ascultat (listening);4.

Perfecţionarea capacităţii de prezentare orală a unui proiect de specialitate în limbaengleză.

Continut(descriptori)

1. The History of Computers2. Defining Computers. The Components of a Computer3. Categories of Computers

4. Examples of Computer Usage. Computer Applications In Society.

Forma de evaluare (E-examen, C-colocviu/test final, LP-lucrari de control) CStabilirea Notei finale(procentaje)

-raspunsurile la examen/ colocviu/ lucrari practice 60%-activitati aplicative 30%- teme de control 10%

Bibliografie 1. Boeckner, Keith; Brown, P. Charles, Oxford English for Computing , OxfordUniversity Press, 1997.2. Deaconu, Mădălina, English for IT , Bucureşti, Editura UTM, 2010. 3. Cornilescu, Alexandra, Iclezian-Dimitriu, Ioan, The Infinitive, Iaşi, EdituraInstitutul European, 2000.4. Esteras, Santiago Remacha, Infotech- English for Computer Users, CambridgeUniversity Press, 2004.

5. Glendinning, Eric H.; McEwan, John, Basic English for Computing , Revisedand Updated, Oxford University Press, 2002;6. Jones, Daniel, English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge University Press,1997.7. Lagoutte, François, 1000 de cuvinte-cheie în informatică, Bucureşti, EdituraCompania, 2003.8. Paidos, Constantin, English Grammar- Theory and Practice, Iaşi, EdituraPolirom, 2001.9. Thomson, A. J., Martinet, A. V., A Practical English Grammar , OxfordUniversity Press, 1997.

Coordonator de discplina Grad didactic, titlul, prenume, nume SemnaturaGârban Valentin Lector dr. Deaconu Mădălina


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PROGRAMA ANALITICA

Denumireadisciplinei

COMUNICARE DE SPECIALITATE N LIMBA ENGLEZĂ

Codul disciplinei I.1.2.6 Semestrul 2 Numarul de credite 2

Facultatea Informatica Nr. ore pe sem/activitati

Profilul Informatica Total SI TC AT AA

Specializarea Informatica 14 0 10 4 0

Categoria formativa a disciplineiDF-fundamentala, DG-generala, DS-de specialitate, DE-economica/manageriala, DU-umanista DGCategoria de optionalitate a disciplinei: DI-impusa, DO-optionala, DL-liber aleasa (optionala) DI

Disciplineanterioare

Obligatorii (conditionate) -Recomandate -

Obiective 1. Revizuirea cunoştinţelor lingvistice şi gramaticale de limbă engleză generală;2. Asimilarea şi fixarea elementelor de limbaj specializat, tehnic; 3. Exersarea celor patru abilităţi necesare pentru o comunicare fluentă în limba engleză :citit (reading), vorbit (speaking), scris(writing) şi ascultat (listening);4. Perfecţionarea capacităţii de prezentare orală a unui proiect de specialitate în lim baengleză.

Continut(descriptori)

1. Supercomputers.2. Data Representation3. Data, Information, Knowledge4. Physical Transmission Media: Cabling and Wireless Transmission Media

Forma de evaluare (E-examen, C-colocviu/test final, LP-lucrari de control) CStabilirea Notei finale(procentaje)

-raspunsurile la examen/ colocviu/ lucrari practice 60%-activitati aplicative 30%- teme de control 10%

Bibliografie 1. Boeckner, Keith; Brown, P. Charles, Oxford English for Computing , OxfordUniversity Press, 1997.2. Deaconu, Mădălina, English for IT , Bucureşti, Editura UTM, 2010. 3. Cornilescu, Alexandra, Iclezian-Dimitriu, Ioan, The Infinitive, Iaşi, EdituraInstitutul European, 2000.4. Esteras, Santiago Remacha, Infotech- English for Computer Users, CambridgeUniversity Press, 2004.5. Glendinning, Eric H.; McEwan, John, Basic English for Computing , Revisedand Updated, Oxford University Press, 2002;

6. Jones, Daniel, English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge University Press,1997.7. Lagoutte, François, 1000 de cuvinte-cheie în informatică, Bucureşti, EdituraCompania, 2003.8. Paidos, Constantin, English Grammar- Theory and Practice, Iaşi, EdituraPolirom, 2001.9. Thomson, A. J., Martinet, A. V., A Practical English Grammar , OxfordUniversity Press, 1997.10. Vlădoiu, Ion, Verbele modale ale limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Editura Antet,2004.

Coordonator de discplina Grad didactic, titlul, prenume, nume SemnaturaGârban Valentin Lector dr. Deaconu Mădălina


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II. CONŢINUT CURS

SEMESTRUL IThe History of Computers

The modern personal computer is not the brainchild of any one person – no single ―Eureka!‖heralded the beginning of its development. Instead its history is a tale of leaps, bounds andhold-ups stretching back five thousand years to the invention of the abacus in Mesopotamia.This brief history outlines some of the important people and events in the evolutionary

passage from wooden bead-counter to multimedia workstation.

1. The mechanical eraIn this age of microelectronics, computer components are not only powerful but also

incomprehensibly small – it‘s atoms, not inches, that count. But the forerunners of today‘scomputers were mechanical: they were made of cogs, shafts and sliders large enough to puttogether by hand, and were operated not by a keyboard and mouse but with dials and handles.

The earliest breakthroughs were made by the likes of Leonardo da Vinci, whodesigned a simple mechanical calculator in 1500, and William Oughtred, who in the early1600s came up with the slide rule, a handheld tool for speeding up arithmetic which was still

being used in schools three and a half centuries later. By the 1640s the French mathematicianBlaise Pascal had invented a machine capable of multiplication and division which was laterimproved by Gottfried Leibnitz, the same man who is credited with having laid down the

principles of binary – the number system using only 0s and 1s that is the fundamentallanguage spoken by all modern computers. The greatest achievements of the mechanical era,

though, came courtesy of the eccentric British mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage,whose inventions included the Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine of 1833. Thoughhe died before it could be constructed, the Analytical Engine could not only cope with thecomplex mathematics, but it could be programmed to deal with various types of problem andmake decisions based upon its own results – thus heralding the leap from calculator to ―real‖computer. Babbage‘s partner in crime was none other than Ada Byron – aka Lady Lovelace,the daughter of the poet Lord Byron – who is now sometimes described as the first evercomputer programmer.

2. Punch cards and vacuum tubesIt wasn‘t until the end of the nineteenth century that computers actually started to

prove themselves useful. Just before the 1890 census of the US government held a designcontest to find an efficient way of counting the records of its exploding population. It waswon by a German immigrant named Herman Hollerith, whose electric tabulating machineread data from paper punch cards, saving many years of manual counting and marking asignificant point at which computing became as much to do with data management as

performing calculation. Hollerith‘s Computing– Tabulating – Recording Company went fromstrength to strength, and in 1924 it merged with a rival to form International BusinessMachines – IBM – which grew into one of the most significant forces in computer design.

In the meantime the vacuum tube was being developed, from which a new generationof computers was to grow. The tubes did the same job as mechanical or electrical switches,

but they were capable of switching on and off thousands of times faster, facilitating a wholenew level of computing speed. This technology reached its zenith in machines designed on

both sides of the Atlantic during World War II. The British utilized it in their powerful code-


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breaking machine, Colossus, but more significant was the American ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), developed between 1943 and 1945 to calculate missiletrajectories. Containing nearly 17500 vacuum tubes, ENIAC was the first multitaskingcomputer, and it could add 5000 numbers or carry out fourteen ten-digit multiplication persecond – making him about a hundred times faster than its closest rival.

While ENIAC was still being built, its designers J. Presper Eckert and John V.Mauchly joined forces with another key figure, mathematician John von Neumann, to workon a new machine. What they came up with was EDVAC, the first computer to have a stored

program. This was a real breakthrough: instead of spending hours or even days turning knobsand pressing buttons to instruct a computer to carry out a particular task. The commandscould be written as numerical code and stored inside the machine. This made everythingmuch faster, but more significantly it paved the way for the programming languages of the1950s – which in turn led to the development of modern software.

