comitetul de coordonare - amazon s3s3.amazonaws.com/zanran_storage/extensii.ubbcluj... · german...

Comitetul de coordonare: Prof.univ.dr. Andrei Marga, Rectorul Universităţii “Babeş-Bolyai” Cluj-Napoca Prof.univ.dr. Pompei Cocean, Prorector al Universităţii “Babeş-Bolyai” Cluj-Napoca Conf.univ.dr. Cristina Ciumaş, Prorector al Universităţii “Babeş-Bolyai” Cluj-Napoca Prof.univ.dr. Ştefan Szamoskozi Prorector al Universităţii “Babeş-Bolyai” Cluj-Napoca Prof.univ.dr.Dănuţ Petrea Decanul Facultăţii de Geografie Prof.univ.dr. Dumitru Matiş Decanul Facultăţii de Ştiinţe Economice şi Gestiunea Afacerilor Prof.univ.dr. Călin Felezeu Decanul Facultăţii de Psihologie şi Ştiinţe ale Educaţiei Conf.univ.dr. Nicolae Boar Directorul Extensiunii Sighetu Marmaţiei Prof. Sandu Pocol, Prefectul Judeţului Maramureş Prof. Eugenia Godja, Primarul Municipiului Sighetu Marmaţiei

Comitetul de organizare: Conf.univ.dr. Nicolae Boar, E-mail: [email protected] Conf.univ.dr. Marin Ilieş, E-mail: [email protected] Conf.univ.dr. Gabriela Ilieş, E-mail: [email protected] Lect.univ.dr. Nela Şteliac, E-mail: [email protected] Lect.univ.dr. Mihai Hotea, E-mail: [email protected] Prof.asoc.drd. Viorel Dragoş, E-mail: [email protected]

Secretariat: Asist.univ.drd. Alina Simion, E-mail: [email protected] Asist.univ.drd. Diana Moisuc, E-mail: [email protected] Secretară: Iuliana Lihet, E-mail: [email protected] Secretar: Sorin Kosinszki, E-mail: [email protected] Referent: Alexandra Orza: E-mail: [email protected]

UNIVERSITATEA “BABEŞ-BOLYAI” CLUJ-NAPOCA

Facultatea de Ştiinţe Economice şi Gestiunea Afacerilor

EXTENSIUNEA SIGHETU MARMAŢIEI

Conferinţa Internaţională

DEZVOLTARE ŞI INTEGRARE EUROPEANĂ

SECŢIUNEA B Dezvoltare economică în contextul integrării europene

SIGHETU MARMAŢIEI Maramureş-România 16-17 octombrie 2009

Manifestare ştiinţifică organizată sub egida “UBB 90”

Presa Universitară Clujeană 2010

ISSN 2069 – 024X

© 2010 Autorii volumului. Toate drepturile rezervate. Reproducerea integrală sau parţială a textului, prin orice mijloace, fără acordul autorilor, este interzisă şi se pedep-seşte conform legii. Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai Presa Universitară Clujeană Director: Codruţa Săcelean Str. Hasdeu nr. 51 400371 Cluj-Napoca, România Tel./fax: (+40)-264-597.401 E-mail: [email protected] http://www.editura.ubbcluj.ro/

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Cuprins

Communication forms in the business / Avram Laurenţia Georgeta .... 8

The Local Development Strategy from the Economic Perspective – Evaluative Study for Cudalbi Commune, Galati Department / Florina Balcu...................................................................................... 17

Stadiul actual al comunicării rezultatelor financiare la nivelul grupurilor din România / Florina Balcu .......................................... 31

The ethics of management of the non-reimbursable funds by the romanian SME’s / Diana Bălin, Aura-Mihaela Ioniţă .......... 43

Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară (IFRS) şi criza financiară / Boghean Cristina Iuliana ................................... 55

Analysis of the foreign direct investment (FDI) in Romania after EU accession / Braga Viorica, Mirea Gabriel ........................... 64

Audit evidences – Essential elements of the internal audit when respecting the international internal audit standards / George Calotă ........................................................................................ 74

Theoretical and practical aspects to the usage of internal control questionnaires / George Calotă, Traian Iana ..................................... 86

Non-intellectual intelligences in the change management / Daiana Curtean, Monica Chira ............................................................ 99

Short considerations regarding the Strategy for Sustainable Development at the EU and Romania’s level / Ionel Didea, Elise-Nicoleta Vâlcu ............................................................................ 114

Sistem de asistare a deciziilor de alegere a furnizorilor în pieţele electronice / Alpar Fekete, Lucian Hâncu ........................................ 127

Fiscal Policy in Contemporary Financial Crisis / Mihaela Göndör ... 138

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Fiscal Harmonization to further the goal of a single market / Mihaela Göndör................................................................................... 152

Equilibration and compensation of the risk structure in the german statutory health insurance / Grünewald Ioan B. ............. 167

The regional development within the national economy / Romeo Ionescu..................................................................................... 179

Determinants concerning the access to financing romanian SME’s / Lăcătuş Viorel Dorin, Nicolaie Mariana, Cozac Alexandra............ 188

Studiul comparativ privind sistemul contabil anglo-saxon / Lenghel Radu....................................................................................... 199

Concepte teoretice privind taxa pe valoarea adăugata / Cristian Mazilu ................................................................................... 208

The impact of the integration in the european union upon romanian agriculture / Anca Nan, Georgiana Borza, Maria Ulici 215

The management of business intelligence: reallity of enterprises activity / Claudia – Mihaela Nicolau ................................................ 234

Starea actuală a business intelligence-ului la nivel internațional – literature review / Claudia – Mihaela Nicolau................................ 251

Human capital - investment and performance / Florentina Pantazi 267

Financing investment projects in agriculture / Aurelia Oana Pârvulescu,Viorica Ioan, Alexandra Nicoleta Nicoară 271

The Integration of Albania in the European Union / Donila Pipa, Edfana Tiri .......................................................................................... 283

Romanian linguistic integration into Europe / Ciprian-Viorel Pop, Adriana-Diana Polgar......................................................................... 288

Achiving the human capital report, why and how / Cristina Liliana Popa .......................................................................... 300

Imf’s and governments’ support to financial system in the european countries during the crisis / Magdalena Rădulescu ..... 309

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Modul de sesizare a neregulilor apărute în implementarea proiectelor de mediu finanţate din fonduri europene / Marilena Rozenberg ............................................................................ 319

Considerations upon the role of the emotional intelligence in the human resources management in tourism / Andreea Măriuca Rus, Daiana Curtean ............................................. 330

Particularities of fixed assets. Accounting and fiscal treatment / Laura Sărac Aldea ............................................................................... 344

Diagnosis of managerial competence trough the professiogram method – comparative study according to the enterprise size / Anamaria Tohătan ........................................................................... 378

Regions and "shared governance" at the eu level in the context of the current economic crisis / Elise-Nicoleta Valcu, Ionel Didea ... 389

The role of the profit and loss accounting information / Odi Mihaela Zărnescu ........................................................................ 398

8

Communication forms in the business

Avram Laurenţia Georgeta*

The business human activity takes place in the middle of a universe of communication. In the designing of a business and in the everyday presumed steps are necessary real and conclusive information, past and present about the national and international economic field and about the consumer and competitor etc.

The business man success depends, therefore, by his ability to select the essential information, to penetrate the rich information flows, concentrated, polyvalent. The explosion of information, its complexity requires to receiver the access to the main content of messages.

Information is considered, along with raw materials and energy, one of the fundamental resources of the society. Information is constitutive for the company and socially, the communication is essentially, being an information transfer. The communication needs of the social persons occur in each of their actions and the information universe, space and time, retrospectively and prospectively and make their whole experience. Based on this experience, the businessmen are able to distinguish between essential and superfluous, current and outdated, truth and error.

The business managers do not treat information as the disparate elements, but as parts of the information system underlying the adoption of decisions.

Communication is what allows any "full" to work. "All" can be an individual, one team, one community, one nation, a conglomerate of nations and a global population. From this perspective we can conclude that those who are master in communication to the level of art, can become "winners" - in that may look with confidence to the future and may be those who show so continuously succeed. In the mentality and in the logic of abundance we are continuously "winners" and can, at any moment, to freely choose a "proper interpretation of events" - which can be viewed as successes (and for any harm that pays well - as said the proverb).

* Nedeclarat


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The holistic communication (total) and awareness of sequence of increasingly large in the way it allows the success in any activity or area to acquire new meanings. In recent years, the successful interdisciplinary collective brought new evidence in support of "possible decoding of information from the living world" more able to expand the horizon of human knowledge.

The complexity theory and the studies based on allowed the awareness of multiple levels of understanding and application of communication elements. Much old information is re-evaluated, receives new meanings and forms the basis for new techniques and methods of communication. A special emphasis is placed on the ethics of communicating, the fundamental principles of harmonious living.

Today, we can confidently use creative techniques, intuitive, logical, creative imagination over time. Implementing in the communication could open new horizons, could allow the development of latent abilities.

Communication is an essential link in the normal operation of any system. The ecological systems of communication are a real art. The art of human communication is as old as the world and is constantly growing. There are three major sequences:

• The non - verbal communication; • The verbal communication; • The holistic communication. Each of them has come through the stages of awareness or, in the sense

that although everything is in everything (as holistic theory of the universe) each generation of creatures chooses, according to the natural laws, to use a specific sequence of more or less of communication holistic.

In fact, any living organism communicates holistically - but realizes only a part of communication. Some creatures - humans, for example - have the ability to voluntarily activate more extensive sequences of holistic communication.

Human civilization is a brink of a leap in the level and depth of communication. In addition to the biological aspects of communication we assist at the development of its technical aspects. We can already say that the third millennium is a millennium of the holistic communication. The first phases include:

Avram Laurenţia Georgeta

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• Development of the capacity to use increased quantities of information;

• Development of the logistics base (natural or artificial) for efficient use of information;

• Development of the native database of the information holistic processing;

• Development of the holistic science communication; • Development of the Millennium 3 informational civilization. The experts forecast an unprecedented development of human culture -

based on the quantity and the quality of information used in exceptional harmonious systems. It may foreshadow four stages:

• Development of the individual applications, based on “personal diary - in different versions”

• Development of the family application; • Development the applications in the groups of friends; • Development the complex community application. There are expected in the near future, significant developments in the

fields: • Formal aspects of the holistic communication; • Complementary aspects of communication (actions with

informational purposes); • Unconventional aspects of the harmonious communication in the

nature; • Bio-chemical issues and information in the near future of

communications. So, it is hard to believe that a successful business is possible without

effective communication between all involved in carrying them. The communication needs of the social persons occur in each of their

actions, the communication is constitutive of the human nature. “Man is, above of all, language”1, the philosopher Karl R. Popper said, referring to the verbal language.

1 Popper, K.R., Viitorul este deschis, Editura Trei, Bucharest, 1997, p. 124


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Interest for the art of communication occurred since antiquity2, the Greeks are those who, by developing methods and techniques of communication, gave him the status of science. In the contemporary period, the communication theory knows an impressive development, being the source of the concern for many different professionals: psychology, philosophy, marketing and management etc.

To the communication concept, it was awarded, over the time, many different understanding. In the speciality literature, the exact meaning of the concept is still alive and discussed, the perspective approach and significance attached to the concept being different. In the view of Dance, F.3, the communication is the process of transmitting a message through a channel to a receiver of information. To define the communication as an exchange of messages between an issuer and receiver is a simple reflection of the essence of this process.

The communication process is irreversible and can be analyzed on four separate levels: intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication, group or organizational communication, mass communication. From the perspective of our research, we are interested by two of the forms namely:

• Interpersonal communication, direct or intermediate, held between individuals (managers, employees, associates, business partners).

• Communication in the organizational structures (the business communication).

On a business level we talk about the formal, official communication carried by hierarchical channels and informal communication, held outside the official channels.

Whatever is the form and the flows that is achieved, the communication tends to influence or change perceptions, attitudes, behaviors, feelings, opinions of an individual or a group of individuals.

Unprecedented expansion of science and technology knowledge in a knowledge society, the further development of the new information

2 Human communication theory flourished in Athens, where he met a large field of development. The science and the art to communicate convincingly were called rhetoric and was the subject of study in the Athenian universities. 3 Dance, F.E.X., The Concept of Communication, in ,,The Journal of Communication’’, No. 20 Landon


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technologies and enhance the volume of information necessary for proper business operations have resulted in an impressive diversification of forms of communication.

Besides the classical forms of communication (written, verbal and nonverbal), appeared interactive communication based on the virtual techniques of communication, networks of computers, telecommunications equipment, etc. It provides, at present, the dynamic solutions of communication that enable the development of business relationships through collaboration and coordination of all participants, regardless of the geographical area where they are. Each form of communication which is called in business practice has specific advantages and disadvantages which need to be considered in the design and operationally of an effective system of communication4.

The written communication has the advantage that the message can be prepared more carefully and with consideration of procedures and actions partner relationships. The written texts can be archived, making it possible to be read and refer to them at any time. Effectiveness of written communication depends by the content of the written message which must be expressed concisely, clearly, logically and directly. The disadvantage of this form of communication is appearance of misunderstanding situations at the receiver, of the meaning of the message was designed by the issuer, and missing an immediate response from the receiver.

The oral communication is done directly between partners and allows the rapid exchange of information. It offers an immediate response and clarify any disagreements.

The nonverbal communication is part of the visual record of the service and usually accompanies the verbal messages. There is manifested like a body language form (position, gestures, mimicry) or a par verbal language (voice, tone and pace of speech). Its effectiveness lies in the match with the verbal messages and completing the content of it. Science has shown that nonverbal communication is important how we transmit information, sometimes more important than what we deliver. Although this fact is often overlooked, the business people must not forget that the “posture,

4 Camelia Ştefănecsu, Managementul afacerilor, Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine, Bucharest, 2008, p. 80


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movements, gestures and gaze are relevant of the confidence that you have in yourself and the relationship you want to establish a receiver”5.

The electronic communication develops concepts and new attitudes in the business, a different way of dealing with relationships, installing a new philosophy of communication in the businesses. Based on the modern information technologies, it speeds up the progress of the business through rapid access to information and increased opportunities for global communication. The global communication is a relatively new concept, which experts give special significance is presented as a “combination of two techniques: advertising and public relations” or as a “meeting of more specialized companies, each in a communication discipline, animated by a central coordinator”6.

The radical transformation produced by the development of the information and communications technology have created serious mutations in the business practice, opening new opportunities to modernize the ways of communication and broad access to information of those who operate in this area. The new information society evolves rapidly, forcing firms to adapt to the new communication technologies to benefit from the convenience of them and to evaluate effectively, the business opportunities. At the base of the electronic communication is the computer through which the receiving, storing and processing information in digital form, to be transferred anywhere in the world via internet.

The tough competition and the large amount of information flow, the necessity of the rapidly response to the changes produced by the global market have led to the spectacular developments of the electronic communication channels in business. This expansion was supported by the Internet. Referring to the implications of the Internet on the business development, Bill Gates7 claimed that, soon, the most of the information to be transmitted by digital, the conditions under which business will be connected to the Internet, administrative processes, which now is done on

5 Arcad R., Boureanu, N., La Communication Efficace. De l’intention aux mozens d’expression, De Boeck Universite, Bruxelles, 1998, p. 314 6 Cathelat, B., Styles de Vie, Les Edition d’Organisation, Paris, 1985, p.6 7 Gates B., Afaceri cu viteza gândului. Spre un sistem nervos digital, Editura Amaltea, Bucharest, 2000, p. 72


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hard paper, will be replaced in future with digital processes and the e-mail will become common.

