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INTRODUCERE
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Revoluţia calculatoarelor
• a treia revolutie - dupa cea agricola si industriala
• din 1985 - o dezvoltare accentuata a calculatoarelor
• reducerea costului calculatoarelor aplicatiile
calculatoarelor se multiplica
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Revoluţia calculatoarelor
• ATM –automatic teller machines
• Computere de bord (în automobile)
• Laptopuri
• DNA
• World Wide Web
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Clase de aplicaţii ale calculatoarelor
• Calculatoare personale– utilizate de o persoana
– au doar 30 de ani vechime
• Servere– ruleaza programe complexe pentru utilizatori multipli
– accesate prin retea
– low-end server <-> supercomputers
• Calculatoarele integrate– cel mai larg domeniu de aplicatii si performanta
– microprocesoarele din masinile de spalat, masini, telefoane
mobile, televizoare digitale, avioane, vapoare
– cost mic <-> toleranta mica la erori
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Evoluţia vânzărilor de calculatoare
( Patterson&Hennessy, Computer organization design: the hardware/software interface, Elsevier 2005)
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Evoluţia vânzărilor de microprocesoare
( Patterson&Hennessy, Computer organization design: the hardware/software interface, Elsevier 2005)
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Performanţa programului
Componenta hardware
sau software
Cum afectează această componentă
performanţa
Algoritmul Determină atât numărul de instrucţiuni sursă cât şi
numărul operaţiilor de I/E executate
Limbajul de programare,
compilatorul şi arhitectura
Determină numărul de instrucţiuni maşină pentru
fiecare instrucţiune sursă
Procesorul şi sistemul de
memorie
Determină cât de repede pot fi executate
instrucţiunile
Sistemul de I/E (hardware-ul
şi sistemul de operare)
Determină cât de repede pot fi executate
instrucţiunile de I/E
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Legatura hardware-software
• hardware
• softul sistemelor
– sistemul de operare
– compilator
• aplicaţii
Hard-
ware
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Limbaj de nivel înalt limbaj maşinăswap (int v[], int k){int temp;temp = v[k];v[k] = v[k+1];v[k+1] = temp;
}
Program in limbaj de nivel inalt (in C)
000000001010000100000000000110000000000000011000000110000010000110001100011000100000000000000000 program in10001100111100100000000000000100 limbaj masina10101100111100100000000000000000 (pentru MIPS)1010110001100010000000000000010000000011111000000000000000001000
muli $2, $5, 4add $2, $4, $2lw $15, 0($2)lw $16, 4($2)sw $16, 0($2)sw $15, 4($2)jr $31
Program in limbaj de asamblare (pentru MIPS)
compilator
asamblor
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Anatomia calculatorului
Cinci componente clasice:
– intrare
– iesire
– memorie
– control
– calea datelor
(UAL, registri,
magistralele)
procesor
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Computerul personal
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Dispozitive clasice de intrare
Prototipul din 1967 Doug
EngelbartPrimul mouse utilizat in 1973
• tastatura
• mouse-ul –din 1990 devine indispensabil
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Mouse-ul electromecanic (cu bila)
1.bila
2.role X si Y
3.discuri de codare optice
4.LED-uri
5.senzori pt. pulsurile de lumina
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Mouse-ul optic
• LED
• camera de luat vederi
alb-negru (1512 cadre/s,
18 x 18 pixeli)
• procesor optic simplu
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Dispozitive clasice de iesire
• Monitorul
– imaginea
colectie de pixeli matrice
320 x 200 pixeli 3840 x 2400 pixeli (in 2005)
1 bit/pixel (alb-negru) 24 bits/pixel (milioane
de culori – masca RGB)
– frame buffer -
stocheaza harta
bitilor (bit map)
frame buffer ecranul
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Monitor CRT (cathode ray tube)
flux de electroni
30-75 imagini
(frame-uri)/s
Tun electronic
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Monitor color CRT (cathode ray tube)
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LCD (liquid crystal display)
• polimer lichid intre doua ecrane, polarizate la 90 - nu
lasa sa strabata lumina
• matrice activa – comutator tranzistor pt. fiecare pixel
Molecule spiralateLCD alfanumeric cu doua
linii a cate 16 caractere
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LCD (liquid crystal display)
Polarizarea liniara, circulara si eliptica
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Componentele unitatii centrale
Sursa de
alimentare
Placa de baza
Ventilator
Unitate de
DVD
Unitatea
ZIP
Hard drive
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Placa de baza
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Clasificarea memoriei
• Primara
• Secundara
• RAM – DRAM (dynamic random access memory)
- pe baza de condensatori