3. Transistors and microchipsFor all its speed, ENIAC highlighted the shortcomings of vacuum tube technology: it

was 150 feet wide, weighed 30 tons, produced so much heat that it regularly burnt out andguzzled electricity in such quantities that the lights in the neighbouring towns dimmed eachtime it was switch on. These problems were soon to be overcome with the advent of thesilicon transistor, which was better that the vacuum tube at controlling the flow of electricitywhile being much smaller and generating considerably less heat. Transistors were invented

back in 1920s, but it wasn‘t until 1954 that reliable silicon model were manufacturedcommercially, bringing small, reliable and affordable computers a significant step closer.

The ensuing years saw the birth of the microchip or chip – a single piece of boardcontaining many transistors. As time went by, chips became increasingly powerful and evermore tiny until 1971 a company called Intel (Integrated Electronics) released their 4004 chip,the first microprocessor. The 4004 combined 2300 transistors and all the essential elementsof a computer on a single chip, and in the space of a few square inch provided roughly thesame computational power as the 17500 vacuum tubes of ENIAC. These developments,combined with great advances in programming languages and other breakthroughs such as theinvention of the floppy disk, made it possible to produce smaller and faster computers whichwere more flexible and less difficult to use.

4. Computers get personalDespite all these advances, computers remained in the realm of academics,

governments and big business, and it wasn‘t until 1975 that a vaguely personal c omputer – something that individuals could actually afford to buy – came onto the market. It arrived in

the form of the MITS Altair 8800, which shipped with an Intel processor and 256 bytes ofmemory, around one millionth of the amount found in a decent modern PC. And it wasn‘t justin the memory department that the Altair was lacking: it had neither a keyboard nor amonitor. Instructions were fed in by small switches and results displayed by a pattern of littlered lights – great for discos, but not a lot else.

But this was soon to change. In 1977 Stephen Jobs and Steve Wozniak produced theApple II, which, with its neat plastic case and video out socket (allowing you to use your TVas a monitor), was an instant success. While the Altair was primarily of interest to hobbyistand enthusiasts the Apple II was actually useful for business, and programs began to appearwhich could save hours of manual number – crunching – such as VisiCalc, the first everspreadsheet program.

During this time the price of components plummeted, and various bargain computersstarted appearing on the market. By the end of 1970s, a variety of machines were available for


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a few hundred dollars – like the Radio Shack TRS – 80, which became incredibly popular inhomes and schools.

5. The PC is bornThe next big turning point came in 1981, when IBM released their Personal

Computer – the IBM PC – which was the blueprint of the modern PC. Though the designwas strong, it was not just the computer that made IBM‘s new machine so popular: i t was thecompany‘s decision to tell the world, in near – complete detail, how the PC worked and how itwas built. IBM did this in the hope that other developers would produce extra pieces ofhardware that will be compatible with the PC – which they did. However it soon occurred tothese developers that they weren‘t limited to manufacturing add -ons; they could produce theirown versions of the whole machine and sell them cheaper. This was possible because IBMonly held a patent for the BIOS (basic input/output system), and because most of the internalcomponents of the PC had been bought off-the-shelf from other manufactures. Very sooncomputer companies everywhere where manufacturing their own copies of the IBM design:they could run all the same programs and data could easily be moved from one machine to the

next. These computers were collectively known as IBM – compatible PCs, but it wasn‘t long before PC became a generic term used to describe any computer based on IBM‘s original.

6. The rise of MicrosoftWhen IBM designed the PC they commissioned the young Micro-soft company (later

Microsoft) to provide the all important operating system or OS: the underlying software that bridges the gap between a computer and the application software running on it. It was calledMicro-soft Disk Operating System – MS-DOS – and though it had been developed for IBM,Microsoft shrewdly retained the copyright. As PC clones began to spring up everywhere,nearly all were installed with MS-DOS, and though Microsoft‘s founder Bill Gates didn‘tknow it at that time, this was soon to make him the world‘s richest man.

As time went by, it became increasingly difficult for new types of computer to get adecent foothold in the market. Inexpensive machines like the Commodore 64 were very

popular among home users, but any new system that set out to complete with the PC wasfaced with the problem of not being able to run all the software that had written for use withMS-DOS. Other PC operating systems were proposed by IBM and others, but they neverreally got off the ground or failed to gain the popularity of the Microsoft option. The MS-DOS PC still faced serious competition from established manufactures such as Apple,however, who introduced LISA and the Macintosh (the Mac) in 1983 and 1984 respectively.These were the first personal computers to use an operating system with a Graphic UserInterface (GUI), meaning that the user, instead of typing encrypted instructions into the

machine, could run programs and organize files by using a mouse to click on windows, iconsand dropdown menus.Soon afterwards, Microsoft released their own GUI operating system: a reworking of

MS-DOS called Windows. Many of the features were very similar to those of the Applesystem, and Apple promptly threatened to take Microsoft to court, claiming they had ripped oftheir design. In the end, Microsoft agreed to license certain elements of the Apple design toavoid court proceedings, and they managed to arrange it so that the features could be used inall future Microsoft programs. But when Windows 2.0 came out in 1987, Apple thoughtMicrosoft had overstepped the mark and this time actually took them to court for breach ofcopyright. Microsoft won the case, in part because of the previous licensing deal and in part

because many of the original ideas for the Apple system had originally been developed by

Xerox for non – personal computers. This made it easy for Gates and Co to say, ―Well, wemay not have invented it, but neither did you …‖


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7. And the rest is historyAs time went by, PCs and Macs held their ground as the most popular system, and

Windows – after the release of version 3.0 in 1990 – became the dominant PC operating

system. Machines designed for things that PCs and Macs didn‘t do very well continued toenjoy success: the Atari ST and Commodore Amiga, for example, were popular for gaminguntil the early 1990s. But with the rise of specific gaming stations such as those made byNintendo and the ever increasing versatility of the PC, computers such as these started falling

by the wayside, leaving a two-horse contest between Windows-driven PCs and Macs.And for the time being this situation seems unlikely to change. Once a company or

user has data and programs for one platform, switching to another can be a major – and potentially expensive – upheaval. Perhaps the next big shift will be a move towards freesoftware. A considerable number of people have already turned to Linux: they can get anoperating system and an ever-growing selection of high-quality applications that are both freeand legal.

As for the future of hardware, the tendency for ever-faster machines in ever-smaller boxes seems unlikely to lose pace. Who knows – a few years down the line the latest editionof this book may be sold as a thumbnail-size data chip to slip into your computer. We‘ll justhave to wait and see …

I. A. Answer the following questions:

1. Who is the inventor of the computer?2. What invention marks the beginning of computer‘s history? 3. Who were the forerunners of today‘s computers? 4. What are the earliest breakthroughs?5. Who laid down the principles of binary?6. Name the greatest achievements of the mechanical era.7. Who is considered to be the first computer programmer?8. When and on what occasion did computers prove to be useful for the first time?9. What can you say about vacuum tubes?10. What was ENIAC?11. What was EDVAC?12. What were the advantages of the silicon transistor over the vacuum tube?

13. When were transistors invented? What about the silicon ones?14. Define the microchip.15. When was the first microprocessor released and by whom?16. What was the first personal computer? What can you say about it?17. What can you say about Apple II?18. What was the name of the first spreadsheet program?19. What computer was popular in the 1970s?20. Enlarge upon IBM‘s 1981 Personal Computer. 21. Define IBM- compatible PCs.22. Whom did IBM commission to provide the OS? What was it called?23. What was MS-DOS PC‘s competition?

24. What were the first personal computers which used an OS with a GUI? What did thatmean?


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25. What was Microsoft‘s GUI? 26. Why did Apple take Microsoft to court? Who won?27. What is the dominant PC operating system?28. What seems to be the future trend for software? What about hardware?

B. Say whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F):1. EDVAC was the first computer that had a stored program.2. Bill Gates was the founder of IBM.3. IBM was created in 1924.4. Charles Babbage is called the first computer programmer.5. One can say that today‘s computer is the creation of several per sons along many years.6. MS-DOS was developed by IBM.7. ENIAC was a code-breaking machine.8. Computer was invented as early as 1500.9. Macs are more popular systems than PCs.