Behold, a few years after that prediction, the reality of the business practice claims by Gates were confirmed, at present, the electronic communication is widely used in business relations. Furthermore, the implementation processes and the problem-solving assistance with the computer and obtaining new generation of computer applications have revolutionized the communication system in the business practice.

In the business management, the interactive communication based on new technology, has an extra dimension. It facilitates contacts and cooperation with current and potential partners and drive forward the development of new channels of cooperation between people who have common interests: identifying customers and their needs is made easier, information about business partners are more accessible, customer requests are received fast, etc. However, this form of communication enables companies, to better understand the competitive challenges through an integrated flow of information directed exactly where it needs exactly the right time within an organization8.

The interactive communication system stimulates and makes business processes and organization relations in all sections, regardless of the time and space. One example is the use of Internet facilities provided for information and communication messages. With the diversification of methods of the global communication, through extending the Internet access has been a revolution in the business. Now any company can make a web page creating software that describes the products and services they performed. Large companies are building their sites complex, structured information, giving consumers worldwide data on specific activities and products what it offers, and other services whose share is growing.

Experts9 report the emergence of a new concept, that of the electronic business. This concept envisages a new approach to the economic transactions, aimed at developing on-line for all stages of a business:

8 Gates B., Afaceri cu viteza gândului. Spre un sistem nervos digital, Editura Amaltea, Bucharest, 2000, p.11 9 Ivan I., Economia digitală şi societatea informaţională, în Dezvoltarea durabilă a României şi Republicii Moldova în contextul european şi mondial, Editura Expert, Bucharest, 2006, p. 351


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presentation of the offer, negotiation, documentation, contracting, payments and receipts.

“Now everybody stands in front of the computer, anyone can publish anything about what others do” said Joseph Ghossoub, president of the International Advertising Association at the IAA European Summit held in September 2007, highlighting the risks to which corporations are exposed in the absence of the appropriate rules in this area. Security and privacy are assured with difficulty. The business ideas, the confidential information may be stolen by “attacks” on the networks of computers10.

None of the forms of communication presented is perfect. Option for the most appropriate method of communication in a certain time, in business practice is based on the various factors: The main objective of communication, target audiences, expected impact, cost of communication, understanding, degree of selectivity degree of credibility, etc. Regardless, however, of many forms and channels of communication, their effectiveness is conditional on how they are used, realized and, if possible, controlled.

Bibliography

Arcad R., Boureanu, N., La Communication Efficace. De l’intention aux mozens d’expression, De Boeck Universite, Bruxelles, 1998

Big Radu, Mircea Lobonţiu, Radu Coteţiu: Inovarea – Sursă de Dezvoltare Antreprenorială, Editura Limes, 2007

Camelia Ştefănescu, Managementul afacerilor, Ed. Fundaţiei România de Mâine, Bucharest, 2008

Cathelat, B., Styles de Vie, Les Edition d’Organisation, Paris, 1985

Dan Popescu, Conducerea afacerilor, Ed. Gil, Bucharest, 2001

Drucker Peter F., Societatea post-capitalistă. Ed. Image, Bucharest, 1999

Elaine Sternberg, Just Business. Business Ethics in Action, 1994

Fraisse H. , Manuel de l’ingenieur d’affaires, Editions Dunod, Paris, 1990

Fukuyama Francis, Marea ruptură natura umană şi refacerea ordinii sociale, Ed. Humanitas, Bucharest, 2002

Gates B., Afaceri cu viteza gândului. Spre un sistem nervos digital, Editura Amaltea, Bucharest, 2000

10 Morozan C., Comunicarae interactivă bazată pe tehnologie. Influenţe asupra afcaerilor, in publihing Marketing-Managemnet, no.5, Bucharest, 2006, p. 97


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Giordan, A.E., Expotrer plus2, Editions Economica, Paris 1998,

Godin.S, Conly C., Businss Rules of Thumb, Warner Books, 1987

Igor Ansoff, Implanting Strategic Management, New Jersey, Pretince-Hall, 1984

Ivan I., Economia digitală şi societatea informaţională, în Dezvoltarea durabilă a României şi Republicii Moldova în contextul european şi mondial, Editura Expert, Bucharest, 2006

Mihalciuc M., L.Mureşan, G.Stanciulescu, S.Stan,L.Csaba, Dictionar poliglot explicativ (româna, engleza, franceza, germana, maghiara, Editura Enciclopedică, Bucharest, 1996

Morozan C., Comunicarae interactivă bazată pe tehnologie. Influenţe asupra afcaerilor, în revista Marketing-Managemnet, nr.5, Bucharest, 2006

Nash Laura , Good Intentions Aside. A Manager’s Guide to Resolving Ethical Problems , 1993

Pâinişoară, I., Comunicarea eficientă, ediţia a II-a, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 2004

Popescu Dan, Conducerea afacerilor, Ed. Gil, Bucharest, 2001

Popper, K.R., Viitorul este deschis, Editura Trei, Bucharest, 1997

Russu Corneliu, Management strategic, Editura All Beck, Bucharest, 1999

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Toia Adrian, Noua Economie- Probleme economice, sociale, ştiinţifice şi tehnologice, in vol. Economia 2000, ed. ASE, Bucharest,

xxx- Annual Report on Corporate Governance 2004 – Corporate Governance recommendations, OECD

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xxx- www.eu.int

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The Local Development Strategy from the Economic Perspective – Evaluative Study for Cudalbi Commune,

Galati Department1

Florina Balcu*

Abstract: In the context of the local development, the development strategy during 2008

– 2018 for Cudalbi commune is a useful working instrument for the Cudalbi Local Council, representing the appropriate approach for the elaboration of some documents of reference necessary to access European funds. The purpose of the elaboration of strategy was to determine the directions of development, to make efficient the activity of the public authorities, to promote the town and to attract the financing sources in order to put into practice the planned projects.

JEL Classification: O12, O18 Key words: strategy, local development, economic analysis

1. Introduction

The economic activity of Cudalbi commune is centred upon agriculture. One of the general aims of the local policy, meaning the development of agriculture, is convergent to the objectives of the regional policy of the South-East Development Region.2

Although the industry is well represented, agriculture is a very important field for the economy of the region: about 40% of the employed population work in this field, which contributes with 16% to the regional Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The cultivated land occupies 65% of the

1 The work represents a part of the author’s research activity, as a member of project team led by conf.univ.dr. Puşcaşu Violeta within the contract no. 7955/2008 financed by the Local Council and Cudalbi Commune Hall, Galaţi Department * Facultaty of Economic Sciences, adress: 59-61, Nicolae Bălcescu Street, Galaţi, e-mail: [email protected] 2 Puşcaşu Violeta, Chiriţă Viorel, Balcu Florina, Răducan Oprea, Şorcaru Iulian, Strategy of Local Development –Cudalbi Commune: potenţial and perspectives, Europlus, Galaţi, 2008, p. 137

Florina Balcu

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surface area and has a great potential of development in the future. Although there is agricultural potential, the capacity of processing the agricultural products is limited because of the old technologies. The high degree of fragmentation of cultivated land is another obstacle for agricultural development. The low economic potential of small farms and their inefficient management also determined the under-development of the processing of agricultural products.

In 2006, the South-East region ranked first nationally concerning the production of specific products, namely grape and sunflower production, and second for the wheat, grains and beans production. In terms of the livestock and animal husbandry sector, the region ranks first for mutton and goat meat production as well as for wool production, while the contribution of the village is well below.

The evolution of the main economic indicators in the region is presented in appendix 1, on categories, following the main indicators such as: population, employment, unemployment (total population, employed population, unemployment rate); economic development (GDP, FDI3, SME- small and medium sized enterprises); infrastructure (transport, public utilities, education, health services, social and touristic services).

The regional GDP (2.661,35 euro per capita) is close in value to the country GDP (2.932,86 euro per capita), but at the level of Galati county, it represents 2.542,81 euro per capita. Among all the parts of the region, Galati County ranks second, after Constanta County with the GDP value of 3.640,82 euros per capita.

The general trend must be of GDP growth at the level of Galati County, a growth that implicitly would determine a better living standard for the community.

The sector of small and medium sized enterprises is also well represented, at the SMEs indicator for 1000 inhabitants, because the country average is 20, 38 SMEs and the South-East Region has 18,63 SMEs per thousand inhabitants. Moreover, of the total 440,714 SMEs registered in 2006, 53,021 are related to south-east region, which means a share of only 12% of the total on country.

3 Foreign direct investment

Evaluative Study for Cudalbi Commune, Galati Department

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Comparing the lines of industry we notice that the service sector in the most developed, with a share of 82, 57%, even exceeding the national average (79,53%).

Taking into account the SMEs size, most of them are microenterprises, namely companies with up to 9 persons.

It is well known that, for the economy, the SMEs sector brings the main sources of income to the national budget that is why we consider that boosting their development is a factor of interest both locally, regionally and nationally.

Taking into account the development of the region we belong to and also the actual economic context of economic globalization, we can approach the aspects concerning local economy, namely at the level of Cudalbi Commune.

The development strategy at the level of a local community must be integrated in its department and region evolution, following the national strategic development plan according to the specific features of the region.

2. Economic analysis of the private sector at the level of Cudalbi Commune

Considering data delivered by the Trade Register Office of Galati Court, subordinated to the Ministry of Justice, the situation of the companies as well of some other types of legal organization, including the working points created at the level of Cudalbi commune since 1991, we submit table no.1.

The analysis of legal person’s situation for the period 1991-2008 was performed for all the existent forms of incorporation, namely:

- registered sole traders (individual service providers); - family business; - family enterprises ; - individual enterprises ; - limited liability companies (LLC); - joint-stock companies; - partnership firms; - cooperative organizations.

Table no. 1 Companies situation in the Cudalbi commune

Florina Balcu

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Companies Totalul societăţilor înfiinţate (1991-2008)

Total defunct

companies

Defunct companies

(%) individual service providers 37 3 8.11 family business 55 12 21.82 family enterprises 5 1 20.00 individual enterprises 3 0 - limited liability companies 97 35 36.08 joint-stock companies 2 1 50.00 partnership firms 3 2 66.67 cooperative organizations 2 1 50.00 TOTAL 204 55 26.96

We notice that, for Cudalbi commune we don’t find, as form of organization4, limited partnerships and associations limited by shares. For the rest, we find all the other 3 forms of companies (limited liability companies, joint-stock companies and partnership firms).

The number of defunct companies is 55 which represents 26, 96% of the total 204 companies created during the analysed extent of time.

The highest dynamics for creation and extinction of companies is represented by:

From a number of 97 limited liability companies, 35 are defunct which means about 36% of the total;

From 55 family business, 12 are defunct, which means about 22%; From an important number of registered sole traders, namely 37, only 3

are defunct representing 8% of the total. The detailed situation of limited liability companies is presented in

table no.2, as it came from the study of data from the Trade Register Office:

Tabelul nr. 2 The detailed situation of limited liability companies in Cudalbi Commune TOTAL of

LLCs (1991-2008)

Defunct Weight from

the total (%)

Acting LLCs

Weight from

the total (%)

In process of

dissolution/closing

Weight from the total

(%)

97 35 36.08 52 53,61 10 10,3

We notice that in 2007 and in 2008 the dynamics of LLCs creation is very low as the number of newly created companies is insignificant.

4 According to the Law no. 31/1990, with the subsequent modifications and additions


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For the evaluation of acting LLCs we took into consideration some indicators such as: the number of employees, the sales turnover, the amount of total debts and the return of the year (profit/loss) during 2005 – 2007. Thus, we mention the following:

For the 7 companies crested in 2008 there is no data to compare; For the 3 companies crested in 2007, there is information only

concerning the financial period 2007; Companies registered in 2006, submitted balance sheets for the

financial periods 2006 and 2007; 3 LLCs didn’t submit balance sheets for the year of 2007, which shows

lack of responsibility concerning the extent of information at local and national level.

Table no. 3 Evolution of main economic and financial indicators for different types of companies

Turnover Total liabilities Result of the year Number of companies 2005 2006 2007 2005 2006 2007 2005 2006 2007 Micro 50 1905159 2002240 3025418 977738 987643 2521563 162962 172713 219024 SMEs 2 2342104 2610142 3177934 963804 2001186 4001906 -202672 153957 100562

TOTAL 52 4247263 4612382 6203352 1941542 2988829 6523469 -39305 326670 319586

Among the 52 LLCs, 50 of them have only 0, 1 maximum 6 employees and 2LLCs have more than 9 employees and rank in the category of SMEs.

In case of most SMEs we notice that if they didn’t have any employee in 2005, in 2006 and 2007 they hired at least one person. We consider it as a step forward to the extinction of underground economy for the small enterprises.

As for the sales volume, this is presented in figure no. 1

Figure no.1 The turnover evolution in the period 2005-2007

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Table no. 4 Structure of SMEs by types of activities in 2008:

Production Commerce Service providing Number of acting SMEs

Number Weight (%) Number Weight (%) Number Weight (%)

52 10 19,23 27 51,92 15 28,85

We notice that from the total acting SMEs, the highest weight is

represented by retail trade or wholesale trade companies, namely 51.92% from the total. Out of the 27 companies with trade activity only 3 perform wholesale trade.

The activity of service providing ranks second, with a weight of 28,85% and is present in the following activities: restaurants, bars, road and goods transportation, building, construction of residential and non-residential buildings, works of land preparation, renting and leasing of building machinery and equipments, television broadcasting, chemist’s shop.

The smallest weight from the total amount of activities is represented by production, namely 19.23%, and the following main activities are: poultry farming, grain, vegetables, melons, root vegetables and tubers cultivation, manufacture of grain mill products, cocoa, chocolate and confectionery products.

The structure of acting economic entities in 2008 (from the total number of registered companies we removed the number of the defunct ones) per 1000 inhabitants is the following:

Table no. 5 Weight of entities created and still acting in 2008 per 1000 inhabitants

Elements Number of

economic agents Number of inhabitants

Economic entities/1000 inhabitants

Acting SMEs 52 6,54 individual service providers

34 4,28

family business 43 5,41 family enterprises 4 0,50 individual enterprises 3 0,38 joint-stock companies 1 0,13 partnership firms 1 0,13 cooperative organizations 1 0,13 TOTAL 139

7950

17,48


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The number of acting SMEs reported in 2008 per 1000 inhabitants5 is 6, 54, which represents a value well below the national average and below the South-East region value (14,8/1000). For comparison, we mention that the value of SME indicator per thousand inhabitants in the European Union is 52/thousand inhabitants. Given that these are acting SMEs established in the commune, therefore local private initiative, we consider that their small number suggest the need to stimulate initiative among small entrepreneurs.

Even in terms of all private economic entities of the commune, the indicator stands at 17.48 / thousand inhabitants, a figure which we believe it is good to be exceeded for short and medium term in order to increase the number of private entrepreneurs.

Increasing the number of SMEs at national and local level will be possible only provided that the Romanian business environment becomes more predictable, and the structural funds will become more accessible, in a direct and non-bureaucratic way.

On the second place after the initiative of creation of SMEs, is the creation of family business, which shows a preference to work in a personal environment that provides security and prosperity for the family business, and on the third place we find individual service providers that carry on various individual activities, especially retail.

In terms of points of work points opened in Cudalbi commune, we can say that the first one was opened in 1994, namely a limited liability company with production as object: manufacture of grain mill products. The scope of activity is in accordance with the local potential and confirms once more the dominant character of private initiatives in the area.

All companies with work points in Cudalbi have the registered office in Galati county, respectively Galaţi town, Tecuci or Cudalbi commune. There is only one company with the registered office in Ivesti commune and the work point in Cudalbi. We note that there are several companies with registered office as well the work point in the commune.