• Cache –SRAM (static random access memory)
- mai rapida, dar mai putin densa -> mai scumpa
• volatila - RAM
• nevolatila – ROM, harddrive, CD, DVD, ZIP
• De citire/scriere
• Numai de citire
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Memoria RAM
DIP 16-pini (Dual Inline Package )
SIPP
SIMM 30-pini
SIMM 72-pini
DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module)
DDR DIMM (Double Data Rate DRAM )
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Inserarea placilor
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Hard disk-ul
• set de discuri
• diametrul de 1-3.5”
• 5400 – 15 000 rot/min
• cap de citire (o bobina)
• acces lent 5-15 ms (fata de 40-80 ns la
DRAM) <- partii mecanice
• nevolatil <- magnetice
• ieftin <- capacitate mare (80-500GB) si
pret moderat
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Hard disk-ul
Western Digital WD400
3.5" hard diskHard disk fara capac
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Capul de citire al hard disk-ului
Cap de citire/scriereMicrofotografie a capului de
citire/scriere (0.3 * 1.2 mm)
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Hard disk-ul “antic”
Hard disk IBM 300
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CD-uri
• apar in 1988 –Philips & Sony
• 1,2 mm grosime si 120 mm sau 80 mm diametrul
• viteza de citire de 1,2-1,4 m/s (500 rpm->200 rpm)
• 650 MB (74 min)/790 MB(90 min)/870 MB(99 min)
• nestandardizate dar foarte raspandite 700 MB (80 min)
• cel mai mare producator = Taiwan-ul (70% in 2003)
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CD-uri (2)
• pelicula de:
– cianina – verde, albastru deschis – instabila chimic
– Azo – albastra – stabila chimic – zeci de ani durata de viata
– ftalocianina – argintie, aurie,verde deschis – sute de ani
• laser infrarosu – =780 nm
• inregistrare in mod spiralat prin arderea unor puncte pe
suprafata discului ~ 1µm
• citirea se face pe baza reflexiei suprafetei respective
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DVD-ul
• apar in 1996 in Japonia
• laser rosu – =650 nm
• DVD-5: o fata, un singur strat, 4.7 GB
• DVD-9: o fata, doua straturi, 8.5 GB
• DVD-10: doua fete, un singur strat, 9.4 GB
• DVD-14: doua fete, pe o fata doua straturi pe cealalta un singur strat, 13.3 GB
• DVD-18: doua fete, doua straturi, 17.1 GB
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DVD-ul (2)
• laser rosu – =650 nm
• doua straturi – L0 si L1
• inregistrarea se face pe L0 si
apoi pe L1
• raza laser focalizeaza stratul
citit
• DVD-RW si DVD+RW au
pelicula din aliaj metalic
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Blu-ray disc (BD)
• raza laser albastra– =405 nm
• puncte mai mici pe suprafata discului
Dimensiuni Un singur strat Doua straturi
120mm 23.3/25/27 GB 46.6/50/54 GB
80 mm 7.8 GB 15.6 GB
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Procesorul
• numit si UCP
• contine calea datelor si
partea de control
Microfotografie Pentium 4( Patterson&Hennessy, Elsevier 2005)
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Istoria microprocesorului
• 1970 –Garrett- primul calculator digital (in F-14 Tomcat)
• Sep.1971- TI- TMS1000- un calculator pe un chip
• Nov.1971- Intel- 4004- 4 biti
• Apr.1972- Intel-8008 – 8 biti -> 8080
• 16 biti – Intel 80186, 80286
• 1979 – 32 biti - MC68000 – cel mai cunoscut procesor
• 1985 - 32 biti – Intel 80386
• Microprocesorul pe 64 biti (pe un chip) -la inceputul anilor 2000
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RISC - reduced instruction set computer
• codare uniforma a instructiunilor
• set de registre omogene
• mod de adresare simplu
• cateva tipuri de date suportate de
hardware
• ex. MIPS, SPARC, POWER,
ARM
• nucleul P6 (PentiumPro) masina
RISC care emuleaza o arhitectura
CISC (Complex Instruction Set
Computer)
Intel 80386DX2
Sun Ultra SPARC II
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Tehnologii de producere a procesoarelor
Anul Tehnologia utilizata in calculatoare Performanta
/costul unitatii
1951 Lampi cu vid 1
1965 Tranzistor 35
1975 Circuit integrat 900
1995 VLSI – very large scale integrated circuit 2 400 000
2005 UVLSI – ultra very large scale integrated
circuit
6 200 000 000
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Procesul de fabricare a chip-urilor
( Patterson&Hennessy, Elsevier 2005)
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Wafer
( Patterson&Hennessy, Elsevier 2005)
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Energia consumata de microprocesoare
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Racirea microprocesorului
Un Pentium 4 montat pe blocul de racire( Patterson&Hennessy, Elsevier 2005)
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Ventilatoare
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Comunicarea cu alte calculatoare
• Retele de calculatoare – scheletul sistemului de
calculatoare actual
• Avantaje :
– schimbul de informatii
– partajarea resurselor
– acces la distanta
• Retele locale (LAN)
• Retele globale (WAN)