10. The first microprocessor was released in 1971 by Intel.

III. Match the following words with the correct definitions:

brainchild a space absolutely devoid of matter; to herald one who is ardently absorbed in an interest or pursuit; to leap a person that has many different skills;bound to center attention on; hold-up to put into code or cipher; abacus the point of the celestial sphere that is directly opposite the nadir and

vertically above the observer;bead to give notice of; to signal the approach of; forerunner deviating from an established or usual pattern or style; cog to express a threat against; shaft a product of one's creative effort; to slide to have enough money to buy or pay for something;dial to make a hole in something using a metal tool or other sharp object;handle an imperfection or lack that detracts from the whole; also : the quality or

state of being flawed or lacking; breakthrough an object (as a weapon) thrown or projected usually so as to strike

something at a distance;

eccentric leap, jump; the action of rebounding; achievement the short thick digit of the human hand that is analogous in position to the

big toe and differs from the other fingers in having only two phalanges,allowing greater freedom of movement, and being opposable to each ofthem;

to punch to spring free from or as if from the ground;vacuum a person who pursues an activity in their spare time for pleasure; census an instrument for performing calculations by sliding counters along rods or

in grooves; immigrant a person who comes to a country to take up permanent residence;

zenith the time during which something is delayed;missile characterized by keen awareness, sharp intelligence, and often a sense of


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the practical; knob one that precedes and indicates the approach of another; to highlight free from dirt and disorder; habitually clean and orderly; Eureka the handle of a tool or instrument; a commonly cylindrical bar used to

support rotating pieces or to transmit power or motion by rotation;

shortcoming a part that is designed especially to be grasped by the hand; to afford a small ball-shaped body; a small piece of material pierced for threading on

a string or wire (as in a rosary); neat to chew with a noisy crackling sound; hobbyist a usually complete enumeration of a population; enthusiast a tooth on the rim of a wheel or gear; to crunch exclamation attributed to Archimedes on discovering a method for

determining the purity of gold; shrewd a result gained by effort; to encrypt a rounded protuberance;

to threaten a face upon which some measurement is registered usually by means ofgraduations and a pointer; thumb a sudden advance especially in knowledge or technique; versatile to move smoothly along a surface.

IV. Give the synonyms of the following: eccentr ic, neat, encrypted, to punch, to herald,eccentr ic, knob, shor tcoming, enthusiast, shrewd.

V. Give the antonyms of the following: eccentr ic, vaguely, to dim, modern, useful , rival,

VI. Match the following words with the right definition according to the text:

to guzzlea) to drink; b) to produce; c) to consume; d) to improve;

to dima) to brighten; b) to reduce; c) to increase; d) to maximize;

advent

a) assessment; b) appearance; c) aspiration; d) assault;

ensuinga) preceding; b) luminous; c) ever-changing; d) following;

realma) kingdom; b) attention; c) domain; d) sight;

to plummeta) to rise; b) to drop; c) to change; d) to maintain;

blueprinta) spark; b) cause; c) incipit; d) design;


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underlyinga) amazing; b) genuine; c) basic; d) improved;

to rip off

a) to improve; b) to use; c) to comment upon; d) to steal;

to breacha) to break; b) to destroy; c) to diminish; d) to interrupt;

upheavala) success; b) disagreement; c) revolution; d) problem.

VII. Make sentences of your own with the following:

to stretch backto be operated by

to make a breakthrough

to come up with an idea

to be credited with

to lay down certain pri nciples

courtesy of

to cope with

to deal wi th

to prove useful

to hold a contest

to go fr om strength to strength

to merge with

to per form/ to carry out a calculation

in the meantime

to reach the zenith

to join for ces

to pave the way for (fi g.)

to overcome a problem

to bring something closer (fi g.)

despite all

to be shipped with somethingto be primari ly of interest to

to become popular

turni ng point

to be the blueprint of

in complete detail

to hold a patent f or something

to be off -the-shelf

to commission somebody to do something

to br idge a gap

to get a foothold in the market

to be faced with a problemto gain popular ity


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to face competition from

to take to court

to fal l by the wayside

to lose pace

a few years down the l ine

VIII. Choose from the following words to complete the text below. Pay attention thatsome forms of the words must be changed:

analog, foundations, model, to give way, limits, clerks, hypothetical, key, physicist, previous,

concepts, calculus, computational, to store, to perform, digit, continuous, to refer, to follow,

in accordance with, to state

Before the 1920s, computers (sometimes computors) wer e human … that performedcomputations. They were usually under the lead of a …. Many thousands of computers wereemployed in commerce, government, and research establishments. Most of these computerswere women, and they were known to have a degree in …. Some … astronomical calculationsfor calendars.

After the 1920s, the expression computing machine … to any machine that performedthe work of a human computer, especially those … effective methods of the Church-Turingthesis. The thesis … that a mathematical method is effective if it could be set out as a list ofinstructions able to be … by a human clerk with paper and pencil, for as long as necessary,and without ingenuity or insight.

Machines that computed with … values became known as the … kind. They usedmachinery that represented continuous numeric quantities, like the angle of a shaft rotation ordifference in electrical potential.

Digital machinery, in contrast to analog, were able to render a state of a numeric valueand store each individual …. Digital machinery used difference engines or relays before theinvention of faster memory devices.

The phrase computing machine gradually … , after the late 1940s, to just computer as

the onset of electronic digital machinery became common. These computers were able to perform the calculations that were performed by the … human clerks.

Since the values … by digital machines were not bound to physical properties likeanalog devices, a logical computer, based on digital equipment, was able to do anything thatcould be described "purely mechanical." The theoretical Turing Machine, created by AlanTuring, is a … device theorized in order to study the properties of such hardware.

From the time when … processes were performed by hu man clerks, the study ofcomputability began a science by being able to make evident which was not explicit intoordinary sense more immediate.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church-Turing_thesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church-Turing_thesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church-Turing_thesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church-Turing_thesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church-Turing_thesis


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The mathematical .. of modern computer science began to be laid by Kurt Gödel withhis incompleteness theorem (1931). In this theorem, he showed that there were … to whatcould be proved and disproved within a formal system. This led to work by Gödel and othersto define and describe these formal systems, including … such as mu-recursive functions andlambda-definable functions.

1936 was a … year for computer science. Alan Turing and Alonzo Churchindependently, and also together, introduced the formalization of an algorithm, with limits onwhat can be computed, and a "purely mechanical" … for computing.

IX. Translate into Romanian:

Webster's Dictionary defines "computer" as any programmable electronic device thatcan store, retrieve, and process data. The basic idea of computing develops in the 1200's whena Moslem cleric proposes solving problems with a series of written procedures.

As early as the 1640's mechanical calculators are manufactured for sale. Records existof earlier machines, but Blaise Pascal invents the first commercial calculator, a hand poweredadding machine. Although attempts to multiply mechanically were made by GottfriedLiebnitz in the 1670s the first true multiplying calculator appears in Germany shortly beforethe American Revolution.

In 1801 a Frenchman, Joseph-Marie Jacquard builds a loom that weaves by reading punched holes stored on small sheets of hardwood. These plates are then inserted into theloom which reads (retrieves) the pattern and creates (process) the weave. Powered by water,this "machine" came 140 years before the development of the modern computer.

Shortly after the first mass-produced calculator (1820), Charles Babbage begins hislifelong quest for a programmable machine. Although Babbage was a poor communicator andrecord-keeper, his difference engine is sufficiently developed by 1842 that Ada Lovelace usesit to mechanically translate a short written work. She is generally regarded as the first

programmer. Twelve years later George Boole, while professor of Mathematics at CorkUniversity, writes An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854), and is generallyrecognized as the father of computer science.

The 1890 census is tabulated on punch cards similar to the ones used 90 years earlier

to create weaves. Developed by Herman Hollerith of MIT, the system uses electric power(non-mechanical). The Hollerith Tabulating Company is a forerunner of today's IBM.

Just prior to the introduction of Hollerith's machine the first printing calculator isintroduced. In 1892 William Burroughs, a sickly ex-teller, introduces a commerciallysuccessful printing calculator. Although hand-powered, Burroughs quickly introduces anelectronic model.