5 The total number of inhabitants in 2008 was taken into account

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There is no company with the registered office outside the county and work points in Cudalbi commune.

Table no. 4 The situation of work points in Cudalbi during 1994 – 2008

Foundation year

Head office Pincipal activities Total point of work

1994-1999

2000-2008

Galaţi Tecuci Cudalbi Iveşti production commerce Service providing

56 8 48 27 10 18 1 8 40 8

We notice that before 2000 only 8 work points were set up, the most active dynamics is after this year, this stage corresponding to a general dynamic at national economic level, to the opening of borders and to EU adhesion, to changes in law and taxation.

Tabelul nr. 5 Evolution of work points in Cudalbi during 2000-2008 Total points of work (2000-2008)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

48 1 2 3 5 5 14 3 10 5

Figure 2 Evolution of work points created during 2000-2008

It is seen that the peak of economic development is in 2005 when the most work points are created.

Table no. 6 Form of organization of companies with work points opened in Cudalbi commune

Organization form Total

points of work

LLC joint-stock companies

family business

individual service

providers

family enterprises

cooperative organizations

56 47 1 3 2 1 2


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The predominant form of organization of entities with opened work points is limited liability company (LLC).

Only one joint-stock company has a warehouse for grain storage as a work point, opened in February 2008, for a period of 10 years, according to the loan contract completed and submitted to the Trade Registry Office.

The types of activities are production, commerce and services providing. The production activities refer to:

- Manufacture of grain mill products; - Manufacture of bread and fresh pastry; - Manufacture of metal wire products; - Oil production; - Poultry husbandry; - Dairy cattle husbandry; - Vegetables, melons, root vegetables and tubers cultivation. - Activities within the scope of trade refer mostly to retail carried

on in stores such as: - Retail in unspecialized stores predominantly selling food,

beverages and tobacco; - Retail sale of beverages in specialized stores - Retail sale of household articles and appliances, of radios and

TV sets - Retail sale of furniture, lighting articles and other household

products, but also, - Stands and market retail.

There are also two work points carrying on wholesale trade, established in 2007, respectively:

- Wholesale trade of other non-food consumer goods and - Wholesale trade of timber and building material. - The activity of service providing through the 8 work points is

represented by services in the area: - Restaurants, bars and other activities of serving drinks; - Activities of telecommunications through cable networks; - Activities of play and bets - Other leisure and fun activities.

There is only one banking work point since 1998, namely a credit cooperative.

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The existence of work points of entities with main activities in Galati and Tecuci also entails investment from their part which contributed to the economic development of the area and implicitly the creation of jobs.

The partial conclusion leads to the aim concerning the stimulation of private activity at the level of Cudalbi commune by means of adopting some measures to stimulate the investors as well as the inhabitants to create small business.

3. Conclusions

The economic evolutions are based on the dynamics of the main indicators of the economic activity in the commune, on the correlations between them, adding to them the economic results registered at national level. The main economic activities that the commune can certainly rely on and is going to develop are: agriculture, trade, and small-scale agricultural food production and handicraft wares. But these don’t exclude other economic activities which could depend on external circumstances and decisions.

The strategic aim for Cudalbi commune is to provide a dynamic and stimulating local business environment to increase the gross local product.

The recommended possible actions, as a result of the activity carried on by the project team are:

- Investment in infrastructure as precondition of attractiveness to potential investors and local initiatives;

- Investment planning and design in line with internal and external (national and local) funding opportunities.

The economic situation at present for Cudalbi commune is centred upon the agricultural sector, the number of SMEs is quite small per thousand inhabitants and there is a quite low attraction for companies outside the village. Actions that should be covered are related to the supporting of local initiatives for organic farming and processing, exploitation of unused assets and the growth of gross local product by increasing the capacity of the economic agents in the commune. Increasing revenue in the local budget would be a justified action under the circumstances.

Forecasts can focus on two likely scenarios: optimistic and pessimistic.


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The pessimistic scenario has in view: - Unstable macroeconomic framework generated by current

economic context at national and global extent; - economic policies, especially fiscal, changeable policies; - waste of resources (human, natural, financial); - keeping of the underground economy; - low accumulation rate; - marginalization of the commune within the county

development policy; - Declining revenue and reduction of revenue to the local budget - Low budget expenditure.

The optimistic scenario for the social-economic development is based on several assumptions:

- the favourable macroeconomic and legal framework; - the attraction of some investors from the county or from the

region; - improvement of business environment; - development of entrepreneurship ; - the attractive investment climate of the commune; - the efficient public-private cooperation; - Improvement of management capacity.

Forecasts for future long-term costs integrate the idea that the volume of budgetary expenditure will be based on community capacity to respond to its initiated requests.

Bibliography:

Boloş Ioan Marcel, Bugetul şi contabilitatea comunităţilor locale între starea actuală şi posibilităţile de modernizare, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2006

Iftimoaie Cristian, Vedinaş Verginia, Sandu Teodora Gabriela, Urziceanu Carmen, Administraţia publică locală în România în perspectiva integrării europene, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 2003

Zaiţ Dumitru, Spalanzani Alain, Cercetarea în economie şi management. Repere epistemologice şi metodologice, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 2006

*** Studiul Bugetele locale între teorie şi practică realizat de Institutul Pentru Politici Publice (IPP) la comanda Asociaţiei Pro Democraţia în cadrul proiectului Administrare eficientă prin participare publică finanţat de German Marshall Fund of The United States, 2001

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http://modernizare.mai.gov.ro/ http://www.mie.ro/ http://www.administratie.ro/ http://www.ziare.com

*** Legea nr. 31 din 16/11/1990 privind societăţile comerciale, republicată în Monitorul Oficial, Partea I,nr. 1066 din 17 noiembrie 2004, inclusiv modificările şi completările aduse de următoarele acte: Legea nr. 302/2005, Legea nr. 164/2006, Legea nr. 441/2006, Legea nr. 516/2006, O.U.G. nr. 82/2007, O.U.G. nr. 52/2008 publicată în MOF nr. 333 din 30/04/2008.

Ordonanţă de urgenţă nr. 44 din 16/04/2008 Publicat in Monitorul Oficial, Partea I nr. 328 din 25/04/2008 privind desfăşurarea activităţilor economice de către persoanele fizice autorizate, întreprinderile individuale şi întreprinderile familiale

Legea nr. 273/2006 privind finanţele publice locale, pubicată în Monitorul Oficial nr. 618 din 18 iulie 2006, care abrogă Ordonanţa Guvernului nr. 45 din 2003.

Appendix 1 Indicators that characterize the level of development and the economic potential of the South-East Region (2006):

COUNTIES6 INDICATORS Region BR BZ CT GL TL VN

Romania

I Population, employment, unemployment

I.1 total population (absolute numbers)

2846379 370428 494052 715148 620500 252485 393766 21623849

Urban population (%)

55,5 65,3 41,4 70,9 56,9 49,1 37,8 54,9

Rural population (%)

44,5 34,7 58,6 29,1 43,1 50,9 62,2 45,1

Migratory balance -1803 -499 -379 675 -1095 -590 -142 -7234 I.2 Employment

Active population from the total population (%)

43,7 45,5

Employed population from the total population (%)

36,1 34 36,5 40,1 33,0 34,7 36,2 38,8

Employed population on economic sectors

Agriculture (%)

35,3 33,8 44,9 24,5 31,9 40,0 48,4 32

Industry (%) 21,5 27,5 22,4 17,8 23,3 23,2 19,5 23,5 Services (%) 43,2 38,7 32,7 57,7 44,8 36,8 32,1 44,5

6 The counties included in the South-East region are: Brăila (BR), Buzău (BZ), Constanţa (CT), Galaţi (GL), Tulcea (TL) şi Vrancea (VN)


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I.3 Unemployment Unemployment rate at 31 December 2005 (%)

6,4 6,8 7,4 5,6 8,3 6 4 5,9

Feminine unemployment rate at 31 December 2005 (%)

5,9 4,8 6,4 6,8 7,7 4,8 2,9 5,2

Weight of unpaid unemployed persons out of the total unemployed persons registered at December 31, 2005 (%)

63 65,2 62,3 54,7 72,6 54,4 65,4 58,8

II Economic development

II.1 GDP/inhabitant 2004 – euro

2661,35 2363,48 2198,69 3640,82 2542,81 2454,97 2070,22 2932,86

II.2 Work productivity (2003) – euro

5864,1 6194,8

II.3 foreign direct investments (million. Euros)

1838 21885

II.4 business strucutres (industrial, science and technology parks)

3 1 2 34

II.5 SME SME/1000 inhabitants (no.)

18,63 20,38

Total SME (absolute number)

53021 440714

Out of which: manufacturing industry (%)

11,43 13,19

Constructions (%)

5,71 6,9

Services (%) 82,57 79,53 Structure of SME according to size:

Micro (%) 88,62 88,34 Small (%) 9,16 9,41 Medium (%) 2,22 2,25

Degree of activity 22,5 - III Infrastructure III.1 Transportation

Density of public roads (km/100 kmp)

30,4 24,9 43,4 32,9 32,8 15,5 39,51 33,5

Modernized public roads from the total public roads (%)

19,4 23,5 12,6 22,5 19,5 25,7 18 26,4

III.2 Public utilities Settlements with drinking water networks from the total of settlements (%)

80 80 71,2 98,5 60 96 80 61,0

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Settlements with sewerage network from the total settlements (%)

22,11 13,64 11,49 45,71 25 25,49 12,23 21,86

III.3 Education Number of schools 1772 138 725 300 259 157 193 11865

III.4 Health services Number of hospitals 47 5 6 13 11 4 8 433 III.5 Social services

Number of institutions providing social services

841 21 15 212 14 215 364 13,747

III.6 Tourism Accommodation (No. of buildings)

1228 23 49 958 21 128 49 4226

Number of accommodation places

132965 2005 2382 121067 1449 4019 2043 282661

Accommodation capacity in function (thousand places days)

13608 565 679 10939 331 564 530 54979

Tabel source: http://www.mie.ro/_documente/regiuni/

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Stadiul actual al comunicării rezultatelor financiare la nivelul grupurilor din România

„Contabilitatea a devenit, odată cu globalizarea economiilor, o veritabilă armă economică”

Delesalle F.-E.

Florina Balcu*

Rezumat: În contextul actual, comunicarea rezultatelor devine un exerciţiu de stil aparte.

Rapoartele anuale s-au îmbunătăţit din punct de vedere cantitativ şi calitativ, iar politica asupra prezentării rezultatului constituie o axă centrală a comunicării şi un pol de excelenţă (de perfecţiune). Mai mult decât modul de întocmire, de comunicare şi de prezentare a rezultatelor contează natura şi calitatea reală a evenimentului prezentat. Pot fi influenţaţi utilizatorii de informaţii prin politica de comunicare a rezultatelor? Putem avea o încredere oarbă în comunicarea financiară?

Cuvinte cheie: globalizare, grupuri de societăţi, informaţie contabilă

1. Introducere

Apariţia grupurilor de societăţi şi amploarea procesului globalizării a determinat importante mutaţii ce au avut loc pe plan economic, juridic, social, fiscal, şi, nu în ultimul rând, contabil.

Prezenţa mai multor entităţi juridice în cadrul aceluiaşi grup, antrenează existenţa atâtor contabilităţi independente câte societăţi există. Documentele contabile şi financiare ale fiecărei societăţi în parte nu pot furniza o imagine globală asupra grupului.

În numeroase situaţii societatea-mamă este de tip holding, care nu exercită nici o activitate industrială sau comercială. Bilanţul acesteia este constituit în marea lui majoritate fie din imobilizări financiare (sub forma * Facultatea de Ştiinte Economice, adresa: str. Nicolae Bălcescu 59-61, Galaţi, e-mail: [email protected]

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titlurilor de participare care permit exercitarea unui control sau a unei influenţe asupra altor societăţi), fie din împrumuturi acordate întreprinderilor din grup.

Conturile societăţii-mamă vor apare în acest caz numai ca un mijloc de reflectare a participaţiilor înregistrate sau al dividendelor pe care ea le primeşte sau pe care le-a înscris în contul de profit şi pierdere.

Aici intervine necesitatea consolidării şi a întocmirii situaţiilor financiare consolidate la nivelul grupurilor de societăţi.

Structura de grup oferă întreprinderilor avantaje considerabile în raport cu alte structuri. Profesorul Jacques Richard, de la Universitatea Paris Dauphine identifică o serie de avantaje printre care1:

- structura de grup permite societăţii-mamă un control asupra unui capital mai mare decât cel investit de ea;

- structura de grup facilitează accesul la împrumuturi mai mari; - se realizează o mai bună circulaţie a capitalurilor; - prin structura sa, grupul plăteşte, în general, mai puţine

impozite; - structura de grup oferă posibilităţi mai bune de organizare.

Am putea afirma că două dintre avantajele grupurilor par a avea o importanţă cu totul specială: supleţea şi controlul.

Supleţea se probează în cadrul operaţiilor financiare de restructurare a activităţilor. Diferenţierea acestora în sânul unor entităţi juridice distincte permite o definire mai clară a responsabilităţilor, micşorându-se riscurile la nivelul grupului, atunci când una dintre filiale traversează o perioadă de dificultăţi economice şi financiare. În acest context, operaţiile de cesiune sau de schimburi de acţiuni sunt mai simple şi mai puţin costisitoare decât vânzările diferitelor componente ale activului.

Aplicarea regulilor majorităţii în luarea deciziilor permite să se exercite puterea în mod plenar, fără să se deţină totalitatea acţiunilor. Crearea de filiale şi subfiliale conduce în aceste situaţii la o de multiplicare a puterii în raport cu capitalul efectiv deţinut.

Activitatea societăţilor multinaţionale a generat pe plan contabil, o insuficienţă a informaţiile oferite de contabilitatea financiară, determinând

1 Richard Jaques, Analyse financiere et gestion des groupes, Editura Economica, Paris, 2000, p. 10-16

Stadiul actual al comunicării rezultatelor financiare la nivelul grupurilor...

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astfel apariţia unei “noi contabilităţi”, contabilitatea consolidată, ce are drept obiectiv o cât mai bună informare a utilizatorilor prin intermediul situaţiilor financiare consolidate.

În acest context, consolidarea conturilor apare ca obiectiv primar, iar întocmirea şi interpretarea situaţiilor financiare consolidate ca o consecinţă şi un deziderat în vederea unei gestionări cât mai bune a grupului, precum şi a diferitelor categorii de interese din cadrul acestuia.

Consolidarea este o tehnică sau un procedeu ce permite realizarea conturilor unice pentru un ansamblu de societăţi independente, cu personalitate juridică, şi care depind din punct de vedere financiar de un centru de decizie comun. Ea permite prezentarea situaţiilor financiare, a bilanţului contabil şi a rezultatului ansamblului de societăţi ca şi când ar fi al unei singure entităţi.

Obiectivul consolidării conturilor „este de a furniza o imagine fidelă asupra patrimoniului şi situaţiei financiare în ceea ce priveşte rezultatul ansamblului consolidat constituit din întreprinderile cuprinse în perimetrul de consolidare”.2

Scopul consolidării conturilor este „de a prezenta rezultatul operaţiunilor şi situaţia financiară a societăţii-mamă şi a filialelor sale, ca şi când grupul ar fi o singură societate cu mai multe sucursale sau diviziuni”.3

Rezultatul procesului de consolidare îl reprezintă conturile consolidate. Scopul acestora este prezentarea situaţiei şi poziţiei financiare, precum şi a rezultatelor entităţilor cuprinse în perimetrul de consolidare ca şi cum ar fi vorba de o singură întreprindere. Am putea afirma astfel despre conturile consolidate că reprezintă documentele financiare de sinteză ale unui grup, întocmite şi prezentate ca şi cum ar fi întocmite de o singură entitate economică.

Conturile consolidate au o istorie destul de recentă, primele fiind publicate la sfârşitul secolului al XIX-lea, în Statele Unite ale Americii.

Textele de referinţă privind conturile consolidate sunt concretizate în: - Directiva a VII-a a Comunităţilor Economice Europene 83/349/EEC

din data de 13 iunie 1983 privind conturile consolidate, publicată în

2 Bărbăcioru Victoria, Iacob Constanţa, Contabilitate aprofundată, Editura Sitech, Craiova, 1996, p. 117 3 Capron Michel, Contabilitatea în perspectivă, traducere, Editura Humanitas, Bucureşti, 1994, p. 61

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Monitorul Oficial al Uniunii Europene nr. L 193 din data de 18 iulie 1983, cu modificările şi completările ulterioare;

- IAS 27 „Situaţiile financiare consolidate şi contabilizarea participaţiilor în societăţile controlate”, modificat în 2008 sub denumirea de „Situaţii financiare consolidate şi individuale”;

- IAS 28 „Contabilizarea participaţiilor în întreprinderile asociate”; - IAS 31 „Informarea financiară relativă la participaţiile în

întreprinderile de tip joint-venture”; - IAS 21 „Efectele variaţiilor de curs ale monedelor străine”; - IFRS 3 „Combinări de întreprinderi” care, începând din 2005,

înlocuieşte vechiul standard IAS 22, cu aceeaşi denumire şi următoarele interpretări:

SIC 9 Grupări de întreprinderi – Clasificarea în achiziţii şi uniuni de interese

SIC 22 Grupări de întreprinderi – Ajustări ulterioare ale valorii juste şi fondului comercial iniţial raportate

SIC 28 Grupări de întreprinderi – Data schimbului şi valoarea justă a instrumentelor de capital

IFRS 3 a fost modificat de IFRS 5 Active imobilizate deţinute pentru vânzare şi activităţi întrerupte, care a fost publicat în martie 2004. De asemenea, în ianuarie 2008, IASB a emis un IFRS 3 revizuit. Următoarele interpretări se referă la IFRS 3:

SIC 32 Imobilizări necorporale – Costuri asociate creării de website-uri (publicat în martie 2002 şi modificat de IFRS 3 în martie 2004);

IFRIC 9 Reevaluarea instrumentelor derivate încorporate (publicat în martie 2006)

În ţara noastră, cadrul juridic de organizare şi funcţionare a grupurilor de societăţi îl reprezintă Ordinul nr. 3055 din 2009 cu aplicabilitate de la 1 ianuarie 2010 care abrogă Ordinul nr. 1.752 din 17 noiembrie 2005 pentru aprobarea reglementărilor contabile conforme cu directivele europene, emis de Ministerul Finanţelor Publice şi publicat în Monitorul Oficial nr. 1.080 din 30 noiembrie 2005, care abrogă totodată vechiul Ordin al Ministerului Finanţelor nr. 772/2000 de aprobare a Normelor privind consolidarea conturilor.


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În conformitate cu aceste norme, grupul este un ansamblu de societăţi, format din societatea care consolidează (persoana juridică română) şi filialele acesteia, societăţi române şi străine (consolidate).

Ca şi în cazul situaţiilor financiare întocmite de agenţii economici, şi la nivelul grupului se poate vorbi de existenţa unor utilizatori interni şi externi ai informaţiilor furnizate de conturile consolidate. Beneficiarii activităţii de consolidare pot fi enumeraţi astfel a fi, în principal, formaţi din:

conducerea întreprinderii mamă – ce are drept scop utilizarea conturilor consolidate drept izvor de date pentru luarea deciziilor în ceea ce priveşte întreprinderile din cadrul perimetrului;

acţionarii grupului de întreprinderi – doresc o mai bună cunoaştere a modului în care le sunt gestionate resursele financiare investite, precum şi interesele lor patrimoniale;

viitorii investitori – care vor putea face astfel evaluări privind viitorul grupului;

angajaţii şi oricine mai doreşte să cunoască situaţia reală a grupului; statul – în nevoia sa de a-şi exercita prin intermediul organismelor

specifice activitatea de control şi aspecte legate de fiscalitate.

2. Studiu asupra situaţiei actuale de comunicare a informaţiilor la nivelul grupurilor de societăţi din România

Analizând stadiul actual al legislaţiei privind consolidarea conturilor putem desprinde următoarele concluzii: în exerciţiul financiar 1 ianuarie 2005 – 31 decembrie 2005, grupurile de societăţi româneşti nu au avut obligaţia redactării de situaţii financiare consolidate, fiind abrogate condiţiile impuse de Ordinul Ministrului Finanţelor publice nr. 772 din 2000. Normele ce constituie obiectul acestui ordin rămân în vigoare şi pot fi totuşi utilizate pentru consolidare de către grupurile care, pentru necesităţi interne de gestiune sau la cerea anumitor utilizatori, doresc să întocmească situaţii financiare consolidate la data de 31 decembrie 2005.

În noiembrie 2005, ca răspuns la cerinţele Ordinului Ministrului Finanţelor Publice nr. 907/2005 privind aprobarea categoriilor de persoane care aplică reglementări contabile conforme cu Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare financiară, respectiv reglementări contabile conforme cu

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directivele europene, este emis Ordinul Ministrului Finanţelor Publice nr. 1752/2005 pentru aprobarea reglementărilor contabile conforme cu directivele europene. Prin abrogarea ordinului 772/2000, începând cu anul 2006, situaţiile financiare consolidate sunt întocmite în conformitate cu directivele europene conform ordinului 1752/2005, care prevede forma şi conţinutul situaţiilor financiare anuale consolidate, inclusiv regulile de întocmire, aprobare, auditare şi publicare a acestora.

Având în vedere societăţile de grup româneşti care au depus situaţii financiare consolidate în conformitate cu OMFP 1752/2005 la Oficiul Naţional al Registrului Comerţului începând cu situaţiile financiare ale anului 2006, prezentăm în tabelul 3.1 evoluţia numărului de societăţi de grup pentru perioada 2006-2008.

Tabelul 3.1 Centralizator privind numărul situaţiilor financiare consolidate depuse la

Oficiul Registrului Comerţului în perioada 2006-2008 Anul pentru care s-au depus situaţii financiare

consolidate Indicator Nr. 2006 2007 2008

Total societăţi de grup, din care:

137 68 125 7

Societăţi bancare 6 2 5 1 Societăţi de asigurare 4 3 2 - Societăţi comerciale 127 63 118 6

Având în vedere datele din tabelul 3.1 putem afirma că dintr-un număr total de 137 de societăţi de grup care au depus situaţii financiare consolidate în perioada 2006-2008, 6 erau societăţi bancare, 4 societăţi de asigurare, iar 127 societăţi comerciale4. Evoluţia este ascendentă, în sensul în care, dacă în anul 2006, doar 63 de societăţi comerciale tip grup depuneau situaţii financiare consolidate, în anul 2007 numărul acestora a crescut considerabil, la 118.

După cum se poate observa situaţiile financiare consolidate pentru exerciţiul financiar 2008 au fost depuse într-un număr foarte redus, dat fiind şi faptul că termenul de depunere pentru situaţiile financiare individuale la direcţia de finanţe a fost 30 mai 2009, iar termenul legal de depunere a acestora la Registrul Comerţului nu este încă depăşit. Astfel,

4 Conform datelor furnizate online de Oficiul Registrului Comerţului


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din totalul de 118 societăţi de grup care au depus situaţii financiare consolidate la 31 decembrie 2007, pânâ la data de 30 mai 2009, doar 6 dintre acestea au depus şi situaţiile aferente pe anul 2008.

Din rândul societăţilor bancare, doar grupul Volksbak Romania SA a depus la Registrul Comerţului situaţiile financiare consolidate şi pentru anul 2008.

Trebuie remarcat, de asemenea, că grupul Flamingo International SA nu apare pe site-ul Oficiului Naţional al Registrului Comerţului ca având situaţiile financiare consolidate depuse la acest organism. Cu toate acestea nu putem menţiona faptul că grupul are situaţiile financiare consolidate postate pe site-ul propriu.

Repartizarea geografică (pe judeţe) a societăţilor-mamă care consolidează filiale este prezentată în tabelul 3.2.

Constatăm din tabelul 3.2 că doar 11 din cele 42 de judeţe (41 de judeţe plus municipiul Bucureşti) deţin societăţi de grup. Ponderea este deţinută clar de municipiul Bucureşti, în care sunt concentrate sediile a peste 89 de societăţi-mamă. Cel mai slab reprezentate sunt judeţele Braşov, Buzău, Ilfov şi Vâlcea, cu câte un singur reprezentant.

Tabelul 3.2 Repartizarea geografică în România a societăţilor de grup, după sediul

societăţii-mamă Nr. crt Denumirea judeţului Total societăţi de grup

1 ARAD 5 2 BACĂU 3 3 BRAŞOV 1 4 BUZĂU 1 5 BUCUREŞTI 89 6 CONSTANŢA 6 7 GALAŢI 5 8 ILFOV 1 9 MARAMUREŞ 3

10 SATU MARE 3 11 TIMIŞ 9 12 VÂLCEA 1

TOTAL 127

Următoarea etapă în studiul actual al situaţiei consolidării conturilor a reprezentat-o analiza grupurilor cotate la bursă. Din totalul celor 127 de societăţi tip grup, am constatat că doar 24 sunt cotate la Bursa de valori Bucureşti (BVB). Situaţia este prezentată în tabelul 3.3.

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Tabelul 3.3 Situaţia cotării la BVB a societăţilor de grup care au depus situaţii financiare

consolidate la Oficiul Registrului Comerţului Cotată la BVB, la categoria Total societăţi

de grup, din care

I BVB II BVB I Rasdaq III Rasdaq Necotate

127 2 2 2 16 105

Din tabelul 3.3 constatăm că din totalul celor 127 de societăţi de grup care au depus situaţii financiare consolidate la Registrul Comerţului, doar 22 sunt cotate la BVB, la diferite categorii, aşa cum rezultă şi din figura 3.1.

La categoriile I şi II la BVB, precum şi I Rasdaq sunt cotate doar câte două societăţi de grup, respectiv:

- categoria I BVB: Petrom SA şi Oltchim SA; - categoria II BVB: Electroaparataj SA şi Turism, Hoteluri,

Restaurante Marea Neagră SA; - categoria I Rasdaq: Electromagnetica SA şi Rompetrol SA.

La categoria III Rasdaq sunt cotate 16 societăţi de grup. Trebuie menţionat faptul că studiul a avut în vedere acele societăţi de

grup româneşti care au depus la Registrul Comerţului situaţiile financiare consolidate până la data de 30 mai 2009.

Figura 3.1 Situaţia cotării la Bursa de Valori a societăţilor de grup româneşti

De asemenea grupul Flamingo International, deşi nu a depus situaţiile financiare consolidate la Registrul Comerţului, este cotat la Bursa de Valori Bucureşti, categoria II.


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Apreciem că opţiunea pentru listarea acţiunilor la bursă, dincolo de necesitatea de a îndeplini şi condiţiile impuse de aceasta, semnifică totodată şi o dorinţă de comunicare a informaţiilor contabil-financiare însoţite totodată şi de transparenţă.

3. Concluzii

Situaţiile financiare consolidate au ca obiectiv reflectarea stării grupului de întreprinderi ca şi cum ar fi o entitate unică, de sine stătătoare, făcându-se abstracţie de personalitatea juridică a fiecăreia dintre filiale. Practic, scopul acestor situaţii este acela de a oferi o reprezentare financiară structurată referitoare la poziţia financiară, performanţele, fluxurile de trezorerie şi tranzacţiile realizate de grup.

Abrogarea, de la 1 ianuarie 2006 a unor importante acte normative care au condus contabilitatea românească până în prezent (OMFP 772/2000, OMFP 94/2001 şi OMFP 306/2002) şi adoptarea OMF nr. 1.752 din 17 noiembrie 2005 pentru aprobarea reglementărilor contabile conforme cu directivele europene, constituie un pas extrem de important pe calea alinierii şi armonizării contabile la nivel internaţional. De asemenea începând cu 1 ianuarie 2010 va intra în vigoare ordinul 3055/2009 care abrogă ordinul 1752/2005 în vederea unei cât mai bune informări şi armonizări.

Elaborarea situaţiilor financiare consolidate se va face, începând cu anul 2006 în conformitate cu normele internaţionale şi, implicit, cu Directiva a VII-a a Comunităţilor Economice Europene. Dacă OMF 772 din 2000 prevedea aplicarea consolidării experimental doar pentru un număr redus de societăţi comerciale, odată cu acest an, situaţiile financiare consolidate reprezintă o cerinţă de întocmire pentru societăţile de grup care îndeplinesc condiţiile legale în vigoare.

Dincolo de conţinutul situaţiilor financiare consolidate prezentate, grupurile sunt încurajate să furnizeze punctele de vedere critice ale conducerii, prin descrierea şi explicarea trăsăturilor principale ale performanţelor financiare, poziţiei financiare, precum şi incertitudinile principale cu care acestea se confruntă. De asemenea grupurile pot să prezinte situaţii adiţionale, precum rapoartele referitoare la mediu şi situaţii privind valoarea adăugată, mai ales în cazul în care activează în

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industrii unde factorii de mediu sunt semnificativi, iar salariaţii reprezintă un grup important de utilizatori. Grupurile de societăţi pot prezenta situaţii adiţionale, în măsura în care factorii de conducere consideră că ele ajută investitorii în luarea deciziilor economice.

În condiţiile globalizării pieţelor financiare pentru grupurile transnaţionale care se finanţează de pe aceste pieţe, alegerea referenţialului contabil care să stea la baza întocmirii şi prezentării situaţiilor financiare consolidate este mai mult decât delicată.

Considerăm căutarea de soluţii comune referitoare la problemele de publicare a conturilor şi a informaţiei financiare demnă de lăudat, în condiţiile în care o abordare unică şi de calitate ar fi cu certitudine mult mai utilă participanţilor de pe pieţele financiare internaţionale, decât mai multe abordări.

Datorită faptului că pieţele internaţionale de capital se integrează, un set unic de standarde internaţionale va spori comparabilitatea informaţiilor financiare şi va face mai eficientă alocarea trans-frontalieră a capitalurilor. În acest mod vor putea fi reduse şi cheltuielile pe care societăţile de grup le suportă în vederea îmbunătăţirii, în acelaşi timp, şi a calităţii auditului.

Adoptarea IFRS în România reprezintă mai mult decât o modificare a reglementărilor contabile. Este un nou sistem de evaluare a performanţei – un nou sistem de proceduri – care trebuie adoptat la nivelul tutror entităţilor economice şi, implicit, la nivelul grupurilor de societăţi.

În concluzie, noile reglementări în domeniu vor schimba modul de lucru şi, de asemenea, este posibil să impună şi schimbări decisive în ceea ce priveşte managementul strategic şi contabil.