In 1925, unaware of the work of Charles Babbage, Vannevar Bush of MIT builds amachine he calls the differential analyzer. Using a set of gears and shafts, much like Babbage,the machine can handle simple calculus problems, but accuracy is a problem.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6delhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theoremshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1931http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu-recursive_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu-recursive_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda-definable_functionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alonzo_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alonzo_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda-definable_functionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu-recursive_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1931http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theoremshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del


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The period from 1935 through 1952 gets murky with claims and counterclaims of whoinvents what and when. Part of the problem lies in the international situation that makes muchof the research secret. Other problems include poor record-keeping, deception and lack ofdefinition.

In 1935, Konrad Zuse, a German construction engineer, builds a mechanical calculatorto handle the math involved in his profession. Shortly after completion, Zuse starts on a programmable electronic device which he completes in 1938.

John Vincent Atanasoff begins work on a digital computer in 1936 in the basement ofthe Physics building on the campus of Iowa State. A graduate student, Clifford (John) Berryassists. The "ABC" is designed to solve linear equations common in physics. It displays someearly features of later computers including electronic calculations. He shows it to others in1939 and leaves the patent application with attorneys for the school when he leaves for a jobin Washington during World War II. Unimpressed, the school never files and ABC iscannibalized by students.

The Enigma, a complex mechanical encoder is used by the Germans and they believeit to be unbreakable. Several people involved, most notably Alan Turing, conceive machinesto handle the problem, but none are technically feasible. Turing proposes a "UniversalMachine" capable of "computing" any algorithm in 1937. That same year George Steblitzcreates his Model K(itchen), a conglomeration of otherwise useless and leftover material, tosolve complex calculations. He improves the design while working at Bell Labs and onSeptember 11, 1940, Steblitz uses a teletype machine at Dartmouth College in NewHampshire to transmit a problem to his Complex Number Calculator in New York andreceives the results. It is the first example of a network.

First in Poland, and later in Great Britain and the United States, the Enigma code is broken. Information gained by this shortens the war. To break the code, the British, led byTouring, build the Colossus Mark I. The existence of this machine is a closely guarded secretof the British Government until 1970. The United States Navy, aided to some extent by theBritish, builds a machine capable of breaking not only the German code but the Japanese codeas well. (http://goldenink.com/computersandnetworks.shtml)

X. Translate into English:

Deşi sistemele de calcul au o istorie bogată, majoritatea descoperirilor şi facilităţilorcare au condus la construirea PC-ului datează din ultimii 50 de ani.

În 1951, John Mauchly şi John Eckert construiesc primul calculator comercial -UNIVAC I. Acesta este prezentat la televiziunea naţională americană în ziua alegerilor din1952. Pe măsura primirii rezultatelor competiţiei prezidenţiale americane, salariaţii firmeiRemington Rand, producătoarea calculatorului UNIVAC I, introduceau rezultatele încalculatorul care era programat să anticipeze câştigătorul pe baza rezultatelor parţiale.UNIVAC a anticipat corect rezultatele şi astfel a câştigat imediat credibilitatea publicului american.

Începând cu UNIVAC şi alte calculatoare similare, dezvoltarea sistemelor decalcul

comerciale a cuprins patru etape distincte, numite generaţii. Astăzi ne aflăm la graniţa celeide-a cincea.


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Generaţia tuburilor cu vid (1942-1956)Calculatoarele din prima generaţie, cum a fost UNIVAC, prelucrau datele utilizând

tehnologiile tuburilor cu vid, experimentate pentru sistemele ABC, ENIAC şi EDVAC.Aceste calculatoare erau numite sisteme mainframe (cadrul principal), datorită scheletului de

metal utilizat pentru susţinerea tuburilor cu vid. Dacă s-ar utiliza şi astăzi tehnologia tuburilorcu vid, un sistem mainframe modern ar avea dimensiunile unui zgârie-nori.Stocarea datelor în calculatoarele din prima generaţie se realiza pe tamburi metalici.Programele stocate erau scrise în limbaj-maşină, adică în secvenţe de 0 şi 1 care

reflectau direct contribuţiile lui George Boole. Fiecare producător crea propriul său limbaj -maşină.

Către sfârşitul anului 1944, John von Neumann, membru al proiectului Manhattan carea creat bomba atomică şi consultant al multor lucrări ştiinţifice în timpul războiului, a vizat

proiectul ENIAC. În urma discuţiilor avute, von Neumann a conceput o tehnică de stocare a programelor şi a scris lucrarea ,,Prima schiţă raport despre EDVAC‘‘, care descria structuraunui calculator digital.

Calculatorul conceput de von Neumann conţinea cinci părţi: - o unitate de intrare asemănătoare unei tastaturi ce permitea introducerea informaţiilor

în calculator;- o zonă de memorie pentru stocarea programelor şi datelor; - o unitate aritmetică pentru efectuarea calculelor; - o unitate de control care realiza transferul instrucţiunilor programului şi a datelor

între memorie şi unitatea aritmetică; - un dispozitiv de ieşire, cum ar fi o imprimantă. Lucr area unui von Neumann a fost publicată pe scară largă şi a schimbat definitiv

modul de proiectare al calculatoarelor. (Aproape toate calculatoarele construite după ENIACau fost calculatoare von Neumann).

Grace Hopper, care a lucrat în anii 40 la calculatorul MARK, a realizat în 1952 primulcompilator- un program care traduce limbajul de programare în limbaj-maşină.Compilatoarele au schimbat modul de programare, permiţând programatorilor să introducănumere şi litere în locul secvenţelor de 0 şi 1.

Generaţia tranzistoarelor (1956-1963)În 1948, trei fizicieni ai laboratoarelor BELL au descoperit un nou tip de cristal numit

germaniu . Acesta nefiind un conducător de electricitate atât de bun ca oţelul sau cuprul, darmai bun decât alte materiale cum sunt sticla sau cauciucul, a fost denumit material

semiconductor .

A urmat descoperirea altor materiale semiconductoare, inclusiv siliciul, care erauconfecţionate din materii brute uşor de procurat- pietre sau nisip. Cercetătorii au descoperitcă, prin adăugarea altor materiale unui semiconductor (adică prin dopare), rezultă un materialcapabil să acţioneze ca un redresor sau amplificator electric. Acest material a primit numelede tranzistor şi era în măsură să înlocuiască tuburile cu vid.

Dimensiunile tranzistoarelor erau mult mai mici (cam a cincizecea parte dindimensiunea unui tub cu vid), dar furnizau mai multă energie şi erau mai rezistente decâtfragilele tuburi cu vid produse din sticlă.

Către sfârşitul deceniului, tranzistoarele au luat locul tuburilor cu vid din sistemele decalcul, televizoare, aparate de radio. Astfel, aplicaţiile care utilizau tranzistoare erau numite,,în stare solidă‘‘, întrucât tranzistoarele erau mai rezistente.


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Tehnologia ,,în stare solidă‘‘ a fost utilizată pentru construirea primelorsupercalculatoare, destinate gestionării unor cantităţi mari dedate şi efectuării unor calculerapide. În anul 1959, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) a creat minicalculatorul PDP-1.

În anii ‘60, calculatoarele mainframe din a doua generaţie, erau fabricate de companiicum ar fi: IBM, HONEYWELL şi SPERRZ-RAND, fiind utilizate pe scară largă în afaceri

importante.În cea de-a doua generaţie de calculatoare, îmbinarea între limbajele de programare denivel înalt cum ar fi COBOL şi FORTRAN şi conceptul de program stocat, inventat de von

Neumann, a dus la crearea unor sisteme de calcul de uz general, foarte flexibile. Un astfel de program putea fi încărcat rapid în memoria calculatorului (construit pe tranzistori), putea firulat uşor şi apoi înlocuit cu un alt program.

Generaţia circuitelor integrate (1964-1971)Tranzistoarele erau deja utilizate de aproximativ 12 ani, devenind mai complete şi mai

fiabile pe măsura perfecţionării procesului de fabricaţie.La sfârşitul anilor ‘50, tranzistoarele ajunseseră de dimensiuni foarte mici încât a

apărut ideea combinării acestora într -un singur dispozitiv. Astfel, în 1958, inginerul JackKilby a proiectat primul circuit integrat, care conţinea trei componente într -un singur moduldin siliciu de cuarţ.