Bibliografie:

Albu Nadia, Albu Cătălin, Soluţii practice de eficientizare a activităţilor şi de creştere a performanţei organizaţionale. Gestiunea dezvoltării durabile prin Balanced Scorecard, Ed. CECCAR, Bucureşti, 2005

Balcu Florina, Muntean Mircea, Vîlcu Vasilica, „Reflection on the Importance of the Accounting Information on the Capital Market”, the QIEI 2008 International Conference on Quality – Innovation – European Integration, September 18th-20th, Sibiu, Romania

Balcu Florina, Lupaşc Ioana, Aspects regarding the multinational companies role and direct foreign investments in a globalised economy, al optulea Simpozion


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Internaţional Investiţiile şi relansarea economică 23-24 mai 2008, ASE Bucureşti, p.82-89, în volumul Investiţiile şi noua economie, Editura ASE Bucureşti, 2008, ISBN 978-606-505-088-4

Bari Ioan, Economia mondială, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 1997

Bari Ioan, Globalizarea economiei, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2005

Bărbăcioru Victoria, Iacob Constanţa, Contabilitate aprofundată, Editura Sitech, Craiova, 1996

Bătrâncea Ioan, Bătrâncea Larissa-Margareta, Bătrâncea Sorin Nicolae Borlea, Analiza financiară a entităţii economice, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2007

Bătrâncea Ioan, Raportări financiare, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2006

Bătrâncea, Ioan (coord.), Analiza financiară pe bază de bilanţ, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca, 2001

Bătrâncea Maria, Batrancea Larissa, Standing financiar, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2006

Bech Ulrich, Ce este globalizarea?, Ed. Trei, Bucureşti, 2003

Bunea Ştefan, Optimizarea poziţiei financiare şi a performanţelor întreprinderilor, între strategiile de conservatorism şi de optimism contabil, teză de doctorat, ASE Bucureşti, 2004

Cosma Dorin, Contabilitatea în lumea interdependenţelor globale, Editura Augusta, Timişoara, 1998

Cotleţ Dumitru, Megan Ovidiu, Situaţiile financiare ale întreprinderii, Editura Orizonturi universitare, Timişoara, 2003

Feleagă Niculae, Feleagă Liliana, Contabilitate consolidată. O abordare europeană şi internaţională, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2007

Legea nr. 31/1990 privind societăţile comerciale, republicată în Monitorul Oficial nr. 1066/17 noiembrie 2004, cu modificările şi completările ulterioare până la data de 17 aprilie 2009

Legea contabilităţii nr. 82/1991, republicată în Monitorul Oficial, Partea I nr. 454 din 18/06/2008

Legea nr. 297 din 28 iunie 2004 privind Piaţa de capital, publicată în Monitorul Oficial nr. 571 din 29 iunie 2004, cu modificările şi completările ulterioare

Legea nr. 571/2003 privind Codul Fiscal, publicată în Monitorul Oficial nr. 927/2003, cu modificările şi completările ulterioare

Norma nr. 8/2002 privind elaborarea situaţiilor financiare consolidate de către instituţiile de credit publicate în Monitorul Oficial nr. 651/2002

Ordinul Guvernatorului Băncii Naţionale a României nr. 5/2005 pentru aprobarea Reglementărilor contabile conforme cu directivele europene aplicabile instituţiilor de credit.

Ordinul Ministrului Finanţelor Publice nr. 1827/2003 pentru modificarea şi completarea unor reglementări din domeniul contabilităţii

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Ordinul Ministrului Finanţelor Publice nr. 907 din 27 iunie 2005 privind aprobarea categoriilor de persoane juridice care aplică reglementări contabile conforme cu Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară, respectiv reglementări contabile conforme cu directivele europene

Ordinul Ministrului Finanţelor Publice nr. 1775/2005 pentru aprobarea Reglementărilor contabile conforme cu directivele europene

Ordinul Ministrului Finanţelor Publice nr. 3055/2009 pentru aprobarea Reglementărilor contabile conforme cu directivele europene

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The ethics of management of the non-reimbursable funds by the romanian SME’s

Diana Bălin*, Aura-Mihaela Ioniţă*

Abstract. The lack of entrepreneurial tradition and education in Romania is

accompanied by severe ethical problems in the Romanian business environment, having consequences at the community level. Taking into account the fact that the SMEs are the direct beneficiaries of the non-reimbursable funds awarded by the European Union in the periods before and after the integration, the management of the input of these funds depends to a great extent on the entrepreneurs’ behaviour as beneficiaries. The cases analysed by the competent institutions (DLAF, DNA) mirror not only procedural errors, but mostly lacks in ethics in the relationship between the private management and the financier. Considering what is involved (loss of sums allotted from the European budget, in case of failed implementations and implicitly a deterioration of Romania’s image as a member state of the EU) we estimate that solving only the already committed cases of fraud is not enough, especially since it is almost impossible to impose an ethical behaviour upon the future beneficiaries. We propose as a solution, complementary to informative actions, the development of preventative actions which will correct the behaviour of the Romanian entrepreneurs in the implementation of financed projects, not only of those who err through ignorance (they do not know), but especially of those who err through ill will (they do not want).)

JEL Classification: A13, D21, F36, L26 Keywords: Ethics, entrepreneurship, European founds, fraud

* Faculty of European Studies. Adress: 1 Em. De Martonne Street, 400090 Cluj-Napoca, Romania. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] * Faculty of European Studies. Adress: 1 Em. De Martonne Street, 400090 Cluj-Napoca, Romania. E-mail: [email protected]

Diana Bălin, Aura-Mihaela Ioniţă

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1. Introduction

One of the realities Romania is confronted with as a member of the European Union is the management of the structural funds. This is not all a novelty as during the pre-accession period, the European funds (such as PHARE, SAPARD etc.) have been used for various projects. However, the management of these funds remains a challenge for the public authorities and the SMEs involved, a challenge to integrity and responsibility.

This work plans a diagnose of the ethical problems in the process of accessing the European funds, with a special reference to the case of the Romanian SMEs, as well offering some suggestions for the optimization of the relationship SME-financier. These relationships are often disturbed by irregularities connected especially with ethical deficiencies.

The term ethics (ethos, gr.) is translated character or custom. A similar translation is attached to the word moral (mores, lat.). The difference between the two is connected both to the category where they are included – ethics designates the theory and moral designates the object inquired by that theory – and the domain in which they are used – the ethics in politics, business, public administration, public life generally, and moral in private life (Morar, 2006).

Beyond these theoretical considerations, if a person approaches the moral standards of a society, it enjoys a certain degree of appreciation (it is considered as a valuable member of that respective community) and of trust (a trustworthy person who does not betray, who respects its promises and principles). This is also the case with the SMEs which, through the respect shown to the principles of business ethics create an image that brings them benefits in their relationships with their partners.

The role of ethics is helping people and institutions to take the best decisions, it offers the criteria based on which these decisions should be taken and the moral motivations for the actions that must be taken.

The instruments used by ethics are based on the principles of equality in front of the norms, ergo the establishment of general standards. Within ethics, it is not truths that are discussed but various attitudes towards the problems of moral choice.


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2. Ethics and business

The issue of ethics is an interesting one once related to a field such as business. The association of the terms ethics ad business may appear bizarre and dissonant. Ethics and business are apparently in an antithesis but ethics is actually a sine qua non condition to ensuring a professional business environment. Although it sometimes implies greater efforts, the accordance with ethical norms in business management brings, among others, the partners’ trust and the enhancement of the collaboration with the civil society. The image of an entrepreneurial initiative is essential in the business environment; it provides the prerequisites of a long term success not just a quick one with no stable bases and no future.

Business ethics supposes a correct behaviour applied in the entrepreneurial activities. The elementary morality (Morar, 2006) – thou shall not steal, thou shall not lie, including the so-called golden rule “do as you would be done by” - enters within the sphere of business.

Zig Ziglar1 said:”To be moral is not just the RIGHT way of living, it is also the most practical way of living. The true business professionals not only talk of morality, they LIVE morally!” The preceding paragraph speaks about coherence and integrity. Their opposite is the dualism and hypocrisy which are regrettably more and more associated with business world. A simple etymologic analysis of these concepts helps us understand better their signification. Integrity, etymologically, suggests the idea of whole. A person of integrity is a “full” person, equally developed. Dualism does not restrain to ruining the person’s image in front of the others, it also harms the individual in its entirety – the man does no longer know who it is; being dual, it is no longer of integrity/whole, it “decomposes”.

On the other hand, a manager cannot “impose” a moral climate within the business that it runs unless it offers a personal example in that direction. An ethical behaviour cannot be the fruit of external constraints, of an obligation, it is self-imposed and it is carried by assuming certain responsibilities. The difference between obligation and responsibility resembles that between the civil and the moral law. The first one is imposed by regulations and its breach is punished while the second is self-

1 American author and lecturer in the motivational field, n. 1926


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imposed by the individual conscience.2 Responsibility involves a moral of aspiration, of the creative momentum, where obligation acquires spiritual valences.(Grigoraş, 2005)

Obligation is a characteristic of closed societies (see communism); through it the collective authority puts pressure on individuals stimulating them towards respect and obedience. The most convincing example is that of Romania during the communism when the Party “dictated” and the individual “executed” without becoming actually involved. We are dealing with conformism translated in the indifferent acceptance, conformism with no only ideological but also ethical valences. What needed to be “thought” was dictated not only in the political field but in the moral field also and the party’s directives covered all life’s aspects.

Unfortunately, in some people’s opinion (Copoeru, 2007), this conformism has been perpetuated in the post-communist period. We still are confronted with the challenge of the education in democracy. This implies an education towards the freedom of initiative, a civic and a moral education, showing respect for one’s own interest as well as for the others.

3. The situation of the Romanian entrepreneurship

In 1999, in the pages of Curentul, M. Boari pronounced a serious diagnostic for the Romanian economy, a diagnostic which seems to apply partially even today: “At this time, in Romania, we are dealing with a closed economy whose function depends on the alliance of interests between the state apparatus and an exclusive category of employers”. The fact that in Romania we can still find a closed economy makes us go back to the above mentioned distinction between obligation and responsibility. The compliance with the law remains something related to obligation and not responsibility/individual conscience and duty. Only the compulsory continues to be made, we “obey” the norms without doing anything beside them, responsibilities are not taken thus avoiding liability for deeds on the hedge or even outside the law, faking the rules does not raise moral issues. As long as legislation cannot prevent fraudulent deeds, they are performed without restraint.

2 ”Our conscience is called the law of our mind.” Ioan Damaschinul, 1993


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The main problem the Romanian economy is dealing with is the lack of an entrepreneurial tradition given that “the tradition of crafts and of professional associations has been dramatically interrupted along with the communist regime”. This is the conclusion of a study comparing the Romanian entrepreneur and western one and which highlights the aspects differentiating the two: (1) individualism versus association, (2) the perception of competition as an obstacle versus healthy competition, (3) the tendency towards commercial and speculative activities versus production, (4) temporary economic activities versus enduring business, (5) business on the hedge of law or illegal versus tendency towards legality, (6) the “parasite companies” practice versus companies independent on the state, (7) “clients’ capitalism” versus unbiased relationships. (Costariol, 1993)

Even more recent studies (Oancea & Diaconu, 2007) speak about the problems of the Romanian management: (1) passive, (2) closed, (3) no transparent, (4) unprofessional, (5) conservative, (6) immoral, (7) quasi-anomic. Within this type of defective management appears “a strong association between the lack of ethics and the success on a market where uncertainty, distrust in authorities and the legal instability seem to be part of the rules of the game”.

In this context, the excessive bureaucracy, defective management, the lack of qualified staff, the poor information, the low level of transparency, the conflicts of interests and the incompatibilities generate breaches of the integrity norms and seem to perpetuate the fake rules both into the public and private environment.

A possible solution to the problematic situation of the Romanian entrepreneurship: the social responsibility -”an elementary condition of the economic game on an open market”(Oancea & Diaconu, 2007) or, quoting Pope Benedict XVI (Caritas in Veritate, 45): ”The economy needs ethics in order to function correctly — not any ethics whatsoever, but an ethics which is people-centred.”

The transition stage in which Romania is still situated involves difficulties and dangers that can be surmounted as long as we are capable of assuming the humanist and ethical spirit leading towards solidarity.

The accession to the European Union is not confined to a socio-economic process, it is also a process through which individuals and peoples are connected, a process bringing benefits and development as far as


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everybody is willing to take their own responsibilities (both individuals and community).

4. Ethical versus non-ethical in the management of non-reimbursable funds

During the pre-accession period, the absorption of these funds such as PHARE, SAPARD, ISPA was monitored by European representatives (through the Delegation of the European Commission in Romania) so the spending of these sums by the public and the private sectors has been thoroughly verified. During all these years and especially during the last reporting period before our country’s accession to the European structures (2002-2007), the sphere of the beneficiaries of non-reimbursable funds has widened reaching from local counties and other public institutions (schools, hospitals, decentralized governmental structures, etc.) to companies most of them SMEs, from different fields of activity.

The ethics of management of these types of financings raise issues especially at the level of private environment beneficiaries, namely the Romanian entrepreneurs. By the nature of their current activities, the public sector beneficiaries enjoyed a previous experience concerning the management of public funds, in their capacity of contracting authority per se within the meaning of G.E.O. no. 34/2006. Regarding the Romanian companies, they have been driven to access non-reimbursable public funds without there being any generally assumed behaviour in this direction. The attitudes the Romanian entrepreneurs have decided to take about these non-reimbursable aids have been very different.

The ethical versus non-ethical problematic rises even in the initial stage, the inception of the idea of a project. Most of the times, on the managerial level, there is a development strategy outlined for the implementation of which the funds are necessary. Some entrepreneurs choose to approach these non-reimbursable financing opportunities as means of solving real problems in theirs companies, the solving of which induces a healthy growth of the business. Others see accessing these sums as a purpose not as a mean to achieve strategic objectives. Consequently, from the very beginning we are confronted with the issue of the purpose that can be an ethical one (responsible solving of company’s real problems)


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or a non-ethical one (taking advantage from non-reimbursable funds using the company’s problems as a pretext). The majority of the entrepreneurs, although they are manifest interest towards the issue of accessing these funds, are content with shallow information, associating the integration with “the flood of euro running towards Romania” (Bârgăoanu, 2009).

Then, in the stage of elaboration of the project, the applicant is often in the position to choose between a professional way of spending the money and the negligent assignment of the budget sums. The category of entrepreneurs who opt for such an allotment for reasons related to facilitating the use of the sums at the cost of jeopardising the project’s objectives, actually adopt a non-ethical behaviour.

Unfortunately, these financings are considered by some of the Romanian entrepreneurs as gifts from the European Union, a totally wrong perception taking into account that each member state (including Romania) contributes proportionally to the community budget. This conception appears in a context where even at a national level, “the absorption of European funds is awarded so much importance that it pushed in the background the problem of the purpose of this money” (Bârgăoanu, 2009).

It must be mentioned that after the elaboration of financing projects, the applicants whose projects are accepted acquire the statute of beneficiaries as a result of signing a financing contract. This contract between the financier and the SME stipulates the parties’ rights, on one hand, but implicitly generates a series of obligations whose breach attracts expressly provided sanctions.

Within the economic activity, the orientation at any cost towards the maximization of the profit in a very short time gives rise many times to reprehensible behaviour. Such an example in the field of our interest, is that of using the funds obtained through non-reimbursable financing to purchase cheap and low quality equipment, thus with a short duration of use. On the short term, this acquisition may seem profitable but in time it proves unprofitable.

On the other hand, the social responsibility focuses on a constant growth aiming at the possibility of achieving stable and enduring profits through the harnessing of material and immaterial capital of the company. In the case of European funds, the capital consists of the money obtained


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through the financing and the relation of trust with the financier that can generate further financings in the future.

Using one of Lipovetsky’s (1996) expressions, the ethics of responsibility nowadays is a “reasonable” ethics: it does not require the abandonment of one’s own goals but it seeks the conciliation of values and interests, the social and economic life’s constraints with individual’s rights. In other words, the profit and business development are possible without entering a conflict with the ethical principles.