În acelaşi timp, inginerul Jack Hoerni descoperă un mod de a fabrica tranzistoare plate, care au permis construirea unor modele de circuite integrate plate- cipuri pentrucalculatoare.

Perfecţionrea tehnologiilor a determinat includerea unui număr din ce în ce mai marede componente într-un chip. Astfel, dimensiunile calculatoarelor erau în continuă scădere, dar

preţul componentelor - în special al cipurilor, rămânea destul de ridicat. Un alt proces major al celei de-a treia generaţiei a fost crearea sistemelor de operare.

Acestea permiteau controlul instrucţiunilor de bază ale unui calculator, inclusiv deplasareainstrucţiunilor şi datelor între unitatea de prelucrare şi memorie, tipărirea şi citireainformaţiilor de pe disc.

Cu toate progresele înregistrate de tehnologia sistemelor de calcul, până lacalculatoarele personale modern, mai era încă un drum lung de străbătut.

Expresia magică a anilor ‘60 a fost time-sharing -ul. Datorită acestei tehnici,utilizatorii nu mai trebuiau să ,,stea la coadă‘‘ ca să lucreze la u n calculator; calculatorul,,trecea‘‘ de la un utilizator la altul, acordându -i fiecăruia câte un scurt interval de timp.Întrucât calculatoarele lucrează mai rapid decât oamenii, utilizatorii puteau lucra într -un ritmconstant fără să observe că sistemul ,,lucrase cu altcineva‘‘ în ultima zecime de secundă.

Un pas important al generaţiei a treia a fost făcut de inginerul Douglas Engelbart, care

a avut ideea ca sistemele de calcul să furnizeze datele de ieşire prin intermediul unordispozitive cu tuburi catodice similare televizoarelor (nu la imprimantă) şi care să permită înacelaşi timp utilizatorului să manipuleze imagini şi să introducă texte.

În anul 1968, Engelbart şi-a susţinut proiectul într -o conferinţă despre calculatoare, prezentând schema unui sistem care conţinea o tastatură şi un dispozitiv de indicare denumitmouse- confecţionat din lemn.

Doi ani mai târziu, în 1970, Douglas Engelbart a proiectat câteva interfeţe utilizator prevăzute cu mai multe ferestre (predecesoarele sistemului Windows) şi a implementat unsistem de poştă electronică bazat pe un sistem mainframe.

Cu toate acestea, marile companii de pe piaţa sistemelor de calcul - IBM, DEC,SPERRY- nu credeau încă în existenţa unei pieţe de desfacere pentru sistemele de calcul uşor

de utilizat şi orientate pe imagini.


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Generaţia circuitelor microminiaturizate (1971-)La începutul anilor ‘70, dimensiunile circuitelor integrate erau în continuă scădere. Tehnica integrării pe scară largă (LSI- large scale integration) a permis producătorilor

să includă sute de componente într -un singur chip. Această tehnică a fost înlocuită curând cuVLSI (integrare pe sacră foarte largă - very large scale integration), care permitea includerea a

sute de mii de componente într-un chip. Numărul componentelor dintr -un chip a ajuns deordinul milioanelor, prin utilizarea ULSI (integrare pe scară ultra largă). În anul 1970, o companie mică numită INTEL (în prezent cel mai mare producător de

cipuri din lume) a instalat toate componentele esenţiale ale unui sistem de ca lcul într-unsingur cip: microprocesorul.

Crearea microprocesorului a transformat în realitate viziunea lui Douglas Engelbart privind calculatoarele personale.

Primul microprocesor comercial a devenit disponibil în 1971. Cu toate acestea, primulcalculator personal comercial de succes, APLE II, a fost produs abia în 1976.

Generaţiile viitorului

Peste câţiva ani, se va învăţa despre cea de-a cincea ( şi poate a şasea şi a şaptea)generaţie de sisteme de calcul. În acest moment, în lumea întreagă sunt testat e tehnologiilenecesare celei de-a cincea generaţii.

Oamenii de ştiinţă lucrează la proiecte de inteligenţă artificială - programe decalculator capabile să gândească similar unei fiinţe umane. Acest proces poate dura ani mulţiîntrucât nimeni nu ştie cu exactitate cum funcţionează inteligenţa umană, iar programele deacest gen sunt dificil de creat.

Unele descoperiri preliminare sunt aplicate în sisteme expert (destinate bibliotecilor,luptei împotriva criminalităţii, îmbunătăţirii sănătăţii) şi într -un domeniu numit logica fuzzy (fuzzy= vag).

Un alt domeniu de cercetare implică modul de construire a calculatoarelor: arhitecturasistemelor de calcul. Calculatorul von Neumann conţinea un singur procesor, dar foarte mulţiingineri sunt de părere că următoarea generaţie va fi acea a calculatoarelor cu prelucrare

paralelă care utilizează mai multe microprocesoare, permiţând astfel creşterea vitezei şi aeficienţei.

Este foarte posibil ca procesoarele viitorului să fie fabricate folosind noi materiale. Înacest sens, atât în domeniul ingineriei electrice cât şi în cel al sistemelor de calcul, sedesfăşoară o competiţie strânsă privind crearea unui supraconductor viabil. Materialelesupraconductoare reprezintă semiconductori care opun mult mai puţină rezistenţă la t recereacurentului electric. O rezistenţă mai mică înseamnă mi puţină căldură degajată, o vitezăsporită şi o eficienţă superioară.

O altă componentă a tehnologiei din generaţia viitorului imediat este dispozitivul opticde stocare. Stocarea optică utilizează tehnologia laser pentru scrierea şi citirea informaţiilor.Dispozitivele cu laser au două avantaje: capacitate şi durabilitate. Compact -discurile utilizate

pentru stocare au o capacitate incredibilă şi pot conţine o cantitate de informaţii de mi i de orimai mare decât discurile magnetice de aceeaşi dimensiune. Laserul nu atinge, de fapt,suprafaţa discului, deci discurile optice sunt mai puţin fragile decât alte forme de stocare adatelor.

De fapt, discurile optice reprezintă numai începutul: deja a fost construit prototipulunui cub de stocare optica. Acesta poate conţine un volum de informaţii de sute de ori maimare decât cel al discurilor optice. (Găitănaru, Andrei, Calculatorul- mediu şi canal decomunicaţie, Bucureşti, Editura comunicare.ro, 2002, pp. 20-25)


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WORD FOCUS

I. Phrasal verbs = a verb + a particle (a preposition or an adverb)

Examples:

Verb Particle Meaning Example break down to become mentally or physically ill because of an unpleasant experience

After hearing the bad news,his cousin broke down.

call in to visit a place or person for a shorttime, usually while you are goingsomewhere else

While visiting London, wecalled in Sophia.

come off to happen successfully or as planned Congratulations! Your planhas come off !

cut down to eat or drink less of a particularthing, to diminish prices, etc.

They cut down the price for bread last year.

get over to begin to feel better after an

experience that has made you unhappy

My friend tries to get over

the argument she had withher boss.

give in yield, cease to resist You should never give in!go under to fail financially They are poor now because

their business went under.keep away to prevent someone/something from

doing somethingHis grandmother told us tokeep away from the fire.

look into to examine a situation, a problem I admit I have been rather busy lately, but I am goingto look into this matter till

is not too late.make for to go in the direction of a place When I met Tom, he wasmaking for home.

pass out to faint Seeing the snake, the oldwoman passed out.

pull over to drive a car to the side of the road I fell sick, pull over for amoment, please!

put up to build a structure My grandfather is busynow: he is pulling up awall.

run out to use all of something so that there is

none left

We ran out of sugar when

we had guests.set up to start a company They set up this company

when they were not married.take on to employ someone They took her on, though

she was not qualified forthat job.

turn out to happen in a particular way, to havea particular result

It turned out that they werewrong.