Assuming responsibilities is also connected to the principle of human solidarity and reciprocity, a principle that, along with the related benefits imposes certain obligations as well. The non-reimbursable funds are based on this principle of solidarity and collaboration; they bring benefits but also entail responsibilities and obligations.

The most important stage in the way of the Romanian SMEs towards these funds resides in the actual implementation of the projects, a stage that begins with the signing of the financing contract. Within this stage there are attitudes3 leading to irregularities or even fraud in the management of the European funds. In this situation the problem is not that of not knowing the rules but that of the “bad intentions”, situation affecting both the beneficiary and the whole community.

These “bad intentions” are materialized in a defective management in breach of the ethical rules, where the limit between legal and illegal is ignored, where the obligation does not imply the accomplishment of the moral duty as well but rather exploiting any contractual gaps. In the relationship with the financier, this is translated in the lack of scrupulosity in attaining the declared goals by fraudulently redirecting funds, through disregard for the quality of the works performed and the attempt to obtain personal gain in detriment of the project that was granted financing.

All these lead to loosing the entrepreneur’s credibility and on a larger scale, to the deterioration of Romania’s image as a beneficiary of

3 Benedict XVI, Caritas in Veritate, 43:”Many people nowadays, pretend not to owe anything

to anybody except themselves. They are only preoccupied with their rights and often find dificult to take responsibility for their full development as well as that of other people”


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community non-reimbursable funds. As a consequence there are situations like the SAPARD funds suspension.4

The protection of the financial interests of the European Union manifests itself as a priority field both at the community and the national level. At the community level, the European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF) guarantees “the protection of the European Union’s financial interests against fraud, corruption and any other illegal activities as well as the protection of the European institutions’ reputation”. Each member state must ensure at the national level the implementation of its obligations in the field of protection of the European Union’s financial interests. To this end, the European Commission has encouraged the candidate countries to designate an institution in contact with the OLAF coordinating at the national level the fight against fraud and the protection of the community financial interests.

Although Romania already had since 2002 the Prime Minister’s Control Body as a Service for the Coordination of the Fight against Fraud – AFCOS, the creation of the Romanian anti-fraud system started in 2005 at the inception of the Anti-Fraud Department – DLAF, at the highest administrative level – within the Prime Minister’s Office. Romania became the first country of the EU member states and the candidate states that created a structure with powers only in the field of protecting the European Union’s financial interests. The anti-fraud system developed by Romania between 2005-2006 has been appreciated by the OLAF general director, M. F.H. Bruner, as “a model for the other member states and candidate countries”. (http://www. antifrauda.gov.ro)

Thus, the Anti-fraud Department – DLAF ensures the protection of the European Union’s financial interests in Romania. The Department has the power of control over the community funds as the national coordinator of

4 In July 2008, following certain audit missions within the SAPARD programme in Romania, showing important deficiencies in the management and control system, the Commission decided to interrupt thye reimbursement of SAPARD expenditures. The Commission will reimburse those expenditures only when, based on the national competent authority confirmed by independent audit organism, it reaches the conclusion that the plan of corrective measures formulated by the Romanian authorities has been correctly implemented. (source COMMISSION’S REPORT TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL, The protection of the Communities’ financial interests – Fight against fraud – Annual report 2008)


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the fight against fraud. At the national level, an important role in coordinating the fight against fraud is played by the 3 networks created by the DLAF: The Network Reporting the Irregularities, The Training Coordinators’ Network and the Anti-fraud Communicators’ Network. The Anti-Fraud Department is the institution responsible for the coordination of the implementation of the National Strategy for Fight against Fraud for the Protection of the European Union’s Financial Interests and of the related Action Plan.

According the Romanian Anti-Fraud Department’s reports the main means of fraud to the European funds discovered are the use of fake documents (54%), changing the funds’ destination (24%), breach of the public procurement rules, including the conflict of interests (28%). Most of the times, the investigations proved that these are the consequences of bad intentions more than of procedural errors generated by not knowing the implementation methodology for the financed projects.

The system of anti-fraud coordination put in place by the DLAF at the national level focuses not only on coordinating the control actions and the referral to prosecutors but also on the early discovery of the fraud and irregularities cases. Fraud means the intentional use of the funds to other ends than those stipulated in the financing contract while the irregularities refer to any foulness (both in form and in substance) in the use of the funds.

Despite the DLAF’s efforts and of those of different actors of the civil society5, it must be highlighted that the number of the cases of fraud of community funds within the economic agents does not cease to increase. These beneficiaries of the European funds (the structural instruments after 2007) are, unfortunately, less taken into account by the prevention and information actions. Most of the times, the Romanian entrepreneurs are not fully aware of the responsibilities taken as beneficiaries of the non-reimbursable funds. Used to acting as owners of their businesses, many of them don’t take serious the fact that once signed the financing contract they are actually administrating funds they own only as long as the financier decides that the sums have been spent exclusively according to the project.

Obviously, in the business environment the legislation governing the access to European funds and the DLAF function is not sufficient. The

5 See Transparency International Romania, www.transparency.org.ro


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punishment for the frauds already committed does bring back the money to Romania.

As optimization suggestions, we deem absolutely necessary the prevention in order to diminish the cases of fraud and of irregularities. This can be achieved through actions such as information campaigns to raise awareness of the risks implied by irregularities in the administration of non-reimbursable funds. Moreover, it is desirable an informal monitoring of the projects even in their elaboration stage (e.g. through virtual platforms) to pull an alarm signal even in the incipient stage, in the case of those entrepreneurs who see these funds as a purpose, not as a mean of optimization of their business. Not least, the media can play an important role in promoting the entrepreneurial ethics.

5. Conclusions

Romania, as a member state in the European Union is fully responsible for the efficient use of the structural instruments both by the public beneficiaries and those from the private environment. The poor management of the European funds is caused by procedural errors but also by the bad intentions of those committing not only irregularities but even frauds. As potential beneficiaries of non-reimbursable funds, the Romanian entrepreneurs must be educated and informed in order to commit to an ethical and responsible behaviour in front of the opportunity of being supported by the community budget. An efficient prevention is only real if the Romanian SMEs understand that this chance is also a huge challenge, with serious legal implications.

Bibliography

Bârgăoanu A. (2009) – Fondurile Europene Strategii de promovare și utilizare, București: Tritonic

Benedict XVI (2009) – Caritas in Veritate

Boari M. (1999) - Economia închisă a capitalismului etatist, in Curentul 18 august 1999

Catană A. (coordinator) (2007) - Elaborarea proiectelor cu finanțare din fondurile structurale pentru IMM-uri 2007-2013, Ed. Contaplus, Ploiești

Copeoru I., Szabo N. (coordinators)(2007) - Dileme morale și autonomie în contextul democratizării și al integrării europene, Casa Cărții de Știință 2007


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Costariol M.(1993) - The Development of the SME Sector in Romania (1991-1992), CNA Veneto & Euro-In-Library, Venice 1993

Damaschinul I. (1993) - Dogmatica, Scripta1993 Dochia A.(1999) - Contribuția noilor firme private la schimbările structurale din

economia românească in Ruhl C., Dăianu D. (coordinators), Tranziţia economică în România. Trecut, prezent, viitor. Banca Mondială, Bucureşti, 1999

Grigoraș I.(2005) - Datorie și lege morală, responsabilitate și liber arbitru, Sf. Mina, 2005

Lipovetsky G.(1996) - Amurgul datoriei, Babel 1996

Morar V. (2006) - Etica în afaceri și politică, Editura Universității din București 2006

Oancea D., Diaconu B. (2007) - Etica în afaceri nu este un lux. Despre implicarea socială a IMM-urilor, Revista 22 din 26 ian. 2007

EMERGENCY ORDINANCE No. 34 of 19th April 2006 on the assignment of public procurement contracts, public works concession contracts and services concession contracts

Ziglar Z. (2006), Pe culmile succesului, Editura Amaltea 2006

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Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară (IFRS) şi criza financiară

Boghean Cristina Iuliana*

Rezumat: După scandalurile financiare de la începutul anilor 2000 din Europa şi din

Statele Unite guvernele au încercat să amelioreze calitatea raportării financiare în scopul de a restabili încrederea publicului, deponenţi şi investitori .Ce vaste mouvement s'est traduit par l'adoption d'un ensemble de textes dont l'objectif commun est l'amélioration de la sécurité financière. Astfel anul 2005 a vãzut punerea în aplicare a IFRS (Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară, cunoscute până în anul 2001 sub denumirea de Standardele Internaţionale de Contabilitate (IAS) . IFRS se aplică tuturor statelor care doresc. Néanmoinsen 2007, le principal utilisateur de ces normes demeure l'Union européenne puisque le règlement CE 1606/2002 de l'UE impose à toutes les sociétés cotées publiant des comptes consolidés d'établir des états financiers dès le 1 er janvier 2005 en IAS / IFRS L'application du référentiel comptable devient alors obligatoire dès le 1 er janvier 2005 et le 1 er janvier 2007 pour les sociétés ayant seulement des titres cotés autres que des actions. Cu toate acestea, în 2007, utilizatorul principal al acestor standarde rămâne Uniunea Europeană.

Criza financiară care afectează în prezent economia mondială a dus la atacurile severe împotriva IFRS, inclusiv de la CEO al AIG şi Dexia sau AXA. Ces derniers estiment que l'application de la norme IFRS 7 sur l'évaluation des actifs financiers à la juste valeur (fair-value) serait à l'origine des importantes dépréciations constatées par les sociétés menacées de faillite.

Pentru a rezolva această problemă, Consiliul de administraţie al IASB a înfiinţat un grup de experţi financiari între mai şi august 2008 pentru a determina cel mai bine criteriile pentru a trece la valoarea de piaţă şi modele financiare. Un consensus est paru à cette occasion sur le site de l'IASB.

La 25 septembrie 2009 Comisia Europeană a adoptat un pachet important de proiecte legislative pentru a consolida în mod semnificativ modul de supraveghere a sectorului financiar în Europa. The aim of these enhanced cooperative arrangements is to sustainably reinforce financial stability throughout the EU; to ensure that the same basic technical rules are applied and enforced consistently; to identify risks in the system at an early stage; and to be able to act together far more effectively in emergencysituations and in resolving

* Universitatea Ecologică”Dimitrie Cantemir” Iaşi email: [email protected]

Boghean Cristina Iuliana

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disagreements among supervisors. Scopul acestor acorduri de cooperare consolidată este de a consolida în mod durabil stabilitatea financiară pe întreg teritoriul UE; să se asigure că aceleaşi norme tehnice de bază sunt aplicate şi puse în aplicare în mod consecvent, pentru a identifica riscurile în sistem la un stadiu incipient, şi a fi în măsură să acţioneze împreună în mod mai eficient în situaţii de urgenţă şi de soluţionare a dezacordurilor între autorităţile de supraveghere. The legislation will create a new European Systemic Risk Board (ESRB) to detect risks to the financial system as a whole with a critical function to issue early risk warnings to be rapidly acted on.

Cuvinte cheie: Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară, aplicare, probleme, criza financiară

Standardele internaţionale de raportare financiară cunoscute în cadrul

profesiei contabile şi financiare sub numele din limba engleza de Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară sau IFRS, sunt standarde de contabilitate elaborate de Biroul de Standarde internaţionale de contabilitate pentru companiile cotate la bursă pentru a se armoniza prezentarea şi claritatea declaraţiilor lor.

După scandalurile financiare de la începutul anilor 2000 din Europa şi din Statele Unite guvernele au încercat să amelioreze calitatea raportării financiare în scopul de a restabili încrederea publicului, deponenţi şi investitori .Ce vaste mouvement s'est traduit par l'adoption d'un ensemble de textes dont l'objectif commun est l'amélioration de la sécurité financière. Această mişcare largă a dus la adoptarea unui set de texte comun al cărei scop este de a îmbunătăţi securitatea financiară. L'année 2005 a ainsi vu l'application des normes IFRS ( International Financial Reporting Standards , dénommées jusqu'en 2001 normes IAS pour International Accounting Standards ) existant depuis 1973 , destinées à toutes les entreprises faisant appel public à l'épargne. Anul 2005 a vãzut punerea în aplicare a IFRS (Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară, cunoscute până în anul 2001 sub denumirea de Standardele Internaţionale de Contabilitate (IAS).

L'adoption et l'application des normes comptables internationales au sein de l' Union européenne sont régies par le règlement (CE)1606/2002 du 19 juillet 2002 , qui définit notamment les critères d'application d'une norme . Adoptarea şi aplicarea standardelor internaţionale de contabilitate în cadrul Uniunii Europene, inclusiv definirea criteriilor de aplicare a unui


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standard sunt reglementate de Regulamentul(CE) 1606 /2002 din 19 iulie 2002. Prin acesta se cer companiilor de a prezenta conturile lor consolidate în conformitate cu IFRS, urmărind prin aceasta să restabilească încrederea, să asigure transparentă şi claritate mai mare în contabilitate.En effet, la présentation des comptes de ces entreprises selon des normes harmonisées en facilitera la compréhension et surtout la comparaison à l'échelon européen. Într-adevăr, prezentarea conturilor acestor societăţi în conformitate cu standardele armonizate este de a facilita înţelegerea , de a armoniza legislaţiile naţionale diferite şi să aducă modelul american: (US GAAP). Désormais, les normes IAS/IFRS ne se limitent plus à l'Europe et se diffusent largement à travers le monde. Acum, IAS / IFRS nu mai sunt limitate la Europa şi s-au răspândit rapid în întreaga lume. Ainsi, de nombreux pays s'ajoutent à la liste des pays qui ont adoptés les normes IFRS ou qui envisagent de faire converger leurs normes vers le référentiel international. Astfel, multe ţări sunt adăugate la lista ţărilor care au adoptat IFRS sau care intenţionează să converg standardelor de referinţă internaţională.

Prin cotarea întreprinderilor europene pe pieţele financiare americane, cotare acceptată şi de semnalul pozitiv primit de referenţialul contabil internaţional pe aceste pieţe, investitorii îşi vor găsi plasament al capitalurilor lor, cu speranţa unor performanţe deosebite. Ȋn mod firesc, situaţiile financiare întocmite conform standardelor internaţionale şi acceptade de comisia americană de valori mobiliare ( Securities and Exchange Commission: SEC) au trebuit să fie trecute prin filtrul convergenţei.

România, ca ţară aflată în tranziţie spre o economie de piaţă, şi-a căutat de cîţiva ani, un drum al ei în implementarea şi reglementarea contabilă.1 Pînă în anul 2005 aceasta a avut o contabilitate armonizată, preluând elemente din ambele sisteme de contabilitate: latino-europeană şi anglo-saxonă. Ȋn România prin OMFP nr. 907/27.06.2005 se aduc precizări privind folosirea celor două referenţiale, respectiv IAS/IFRS sau Directivele CCE şi anume:2

1 Iacob Petru Pântea, Gheoghe Bodea” Contabilitatea Financiară Româneacă conformă cu Directivele Europene” editura Intelcredo, Deva, 2006, p.6 2 Elena Iancu „Aspecte legale de aplicarea IFRS şi a directivelor europene” în Revista Finanţe publice şi contabilitate, nr. 7-8/2005


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Ȋncepând cu exerciţiul financiar al anului 2006 persoanele juridice prevăzute la art.1 alin.1 din Legea contabilităţii nr.82/1991, republicată, aplică regelmentările contabile conforme cu Directivele europene. Aceste prevederi se aplică şi sediilor permanente din România care aparţin unor persoane juridice cu sediul sau domiciliul în străinătate.