II. Mathematical operations, mathematical signs, root, fractional numbers, decimalnumbers.


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+ addition- subtractionx multiplication: division

√x the square root of x

the cube root of xthe fourth root of xthe sixth root of xthe ninth root of xfour over five (4 is the nominator; 5 is the denominator)

one third

seven - twenty-first;

1 one and three fourths (quarters)2 + 3 = 5 two plus three equals five5 – 3 = 2 five minus three equals two2 x 3 = 6 two multiplied by/by three equals six6 : 2 = 3 six divided by two equals three

= 16 four square is sixteenfour cube is sixty four

= 16 two to the fourth powerintegral of sixteen;

integral between limits x and y

x x less than yx x greater than yx y x equal to or less than yx y x equal to or greater than yx x not equal to yx x identical to yx x similar to yx x approximately equals y

sin x [sain‘ eks] cos x [‘kousain‘ eks] tan x tangent xf (x) function of x

AB AB parallel to CD0.003 oh/nought point 0030.25 oh point two five5.89 five point eight nine

20 twenty degrees thirty one minutesIII. Pay attention to the difference among: zero, nought, nil/love, oh:

Word: Usage: zero -temperatures;


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-linguistics;- to refer to somebody who is a nonentity;- in linguistics.

nought -in mathematics;-grades;

nil - in scores in team games;love - in tennis scores;oh -telephone numbers;

-years;-hours;

Expressions:-zero hour;-zero tolerance;-noughts and crosses

Exercises:

I. Fill in the blanks using the appropriate phrasal verbs given below. Note that someof them may not be used at all whereas there are cases when there can be used two

particles with the same verb.

back up; key in; log in (on); log off (out); hack into; pick up; print out; scroll up/ down; zoom

in/out

1. My friend is very slow at … data.

2.

When he goes abroad, he always … his e -mails from cyber cafés.3. If you want to see the details in pictures, you can ….4. It took her two hours to … her thesis.5. You should … when you leave the computer unattended.6. I was very upset when I realized that someone has … my computer.7. He … to the bottom of the page and then … to the top of it.8. You should … to this new website.9. You must find the … of the data you lost!

II. Give the verbs corresponding to the following nouns: addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division.

III. Give the nouns of the following adjectives: high, thick, long, wide, deep, broad .

IV. Read the following:12 + 25 = 37257 + 349 =60698 - 89 = 93576 – 473 =31033 x 7 = 2174 x 23 = 1702

58 : 2 = 2996 : 3 = 32


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= 3= 2.51=1,021

= 1,0184²= 16

= 729=50625= 32768

50 52123 34a bC Dsin 30 = 0.5cos 45 = 0. 7tan 45 = 10.348.7992.3456759

= 3

= 0.5

= 0.16

VI. Translate into English using mathematical operations and dimensions:

1. Dacă împarţi aceste numere vei obţine rezultatul corect.

2. Întâi aduni şi apoi scazi.

3. Ar trebui să măsori lungimea acestui fir.

4. Înălţimea acestui munte este de 4 000 de metri.

5. Adâncimea acestui lac este de 30 de metri.

6. Strada are o lăţime de 2 metri.

7. Grosimea sticlei este de 3 milimetri.

VII. Fill in the blanks with zero, nought, nil, love, oh as appropriate:


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1. The score was five to .. (5/0) and that was only due to Hagi.2. … is a mathematical element that when added to another number yields the same number.3. The noun ‘‘sheep‘‘ has a … plural.4. She was born in nineteen .. nine.(1909)

5. She told him he was an absolute … for her, which was not very nice.6. Her phone number is three seven … four two. (370 42)7. I told them to meet at thirteen … four. (13. 04)

VIII. Make sentences with the following and translate them into Romanian:- zero hour ;- zero tolerance;-noughts and crosses.


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Defining Computers. The Components of a Computer

Computers are everywhere: at work, at school, and at home. They are a primary meansof local and global communication for billions of people. Employees correspond with clients,students with classmates and teachers, and family with friends and other family members.

Through computers, society has instant access to information from around the globe.Local and national news, weather reports, spots scores, airlines schedules, telephonedirectories, maps and directions, job listings, credit reports, and countless forms ofeducational material always are accessible. From the computer, you can make a telephonecall, meet new friends, share photographs and videos, relate opinions, shop, book flights, filetaxes, or take a course.

In the workplace, employees use computers to create correspondence such as e-mailmessages, memos, and letters; calculate payroll; track inventory; generate invoices. Someapplications such as automotive design and weather forecasting use computers to performcomplex mathematical calculations. At school, teachers use computers to assist withclassroom instruction. Students use computers to complete assignments and research.

People also spend hours of leisure time using a computer. They play games, listen tomusic or radio broadcasts, watch or compose videos and movies, read books and magazines,share stories, research genealogy, retouch photographs, and plan vacations.

Many people believe that computers literacy is vital to success. Computer literacyinvolves having a knowledge and understanding of computers and their uses.

A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions storedin its own memory that can accept data, process the data according to specified rules, produceresults and store the results for future use.

Computers process data into information. Data is a collection of unprocessed items,which can include text, numbers, images, audio, and video. Information conveys meanings

and is useful to people.

The Components of a ComputerA. A computer contains many electric, electronic, and mechanical components known

as hardware. These components include input devices, output devices, a system unit, storagedevices, and communication devices.

An input device is any hardware component that allows you to enter data andinstructions into a computer. Six widely used input devices are the keyboard, mouse,microphone, scanner, digital camera and PC video camera (Figure 1-3).

A computer keyboard contains keys you press to enter data into the computer. Amouse is a small handheld device. With a mouse, you control movement of a small symbol on

the screen, called the pointer, and you make selections from the screen.A microphone allows a user to speak into the computer. A scanner converts printedmaterial (such as text and pictures) into a form the computer can use.

With a digital camera, you take pictures and then transfer the photographed images tothe computer or printer instead of storing the images on traditional film. A PC video camera isa digital video camera that allows users to create a movie or take still photographselectronically.

An output device is any hardware component that conveys information to one ormore people. Four commonly used output devices are a printer, a monitor, speakers, and a

portable media player.A printer produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper. A monitor

displays text, graphics, and videos on a screen. Speakers allow you to hear music voice, andother audio (sounds). You can transfer audio, video, and digital images from your computer to


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a portable media player, and then listen to the audio, watch the video, or view the images onthe media player.

The system unit is a case that contains electronic components of the computer that areused to process data. The circuitry of the system unit usually is part of or is connected to acircuit board called the motherboard.

Two main components on the motherboard are the processor and memory. The processor, also called the central processing unit (CPU), is the electronic component thatinterprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate the computer. Memory consists ofelectronic components that store instructions waiting to be executed and data needed by thoseinstructions. Most memory keeps data and instructions temporarily, which means its contentsare erased when the computer is shut off.

Storage holds data, instructions, and information for future use. For example,computers can store hundreds or millions of customer names and addresses. Storage holdsthese items permanently.

A computer keeps data, instructions, and information on storage media. Examples ofstorage media are USB flash drives, hard disks, CDs, DVDs, and memory cards. A storage

device records (writes) and/or retrieves (reads) items to and from storage media. Storagedevices often function as a source of input because they transfer items from storage tomemory.

A USB flash drive is a portable storage device that is small and lightweight enough to be transported on a keychain or in a pocket. The average USB flash drive can hold about 500million characters.

A hard disk provides much greater storage capacity than a USB flash drive. Theaverage hard disk can hold more than 250 billion characters. Hard disks are enclosed in anairtight, sealed case. Although some are portable, most are housed inside the system unit.Portable hard disks are either external or removable. An external hard disk is a separate, free-standing unit, whereas you insert and remove a removable hard disk from the computer or adevice connected to the computer.

A compact disc is a flat, round, portable metal disc with plastic coating. One type ofcompact disc is a CD-ROM, which can hold from 650 million to 1 billion characters. You canaccess a CD-ROM using most CD and DVD drives. Another type of compact disc is a DVD-ROM, which has enough storage capacity to store two full-length movies or 17 billioncharacters. To access a DVD-ROM, you need a DVD drive.

Some portable devices such as digital cameras use memory cards as the storage media.You can use a card reader/writer to transfer stored items, such as digital photographs, fromthe memory card to a computer or printer.

A communication device is a hardware component that enables a computer to send(transmit) and receive data, instructions and information to and from one or more computers.A widely used communications device is a modem.

Communications occur over cables, telephone lines, cellular radio networks, satellitesand other transmission media. Some transmission media, such as satellites and cellular radionetworks, are wireless, which means they have no physical lines or wires.