Instituţiile de credit întocmesc, începând cu anul 2006, un set de situaţii financiare în conformitate cu regelmentările contabile conforme cu Directivele europene, respectiv directivele specifice băncilor şi un alt set distinct de situaţii financiare conforme cu Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară. Aceste situaţii financiare conforme cu IFRS sunt destinate altor utilizatori de informaţii.

Ȋn exerciţiul financiar al anului 2006, entităţile de interes public pot întocmi şi un set distinct de situaţii financiare conforme cu IFRS, pentru necesităţi proprii de informare a utilizatorilor, alţii decât instituţiile statului.

Entităţile de interes public prevăzute la art.3 din OMF nr.907/2005 pot întocmi pentru exerciţiul financiar al anului 2006 şi un set distinct de situaţii financiare conforme cu IFRS, pentru necesităţi proprii de informare a utilizatorilor, alţii decît instituţiile statului, potrivit opţiunii acestora şi dacă au capacitatea de implementare corespunzătoare.

Potrivit acestui ordin, Ministerul Finanţelor Publice a emis prin OMFP nr.1752/17.11.2005 regelmentări contabile conforme cu Directivele europene, aplicabile de la 1 ianuarie 2006.

IFRS se aplică tuturor statelor care doresc. Néanmoins en 2007, le principal utilisateur de ces normes demeure l'Union européenne puisque le règlement CE 1606/2002 de l'UE impose à toutes les sociétés cotées publiant des comptes consolidés d'établir des états financiers dès le 1 er janvier 2005 en IAS / IFRS L'application du référentiel comptable devient alors obligatoire dès le 1 er janvier 2005 et le 1 er janvier 2007 pour les sociétés ayant seulement des titres cotés autres que des actions. Cu toate acestea, în 2007, utilizatorul principal al acestor standarde rămâne Uniunea Europeană. Odată ce standardele de contabilitate au fost adoptate, companiile listate au avut să efectueze operaţiunea "de tranziţie", la IFRS să prezinte situaţiile lor financiare folosind un nou depozit de la 1 ianuarie 2005. Certaines entreprises européennes avaient anticipé très en amont cette étape : celles cotées aux Etats-Unis, pour lesquelles les divergences entre référentiel US et IFRS étaient faibles, ou


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encore celles qui avaient déjà adoptés les IFRS localement car leur organe de contrôle de bourse le permettait. Unele companii europene au anticipat această etapă foarte timpurie. Pour les autres, le processus a été plus difficile. Pentru alţii, procesul a fost mult mai dificil. D'une part, il a fallu s'approprier un référentiel où le conceptuel est très présent, avec des préceptes parfois très divergents des anciennes approches (par exemple, la comptabilisation des stock-options) ; d'autre part, il aura fallu souvent effectuer des analyses complémentaires lourdes et contraignantes pour déterminer certains retraitements (par exemple les évaluations actuarielles des retraites). D'une manière générale, la mobilisation a été forte et n'a pas été exclusivement réservée aux fonctions comptables et financières mais a amené le management, les directions opérationnelles, techniques et juridiques à partager les informations financières exigées par les normes. În general, mobilizarea a fost puternică şi nu a fost rezervată exclusiv contabilităţii ci şi finanţelor, managementului, orientărilor operaţionale, tehnice şi juridice pentru a partaja informaţiile financiare cerute de standarde. Le résultat fut positif puisque, dans l'ensemble, les états financiers IFRS ont été de qualité dès 2005 pour l'ensemble des entreprises, même si toutes n'ont pas vécu la transition de la même façon, les plus petits groupes ayant en effet rencontré plus de difficultés. Rezultatul a fost pozitiv, deoarece, în general, situaţiile financiare IFRS au fost de calitate, din 2005, pentru toate companiile, deşi nu toate s-au confruntat de tranziţie în acelaşi mod, grupurile mai mici având într-adevăr mai multe dificultăţi. Disposant de moins de moyen, bien souvent sans assistance externe d'experts pour l'analyse et l'évaluation IFRS des opérations les plus complexes, ils ont plus « subi » l'application de normes que profité des opportunités qu'elles représentaient. La crise financière qui touche actuellement les économies mondiales a conduit à de sévères attaques contre les normes IFRS notamment de la part du PDG d'AIG et de Dexia ou encore d'AXA. Criza financiară care afectează în prezent economia mondială a dus la atacurile severe împotriva IFRS, inclusiv de la CEO al AIG şi Dexia sau AXA. Ces derniers estiment que l'application de la norme IFRS 7 sur l'évaluation des actifs financiers à la juste valeur (fair-value) serait à l'origine des importantes dépréciations constatées par les sociétés menacées de faillite. Acesta din urmă consideră că aplicarea IFRS 7 privind evaluarea activelor financiare la valoarea justă (valoarea justă) ar fi la originea writedowns raportate de marile companii ameninţate cu falimentul. Selon Eric Seyvos, associé chez Bellot Mullenbach & Associés dans un article d'Option


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Finance, «la crise soulève de véritables questions. Eric Seyvos, partener la Bellot Mullenbach & Associes spunea într-un articol în Finante ,despre probleme reale pe care le ridică criza. La combinaison des IFRS et des règles Bâle II pour les organismes financiers conduisent à des anomalies. Combinaţia dintre IFRS şi Basel II Reguli pentru instituţiile financiare duce la anomalii. Les règles prudentielles des banques sont basées sur des instruments de mesure, sans aucun filtre. Normele prudenţiale pentru bănci se bazează pe instrumentele de măsurare, fără nici un filtru. Il en ressort un effet procyclique dévastateur en temps de crise qui nécessite une réflexion pour restaurer la cohérence des deux références» [ 4 ] . Acestea arată efecte devastatore prociclice în perioade de criză, care necesită gândirea pentru a restaura coerenţa a două trimiteri. "[4]. Selon Philippe Danjou et Gilbert Gelard, membres de l'IASB, ils estiment bien au contraire que l'application des normes IFRS a permis d'afficher en toute transparence l'état et la nature de la crise. Potrivit Philippe Danjou şi Gilbert Gelard, membri ai IASB, cred că aplicarea IFRS este pentru a afişa transparenţa de stat şi a afla natura crizei. Ils ajoutent même que la méthodologie de la juste valeur est certes le pire des systèmes si on exclut toutes les autres méthodologies. Ei adaugă că aceeaşi metodologie de valoarea justă este cu siguranţă cea mai gravă în sistem dacă am exclude orice alte metodologii. Ils déclarent enfin que la crise de confiance qui affecte largement les marchés financiers pourra être dépassée dès lors qu'on aura renforcé la transparence et multiplié les révélations. Ei spun că în cele din urmă criza de încredere în pieţele financiare, în mare măsură, o să fie trecută, de îndată ce ne-am consolidat de transparenţă şi prezentările de informaţii au crescut. Cependant, un véritable problème se pose sur des marchés moins liquides c'est à dire où il ya peu de transactions. Cu toate acestea, o problemă apare pe pieţele lichide, de exemplu, în cazul în care există puţine tranzacţii. Afin de résoudre cette difficulté, le Board de l'IASB a constitué un panel d'experts financiers entre mai et août 2008 afin de déterminer les meilleurs critères afin de passer de la valeur du marché et les modèles financiers. Pentru a rezolva această problemă, Consiliul de administraţie al IASB a înfiinţat un grup de experţi financiari între mai şi august 2008 pentru a determina cel mai bine criteriile pentru a trece la valoarea de piaţă şi modele financiare. Un consensus est paru à cette occasion sur le site de l'IASB. Un consens a apărut la acel moment pe site-ul IASB.


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Comisia aprobă recomandarea de a pune în aplicare evaluarea la valoare reală atunci când pieţele au devenit inactive.

La reuniunea din 21 octombrie, participanţii au spus că este urgent să se facă recomandări suplimentare privind aplicarea valorii juste în pieţele inactive.

La 31 octombrie, IASB a publicat o lucrare cu recomandări privind aspectele cheie în evaluarea instrumentelor financiare în cazul în care nici o piaţă nu este activă. Aceste recomandări specifice în special faptul că, atunci când nici o piaţă nu este activă, preţul tranzacţiei sau preţul furnizat de un broker sau de un serviciu, preţurile de evaluare pot fi luate în considerare în evaluarea valorii juste , dar nu neapărat în mod decisiv. Les entreprises européennes disposent ainsi des clarifications dont elles ont besoin pour appliquer des modèles internes permettant de calculer la valeur d'instruments financiers pour lesquels il n'existe plus de marchés actifs. Companiile europene au clarificările de care au nevoie pentru punerea în aplicare a modelelor interne pentru a calcula valoarea instrumentelor financiare pentru care există mai multe pieţe active. Le document synthétique (staff summary) de l'IASB tient compte des récentes clarifications publiées par le Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) ainsi que par l'Office of the Chief Accountant de la Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) des États-Unis. Comisia Europeană va continua să monitorizeze evoluţiile din acest domeniu şi încurajează organizaţiile care dezvoltă standardele de contabilitate pentru a aborda şi alte aspecte care decurg din criza de credit.

La 25 septembrie 2009 Comisia Europeană a adoptat un pachet important de proiecte legislative pentru a consolida în mod semnificativ modul de supraveghere a sectorului financiar în Europa. The aim of these enhanced cooperative arrangements is to sustainably reinforce financial stability throughout the EU; to ensure that the same basic technical rules are applied and enforced consistently; to identify risks in the system at an early stage; and to be able to act together far more effectively in emergency situations and in resolving disagreements among supervisors. Scopul acestor acorduri de cooperare consolidată este de a consolida în mod durabil stabilitatea financiară pe întreg teritoriul UE; să se asigure că aceleaşi norme tehnice de bază sunt aplicate şi puse în aplicare în mod consecvent, pentru a identifica riscurile în sistem la un stadiu incipient, şi a fi în măsură să acţioneze împreună în mod mai eficient în situaţii de urgenţă şi de soluţionare a dezacordurilor


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între autorităţile de supraveghere. The legislation will create a new European Systemic Risk Board (ESRB) to detect risks to the financial system as a whole with a critical function to issue early risk warnings to be rapidly acted on. Legislaţia va crea un nou risc sistemic european (ESRB), pentru a detecta riscurile pentru sistemul financiar în ansamblu cu o funcţie critică de a emite avertismente de risc devreme pentru a putea acţiona rapid. It will also set up a European System of Financial Supervisors (ESFS), composed of national supervisors and three new European Supervisory Authorities for the banking, securities and insurance and occupational pensions sectors. Acesta va stabili, de asemenea, un sistem european de supraveghere financiară (ESFS), alcătuit din autorităţilor naţionale de supraveghere şi trei noi autorităţi europene de supraveghere bancare, titluri de valoare şi de asigurări şi pensii ocupaţionale.

European Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso said: “Financial markets are European and global, not only national. Preşedintele Comisiei Europene, Jose Manuel Barroso, a declarat: "Pieţele financiare sunt europene şi mondiale, nu numai la nivel naţional. Their supervision must also be European and global. Supravegherea acestora trebuie să fie, de asemenea, europene şi mondiale. Today we are proposing a new European supervisory system, with the political backing of the Member States and based on the de Larosiere report. Astăzi vom propune un nou sistem european de supraveghere, cu sprijinul politic al statelor membre, precum şi pe baza raportului de Larosière. Our aim is to protect European taxpayers from a repeat of the dark days of autumn 2008, when governments had to pour billions of euros into the banks. Scopul nostru este de a proteja contribuabilii europeni de la o repeta zilele întunecate din toamna anului 2008, când guvernele au trebuit să depună miliarde de euro în bănci. This European system can also inspire a global one and we will argue for that in Pittsburgh”.

Bibliografie

Elena Iancu „Aspecte legale de aplicarea IFRS şi a directivelor europene” în Revista Finanţe publice şi contabilitate, nr. 7-8/2005

Iacob Petru Pântea, Gheoghe Bodea ”Contabilitatea Financiară Româneacă conformă cu Directivele Europene” editura Intelcredo, Deva, 2006


*** Dossier, les normes IFRS : premier bilan avec les contributions de W. Nahum, JL. Mullenbach, PJ. Gaudel, N. Klapisz, F.Gintrac, S. Bonnet Bernard, F. Chevalier, E. Seyvos et E. Doise, Journal des Sociétés, n°50, Janvier 2008,

*** http://www.gaap-ifrs.com

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Analysis of the foreign direct investment (FDI) in Romania after EU accession

Braga Viorica*, Mirea Gabriel**

Abstract. Throughout this article, we present the evolution of foreign direct investment

in Romania, the advantages and disadvantages of the countries they have to attract investors, the role of the European Investment Bank, areas of interest to investors, factors which influence the attraction of the foreign direct investment in the current condition of crisis.

JEL Classification: E22

Keywords: foreign direct investment, the economic crisis, the European Investment Bank

The natural disintegration and dissolution of the socialist camp "the evil empire" (1990-91), allowed to the states semi colonial (ex-socialist countries) and colonial (Newly Independent States, NIS) to develop and realize their socio-economic strategies and political development to meet the interests of their peoples. Romania was one of the first countries in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), which was directed and unequivocally expressed his desire to join the top performing countries in the world building - European Union (EU). In 1993, public authorities have signed the Association Agreement with the EU, which entered into force in February 1995. On June 22, 1995, Romania officially submitted an application for membership, and on February 15, 2000, began negotiations that led to integration into the EU on January 1, 2007.

Simultaneously, the meeting of 20-21 November 2002, in Prague, of the NATO countries, Romania was accepted in the North Atlantic Alliance and in 2003, the U.S. Senate recognized the Romanian economy, as a functioning market. These major events, turning point in the modern

* Ph.D. Associate Professor, Braga Viorica [email protected] ** Economist Engineer [email protected]


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history, have changed radically for the better, the status of European and international economic policy of Romania.

The important performance have input to, increasing the attractiveness of Romania, namely, the essential changes in Romanian society. Both the pre-accession "gold" (in 2007 the EU has reached 50 years) and, in particular the first year after accession to the European family, can be described as tangible successes in regional and European level.

First you need to say, that compared to other CEE countries that joined the EU in 2004 and 2007 (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Malta, Cyprus, Bulgaria) Romania had, for us, some obvious and important advantages. Among them, deserve to be given the following:

- Romania was the only country in this area, which was able to pay (in spring 1989) in full, the public external borrowing. No country in the whole camp was not the totalitarian (not, and many years will not be) able to pay its external public debt. This, in financial-monetary plan, means that Romania was and is among the most reliable countries in the world, in the modern history. It should be mentioned in particular that the financial policy of the Romanian currency was a healthy, enviable for many countries in the region.

- Romania was and is the only country of those who joined in the first decade of the XXI century to the EU, with a greater degree of energy insurance. Although the coefficient varied energy independence (currently it is about 80% while others have only 40-50%), that in the coming few years (until 2012-2015) will be over 100%. Please note that during a long period, Romania had a full energy independence, which was not typical for the most European countries, including those in the west.

- Another component is a low Romania regional scale (area and the greatest potential for human) and economic and geographical situation: Romania is situated at the crossroads of major routes linking Europe with Asia and Africa. This may also include future energy routes that will link Caspian Sea to the EU. As the economic potential in the CEE area, it actually yields only Poland.

Braga Viorica, Mirea Gabriel

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Consistent economic growth

All these and other factors have contributed towards the development of the economy upward in the years preceding accession, and in the first year after accession. Rates of economic growth in the recent years have been among the most consistent compared with the EU-27. For example, GDP growth in the years 2001-2007 was about 6% annually, most EU ahead. (The drought of 2007, according to calculations Romanian specialists has declined by 2 percentage points of GDP growth).