B. Software, also called a program, is a series of instructions that tells the computer what todo and how to do it.

You interact with a program through its user interface. Software today often has a

graphical user interface. With a graphical user interface (GUI pronounced gooey), youinteract with the software using text, graphics, and visual images such as icons. An icon is a


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miniature image that represents a program, an instruction, or some other object. You can usethe mouse to select icons that perform operations such as starting a program.

The two categories of software are system software and application software. Thefollowing sections describe these categories of software.

System software consists of the programs that control or maintain the operations of

the computer and its devices. System software serves as the interface between the user, theapplication software, and the computer‘s hardware. Two types of system software are theoperating system and utility programs.

OPERATING SYSTEM. An operating system is a set of programs that coordinates all theactivities among computer hardware devices. It provides a means for users to communicatewith the computer and other software. Many of today‘s computers use Windows XP or Vista,two of Microsoft‘s operating systems, or Mac OS X, Apple‘s operating system.

When a user starts a computer, portions of the operating system load into memoryfrom the computer‘s hard disk. It remains in memory while the computer is on.

UTILITY PROGRAM. A utility program allows a user to perform maintenance-type tasksusually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs. Most operating systemsinclude several utility programs for managing disk drives, printers, and other devices andmedia. You also can buy utility programs that allow you to perform additional computermanagement functions.

Application software consists of programs designed to make users more productiveand/or assist them with personal tasks. A widely used type of application software related tocommunications is a Web browser, which allows users with an Internet connection to accessand view Web pages. Other popular application software includes word processing software,spreadsheet software, database software, and presentation graphics software.

Many other types of application software exist that enable users to perform a variety oftasks. These include personal information management, note taking, project management,accounting, document management, computer-aided design, desktop publishing, paint/imageediting, audio and video editing, multimedia authoring, Web pages authoring, personalfinance, legal, tax preparation, home design/landscaping, education, reference, andentertainment (e.g., games or simulations).

Installing and Running ProgramsThe instructions in a program are stored on storage media such as a hard disk or

compact disc. When purchasing software from a computer store, you typically receive a box

that includes a CD(s) or DVD(s) that contains the program. You also may receive manual or printed instructions explaining how to install and use the software. Installing is the process of setting up software to work with the computer, printer, and

other hardware components. When you buy a computer, it usually has some software preinstalled on its hard disk. This enables you to use the computer the first time you turn it on.To begin installing additional software from a CD or DVD, insert the program disc in a CD orDVD drive. The computer then copies the program from the disc to the computer‘s hard disk.

Once software is installed, you can use or run it. When you instruct the computer torun an installed program, the computer loads it, which means the program is copied fromstorage to memory. Once in memory, the computer can carry out, or execute, the instructionsin the program.


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Software DevelopmentA programmer, sometimes called a developer, is someone who develops software or

writes the instructions that direct the computer to process data into information. Complex programs can require thousands to millions of instructions.

Programmers use a programming language or program development tool to create

computer programs. Popular programming languages include C++, Visual C#, Visual Basic,JavaScript, and Java.

Information Processing CycleComputers process data (input) into information (output). A computer often holds

data, information, and instructions in storage for future use. Instructions are the steps that tellthe computer how to perform a particular task. Some people refer to the series of input,

processes, output, and storage activities as the information processing cycle. Recently,communication also has become an essential element of the information processing cycle.

I.

A. Answer the following questions:

1. Are computers useful?2. Define computers.3. Make the distinction data-information.4. What is hardware?5. Define input devices. Give examples.6. Define output devices. Give examples.7. Define system unit.8. Define storage devices. Give examples.9. Define communication devices. Give examples.10. What is software?11. Make the distinction between system software and application software.12. Define operating system. Give examples.13. Define utility program.14. What is a Web browser?15. Give examples of application software.16. Name some tasks that that can be performed duet o application software.17. Define the process of installing.18. What is a programmer?19. Name some popular programming languages.

20. Define the information processing cycle.

B. Say whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F):

1. Web browser is a widely used type of system software.2. Windows XP is an operating system.3. Computer literacy is not essential in understanding computers.4. A computer contains many electric, electronic and mechanical components known as software.5. Three commonly used output devices are keyboard, a mouse and a microphone.6. Computers are mainly used in the workplace.

7. Data is synonymous with information.8. The mouse is also called pointer.


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9. The portable media player is an output device.10. The CD has a flat coating.

II. Match the following words with the correct definitions:

hardware an itemized list of goods shipped usually specifying the price andthe terms of sale;

software a non-volatile storage device for digital data; it features one or morerotating rigid platters on a motor-driven spindle within a metal case;data is encoded magnetically by read/write heads that float on acushion of air above the platters;

input a cathode-ray tube used for display (as of television pictures orcomputer information);

output of, relating to, or concerned with self-propelled vehicles ormachines;

key an electronic device, that reads 'cards'; pointer the central printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern computers

and holds many of the crucial components of the system, while providing connectors for other peripherals, sometimes alternativelyknown as the main board, system board;

microphone the system of recording and summarizing business and financialtransactions and analyzing, verifying, and reporting theresults;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountancy - cite_note-3

digital camera the entire set of programs, procedures, and related documentationassociated with a system and especially a computer system;

printer an inherited, established, or customary pattern of thought, action, or behavior (as a religious practice or a social custom); a belief orstory or a body of beliefs or stories relating to the past that arecommonly accepted as historical though not verifiable;

monitor a chain with a key ring attachedm used for holding keys;speaker an electronic flash memory data storage device used for storing

digital information, commonly used in many electronic devices,including digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, MP3

players, and video game consoles, being small, re-recordable, and being able to retain data without power;

system unit the physical components (as electronic and electrical devices) of an

apparatus (as a computer); motherboard the system that includes the circulation of money, the granting of

credit, the making of investments, and the provision of bankingfacilities;

processor a computer application that simulates a paper, accountingworksheet. displaying multiple cells that together make up a gridconsisting of rows and columns, each cell containing alphanumerictext, numeric values or formulas;

memory information fed into a data processing system or computer; storage a picture representing a view of natural inland scenery; hard disk a part to be depressed by a finger that serves as one unit of a

keyboard; CD-ROM a part of something;

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_plattershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spindle_%28computer%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountancy#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountancy#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountancy#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_consolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_applicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worksheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphanumerichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphanumerichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worksheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_applicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_consolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountancy#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spindle_%28computer%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_plattershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_storage


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DVD-ROM a piece of work that is given to someone as part of their job;memory cards the information produced by a computer; USB flashdrive

a list of all the things in a place;

card reader a camera that takes video or still photographs, or both, digitally by

recording images via an electronic image sensor; card writer a software application for retrieving, presenting, and traversing

information resources on the World Wide Web; interface the small symbol, usually an arrow, that you move using a

computer`s mouse to point to the place on the screen where youwant to work, start a program;

Web browser the part of a computer where information can be stored; the amountof space that can be used for storing information on a computer;

traditional a device that produces printout; portion a point of interaction between the components of a computer, and is

applicable at the level of both hardware and software, allowing acomponent to function independently; it may refer to the means ofcommunication between the computer and the user by means of

peripheral devices such a monitor or a keyboard; spreadsheet an instrument whereby sound waves are caused to generate or

modulate an electric current usually for the purpose of transmittingor recording sound (as speech or music);

accounting an electronic device, that writes 'cards'; finance the part of a sound system where the sound comes from;landscape consists of a flash memory data storage device integrated with a

USB (Universal Serial Bus) 1.1 or 2.0 interface; is typically

removable and rewritable, and physically much smaller than afloppy disk; assignment the main unit of a personal computer, typically consisting of a metal

or plastic enclosure containing the motherboard, power supply, cooling fans, internal disk drives, and the memory modules andexpansion cards that are plugged into the motherboard, such asvideo and network cards;

invoice an optical disc storage media format, invented and developed byPhilips, Sony, Toshiba, and Time Warner in 1995; its main uses arevideo and data storage; are of the same dimensions as compact discs(CDs), but are capable of storing more than six times as much data;

inventory the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions ofa computer program, and is the primary element carrying out thecomputer's functions;

automotive computer components and recording media that retain digital dataused for computing for some interval of time; provides one of thecore functions of the modern computer, that of informationretention.

keychain a pre-pressed compact disc that contains data accessible to, but notwritable by, a computer for data storage and music playback.

I I I .

Give the synonyms of the following: to buy, box, to in terpr et, to carr y out,

port ion, pr ogrammer, many, vital , sealed, to convert, to store, screen

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_applicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Webhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_monitorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_%28computing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USBhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_1.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_2.0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_diskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_casehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_casehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supplyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_fanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_cardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_cardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_cardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_dischttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshibahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Warnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_%28computing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_dischttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_dischttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_%28computing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Warnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshibahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_dischttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_cardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_cardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_cardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_fanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supplyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_casehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_casehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_diskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_2.0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_1.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USBhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_%28computing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_monitorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Webhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_applicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera


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I V. Give the antonyms of the following: processed, shut off , temporar il y, portable

(computer), sometimes, input, to press, to connect, f lat, to maintain .

V. Match the following words with the right definition according to the text:

meansa) ways out; b) way-sides; c) ways; d) way-lays;

payrolla) wads; b) wage-packets; c) wagers; d) wages;

leisurea) tranquillity; b) free; c) serene; d) serendipity;

literacya) knowledge; b) understanding; c) books; d) readings;

to conveya) to communicate; b) to conceal; c) to conceive; d) to conceptualize;

retrivea) to redeem; b) to recuperate; c) to rectify; d) to redistribute;

lightweighta)

light; b) lighted; c) lighter; d) lighten;

averagea) avowed; b) common; c) compliant; d) available;

to providea) to supplement; b) to supersede; c) supply; d) to supervene.

VI. Make sentences of your own with the following:

to run a programto perf orm a calculation

to enter data in to a computer

to retouch a photograph

to shar e photogr aphs/videos

to carr y out an instruction

to access a Web page

to relate opini ons

to book a fl ight

to take a course

to f il e taxes

to calculate payrollto track inventory


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to generate invoices

to complete assignments

to be under the control of

to make a phone call

to make a selection

to be housed inside smth.

VII. Choose from the following words to complete the text below. Pay attentionthat some forms of the words must be changed:

profit, to print, websites, line, deceptively, to increase, to check, to order, secure (adj.), to

research, to look into, to ripe off, to place, reviews, lowest, simply, reputations, product, to

prevent, deceptive, shipping, vendors.

When it comes to wisely shopping for computer equipment, there are some techniques that

will … your chance that your purchase will have the following characteristics:

1. You will get a good price.2. You will get a good product.3. You will get what you expected when you… .4. You will get the order when you expect it.5. You will not get… .

Shopping Steps 1. … the product you want to buy. Read the … at on-line magazines such aszdnet.com. Also computer gaming … may review sound cards and video cards. Anothertechnique to find reviews is … to go to a search engine or a super search engine and searchfor reviews on the … you are looking into buying. For instance go to mamma.com and searchfor "asus video card reviews". 2. Be aware of somewhat … pricing. This refers to the fact thatvarious … charge a wide variety of amounts for…, even when you are buying product ofsimilar weight and cost. This is because some vendors build some of their … into shippingcosts. This should not … you from purchasing from a particular vendor, but if you are awareof it, you will know what you are paying. This pricing policy will make the vendor show upwith a … lower price on a price search engine. 3. Use price search engines to find the vendorswith … price. 4. Use web sites that compile customer ratings on vendors to tell what vendorshave good… . 5. When you … your order:

-Be sure your order is placed using a … server so no one can steal your private information.-Always use your credit card such as Master Card or Visa. This is another … of protection

between yourself and the vendor. If you have trouble such as not receiving the product butstill being billed for it, they can … the problem.

-… shipping costs before finishing your order.

-… a copy of your order and get and print your order number.


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VIII. Translate into Romanian:

Advantages and disadvantages of using computersSociety has reaped many benefits from using computers. Both business and home users

can make well-informed decisions because they have instant access to information fromanywhere in the world. A user is anyone who communicates with a computer or utilises theinformation it generates. Students, another type of user, have more tools to assist them in thelearning process.

The benefits of computers are possible because computers have the advantages of speed,reliability, consistency, storage, and communications.

Speed: When data, instructions, and information flow along electronic circuits in acomputer, they travel at incredibly fast speeds. Many computers process billions ortrillions of operations in a single second. Reliability: The electronic components in modern computers are dependable andreliable because they rarely break or fail.Consistency: Given the same input and processes, a computer will produce the sameresults – consistently. Computers generate error-free results, provided the input iscorrect and the instructions work.Storage: Computers store enormous amounts of data and make this data available for

processing anytime it is needed.Communications: Most computers today can communicate with other computers,often wirelessly. Computers allow users to communicate with one another.

Some disadvantages of computers relate to the violation of privacy, public safety, and theimpact on the labour force, health risks, and the impact on the environment.

Violation of Privacy: In many instances, where personal and confidential records

were not properly protected, individuals have found their privacy violated and theiridentities stolen.Impact on Labour Force: Although computers have improved productivity andcreated an entire industry with hundreds of thousands of new jobs, the skills ofmillions of employees have been replaced by computers. Thus, it is crucial thatworkers keep their education up-to-date. A separate impact on the labour force is thatsome companies are outsourcing jobs to foreign countries instead of keeping theirhomeland labour force employed.Health Risks: Prologue or improper computer use can lead to health injuries ordisorders. Computer users can protect themselves from health risks through properworkplace design, good posture while at the computer, and appropriately spaced work

breaks. Another health risk, called computer addiction, occurs when someone becomesobsessed with using the computer.Impact on Environment: Computer manufacturing processes and computer waste aredepleting natural resources and polluting the environment. Strategies that can help

protect the environment include recycling, regulating manufacturing processes,extending the life of computers, and immediately donating replaced computers.

IX. Translate into English:

Calculatoarele digitale sunt echipamente complexe care conţin milioane de componenteelectronice elementare. Un calculator digital reprezintă un sistem ierarhic, format din câtevasubsistme ca interacţionează până la subsistemul cel mai de jos al componentelor electronice.


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Având în vedere numărul foarte mare de entităţi, numite la ora actuală calculator, şi proprietăţile foarte diferite ale acestora, este practic imposibil să se formuleze o definiţie unică aacestei noţiuni. Potrivit diferitelor puncte de vedere se pot da diferite definiţii ale unuicalculator numeric sau digital.

Definiţia nr. 1: Un calculator digital (numeric) este un sistem destinat automatizării

calculelor informaţiei discrete în conformitate cu anumiţi algoritmi. Definiţia nr. 2: Un calculator digital este o reuniune între ansamblul de echipamente fizicecare constituie hardware-ul, ansamblul de microprograme care constituie firmware-ul şiansamblul de programe care constituie software-ul, ce permite prelucrarea logică şi aritmetică ainformaţiei discrete la o viteză foarte mare (de ordinul milioanelor de operaţii pe secundă) înconformitate cu algoritmii daţi.

Definiţia nr. 3: Un calculator digital este un automat finit, deci un sistem cu stare finităcare prelucrează cu o viteză foarte mare informaţia discretă în conformitate cu algoritmiiimpuşi.

Din definiţiile anterioare se pot desprinde câteva trăsături comune specifice tuturorcalculatoarelor:

1. Informaţia este discretă, datele sunt numerice. 2. Prelucrările sunt complet automatizate. 3. Prelucrarea se face în conformitate cu algoritmii impuşi. 4. Viteza de prelucrare este foarte mare.5. Natura prelucrărilor este aritmetică şi logică. Termenul de calculator digital sau numeric este foarte larg, de la microcalculatoarele pe

un singur cip la supercalculatoare. Diferenţele între diferite calculatoare este dată de mărime preţ, performanţă, domeniul de aplicabilitate şi organizare.(http://www.cs.ucv.ro/staff/dmancas/AC/Curs4_ConcepteAC.pdf)

Word Focus

I. Phrasal verb ‘‘to lay‘‘

Meaning Examplesto lay aside 1.to stop using something and put it

down;2.to cease behaving in a certain way;3.to save money.

1. My grandmother la

comunicare de specialitate in limba engleza

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