In a very short time, Romania has achieved tangible successes in all areas of development, the most pronounced being obtained in the years 2004-2007, when the actual decisions have been taken in principle on European integration and in the first year after accession.

According to the World Investment Report of UNCTAD, as the index of performance of foreign direct investment (FDI), Romania joined in 2005 at number 101, on the 21st place in 2006 and then on the10th place in 2008. Because of the favourable international image changes, substantially increased the foreign investment. In the years 2004-2007, these exceeded the figure of 33 billion USD, including nearly 1 billion monthly in 2006, Romania is the second largest recipient, the FDI in the region. They have supplemented the internal funds and provided a volume of gross domestic product (GDP), of approx. 100 billion euro in 2006 and approx. 390 billion RON (over 110 billion euro) in 2007. Effectively, this means that the CEE only Poland has a higher GDP. Relevant indicator for Ukraine was 106.5 billion USD in 2006, and approx. 125 billion USD (provided) in 2007. Reported on a habitant, GDP was in 2006, approx. 4480 euros, or 39% of European average, and in 2007 - approx. 5 thousand euros (over 41% of the EU). In concordance with the Report of the National Human Development (RNDU), Romania in 2007, ranked 60 out of 177 countries for which information is available. The document places Romania among the countries with a high Human Development Index.

Reasons to invest in Romania

Considering Romania as a possible location for their business development, foreign investors look closely the benefits of our country to encourage FDI attraction. These benefits may be market and geographical


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position, resources, political, arising from international relations, social, economic and legal.

Advantages offered by the market and the geographic position

One of the biggest markets in the Central and East Europe (the 7th place, with over 21 million inhabitants);

The gate access to the EU market (about 500 million consumers); The attractive location - situated at the junction of the European

Union, the Balkans and CIS, Romania is crossed by three major Pan-European corridors: corridor no. 4, which links the West of Eastern Europe, corridor no. 9, which connects North and South of the continent and corridor no. 7, which facilitates navigation within Europe.

Benefits due to resource

The highly skilled workforce at the competitive prices (foreign language knowledge, technology, IT, engineering, etc.);

The rich natural resources, including surface water and groundwater, fertile agricultural land, oil and natural gas;

The significant potential tourism.

Political advantages

Factor of stability in the region – the NATO member state; Guarantee of stability in the Southeast Europe; The EU Member State.

Advantages resulting from the international relations

The bilateral agreements concluded by Romania with other countries on the promotion and reciprocal protection of investments;

The bilateral diplomatic relations with 177 countries of the 191 UN member states, in addition with the Holy See, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta and the Palestinian National Authority;


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Member of the United Nations and other international organizations: OSCE, Council of Europe, the International Organization of Francophone;

Free trade treaties with EU countries, EFTA, CEFTA; Member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in January 1995.

The Economic Benefits

The sustained economic growth; Downward trend of inflation; The increasing interest from the foreign investors - the main

destination of FDI flows in the region (source: Ernst & Young, SEE Attractiveness Survey - Southeast Europe: An Emergent FDI Destination in Europe, April 2008);

A healthy fiscal policy (the corporate tax of 16%).

The Social Benefits

Agreements between the government and the representative trade unions;

Lack of major trade union movement; The labour market and the labour relations enacted by the Labour

Code.

The Legislative Benefits

The legal provisions similar to the EU (implementation of the Communitar Acquis);

The fiscal policy governed by the Tax Code. Desirable, they leave the telecommunications and transport

infrastructure and the research, which must be improved.

The evolution of foreign direct investment attracted by Romania

According to the data published in the investments report made by UNCTAD (United Nations Trade and Development), Romania ranks the


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top ten countries of the European Union, the amount of FDI attracted in 2008, with 13.3 billion dollars (9.084 million euros).

Table no. 1 Evolution of the foreign direct investment attracted by Romania, 2003-

2008, Million euros

Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

FDI Value 1946 5183 5213 9059 7250 9084

Source: The National Bank of Romania, Balance of payments

If we look at the foreign direct investment this year, we have to show that they have registered in January worth 912 million euros; their value in February was 462 million euros, followed by a slump in March when it reached its lowest level in the last four years, only 82 million. There was a return in April, when FDI climbed to 599 million euros, following a slight decrease in May to 420 million euros (table no.2). This is a favourable factor, although probably most of them are the increase in the share capital. And I say this, because traditionally, in March, fewer infusions of capital, shareholders pending the results of the previous year, while in April, to make new capital increase.

According to the same report by UNCTAD, in the first seven months of this year, the foreign direct investment in Romania reached 3.1 billion USD (2.1 billion euros). This decrease registered against the same period of the last year due to the fact that now the competition in the attracting foreign investments moved at the world level. Romania not currently competes, only countries in the region. Countries such as Russia and Ukraine, which until now were not in the charts, but also Asian countries, compete to attract FDI. The signal from investors is that Romania must make a strategy to consider measures for a long period of time to become attractive.

Table no. 2. The foreign direct investment attracted by Romania in 2009, million euros

Month Jan Feb. Mar Apr May Availability 912 1374 1456 2055 2475

Monthly flow 912 462 82 599 420

Source: The National Bank of Romania, Balance of payments

The subscribed capital for companies with foreign participation in 2009 had a value of 693 million euros in January, following the coming


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months as its value continued to decline reaching 147 million euros in May (Table No.3).

Table no. 3. The issued capital of companies with foreign participation in 2009million euros

Month Jan Feb. Mar Apr May Availability 693 1076 1378 1712 1859

Monthly flow 693 383 302 334 147 Source: The Trade Register Office - Summary Statistics No. 133

The number of companies with foreign participation in the new capital registered in Romania in 2009 remained at an average of 600 per month (Table no. 4).

Table no. 4. Number of companies with foreign participation Month Jan Feb. Mar Apr May

No. 614 682 747 644 580 Source: The Summary Statistics Office Trade Register No. 133

If we look at net foreign investment on the stock exchange, the difference between the value of purchases and sales by foreign investors find that they have climbed in May, almost 7.4 million euros, the highest level since last year, given that market, last month saw the first correction after the strong recovery in March and April. I believe that increasing the number of foreign investors in May, due mainly to the IMF agreement, which gave added confidence to the local capital market. They also counted the assessments supported by domestic investors in March and April, but the loan from the IMF, confirmed the development of stock of the previous months. The trend on the BSE, however, is still dictated by the local investors, who have made and in May, over three quarters of market transactions. For this reason, it is difficult to assess whether foreign investors next period. However, it is pleasing that the local stock market is visible in the region, both by increasing both the stability and, possibly as this, to bring a second wave of non-market investors, who needed confirmation of a trend.

Perspectives

According to the estimates from earlier this year, made by the Romanian Agency for Foreign Investments (ARIS), foreign direct investment this year will reach 4.5 billion euros, that half of the year of 2008. ARIS monitors currently 22 new investment projects at the stage of


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intent, worth 1.5 billion euros, which would create 6,300 new jobs in the areas such as energy, real estate, construction equipment energy, automotive parts and packaging. For these projects in our country, I think investors would like to see: less corruption, a predictable business environment, less bureaucracy, the honourable streets (not necessarily the highway), consistent and coherent implementation of existing strategies, the time more than 4 years (means from one government to another), and the design of emergency, a professional development strategy, I think, which is obviously what area or areas are given priority.

I say these things, because so far, Romania has done much to prevent the foreign investors to come here, many institutions made unnecessary, many feasibility studies, but has not done much highway on which investors can come.

The role of the European Investment Bank

In the context of Romania's integration into the European Union, an especially important role is played by the partnership with the European Investment Bank (EIB).

EIB has been building for several years, a corporate partnership with the European banking (180 banks and financial institutions in the EU). This cooperation, which combines the financial strength of the EIB and specific banking sector, provides many benefits:

- Enable the EIB to optimize its work on capital markets, ensuring the success of its investment and trading bonds on the secondary market;

- Assist in the financing of the large projects by establishing project requirements tailored packages, as co-financing or credit average;

- To assure that the benefits of credit lines established by the Bank for funding for small-scale switch to local authorities and small businesses that are multiplied.

The EIB maintains very strong links with other family members of the Community institutions, the Community objectives, such as:

- Support the European integration and balanced development of the Union;


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- Union development and the cooperation policies with 140 countries.

This type of cooperation, the EIB gives the ability to coordinate its operations with those of other institutions, while they retain their independence and decision-making procedures, as presented in the EU Treaties.

The EIB also maintain the effectiveness of various Community instruments, which provides loans to support the substantial investment of capital, inside and outside the EU. In this way, it works with: Parliament, the EU Council, European Council, European Commission, the Economic and Social Committee and the ECJ and European Court of Auditors. In addition, the European Council often asks EIB to implement new community initiatives, which require banks or financial instruments.

Over recent years, the European Council counted on EIB ability to launch innovative operations to appeal to a variety of measures that contribute to balanced development of Union.

But now, under the conditions of crisis around the presidential election, political argument may drive away investors. Political instability does not affect the Romanian economy in the short term, but if this state is maintained more, the investment and the economic growth will squeeze.

I believe that agriculture, energy and construction, especially infrastructure, are the three areas that Romania should be to shape an investment strategy for the coming years, otherwise we will surely losing the map for foreign investors, which brings together over 100 multinational companies that have achieved about 60% of foreign investments in Romania. In these three areas should focus resources and efforts, even if it is painful for other areas, which will be private funding.

Conclusions:

1. Romania's accession to the EU was pushing the foreign direct investment, this growth is now affected by the economic crisis;

2. FDI also increased GDP and per capita GDP growth, they reached over 41% of the EU in 2007,

3. Romania, as a possible location for business development, has a number of advantages in attracting investors such as market


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and geographical position, resources, international relations, law;

4. The amount of foreign direct investment peaked in 2008, when they reached 9084 million Euro;

5. According to estimates from earlier of this year, made by the Romanian Agency for Foreign Investments (ARIS), the foreign direct investment this year will reach 4.5 billion euros, that half of the year of 2008.

6. Agriculture, energy and construction, especially infrastructure, are the three areas that Romania should be to shape an investment strategy for the coming years.

Bibliography:

Anghel Ion, Investiţiile străine directe, Expert Publishing, Bucharest, 2002

www.aris.com www.bnr.ro

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Audit evidences – Essential elements of the internal audit when respecting the international internal audit

standards

George Calotă*

Abstract.

Collecting the probative elements – internal audit evidences – it doesn’t represent a technique specific for the internal audit but it has been adapted from other fields and has gained a special importance and, also, specific features of the internal auditor profession.

The source of the internal audit activity it is consisted from the gathered information, treated and analyzed by the internal auditor, and known in the specialized literature under the denomination of internal audit evidences. Thus, the internal auditor, through his knowledge and existing techniques, collects through the entire mission solid audit evidences with which he can offer an assurance regarding the functionality of the internal audit systems.

A finding can be considered proved and, thus, valid if the collected information is sufficient and reliable.

Under these exigent conditions, throughout the internal audit mission, the auditor, when considering the collection of evidences, must take a range of decisions that can be dissolved in the following categories:

What internal audit techniques must he use? What is the right dimension of the sample selected for right

application of a certain technique? What elements must be extracted from the analyzed population? When the respective technique must be used?

The present article presents the relations between the international standards for internal audit, the techniques used for collecting evidences and the four major decisions regarding the audit evidences.

JEL Classification: M00;M41;M42 Keywords: internal audit, internal audit standards, audit evidences, internal audit techniques

* Central Unit for Public Internal Audit Harmonization - Ministry of Finance, Adress: 12 Libertăţii Street, Third Floor, room 21, Bucharest, Romania. E-mail: [email protected].

Audit evidences – Essential elements of the internal audit when respecting...

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1. Intoduction.

Collecting the conclusive elements – internal audit evidences – doesn’t represent a technique specific to internal audit, but it has been adapted from other 7domains but it has gained a great importance and specific characteristics from the internal auditor profession.

Comparing the technique of collecting evidences, in the definition of the pharmacist, magistrate, financial auditor and internal auditor, can be demonstrated some similarities which are presented in the following table (table no. 1)

Table no. 1 The characteristics of the evidence elements in the case of some scientific experiment, of

a juridical procedure, of an audit of the financial situations and of an internal audit1

Comparison criterion

The scientific experiment

involving the testing of a

drug

The juridical procedure involving a

person charged with

theft

The audit of the financial

situations Internal audit

The purpose of the evidences’

usage

Determination of the effects caused by the usage of the drug

Determination of the charged person’s guilt or innocence

Determination of the accurate presentation of the financial situations

Providing an assurance for the general management with regards to the quality of the control system for the audited activity

The nature of the evidence

The results of repeatedly experiments

Direct evidences and declarations from witnesses and from other parties involved

Different types of audit evidences generated by the auditor, third parties and clients.

Evidences regarding all the elements regarding the objectives and the scope of the mission: physical evidences, testimonies, documents, analytical evidences

1 Adjustment after the source: Arens A., Loebbecke K, - Audit: an integrated approach, 8th edition, Arrow Publishing House, Chişinău, 2003, page. 207.

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Comparison criterion

The scientific experiment

involving the testing of a

drug

The juridical procedure involving a

person charged with

theft

The audit of the financial

situations Internal audit

The part that evaluates the

evidences

The researcher The judge Financial auditor

Internal auditor

The conclusions’

degree of certainty based

on the evidences

Varies from uncertainty to a high degree of certainty

It is imposed to demonstrate guilt beyond any doubt

High level of assurance (certainty)

High level of assurance (certainty)

The nature of conclusions

To recommend of not the usage of the drug

To establish the guilt or innocence of the accused party

To issue one or more types of alternative audit reports

To recommend the elaboration of a plan for implementing the recommendations

The consequences of a improper

conclusion based on the

collected evidences

The society uses an inefficient drug or even harmful

The guilty part it is not sanctioned or the innocent part it is sentenced

The users of the financial situations take the wrong decisions and the auditor can be sued

The general management it is improperly informed with regards to the functionality of the internal control systems. As follows, the decisions made by the management for the recommendations’ implementation can be wrong.

In the context of those presented in the table, it can be observed that the usage of evidences it is not specific to internal auditors only. The necessary elements of evidence are collected, processed in order to discover the truth by scientists, judges, financial auditors and internal auditors.


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2. Theoretical and practical considerations regarding the internal audit evidences

The analysis of bibliographical resources with regards to the audit evidences allows us to consider that the source of the internal audit activity it is not in the accumulated, processed and analyzed information by the internal auditor known in the specialized literature as internal audit evidences.

Thus, the internal auditor, through his knowledge and techniques at his disposal, collects throughout his mission solid audit evidences with which he can provide an assurance towards the functionality of the internal control systems.

In terms of audit evidences, the International Standards for Internal Audit2 state that a finding can be considered as proved and, thus, valid if the accumulated information present four characteristics, as follows:

• an information it is valid if it is functional, adequate and probative so that a cautioned and informed person to reach the same conclusions as the auditor;

• a conclusive information it is valid and easily accessed through the usage of the corresponding audit techniques;

• an information it is pertinent if it confirms the findings and recommendations of the audit and if it responds to the mission’s objectives;

• an information it is useful if it helps the organization in achieving its objectives.

The quantity of the obtained evidences determines their adequate character, fact that allows us to opine that the sufficient evidences are determined by the size of the sample selected by the auditor. Consequently, the greater the sample selected by the auditor to test, the greater the amount of evidences obtained during the intervention on spot stage.

Referring to the factors that influence when the auditor determines the size of the sample used in audit, we consider being of great importance to concentrate over the following two factors: the probability for an error to materialize and the functionality of the internal control system. In order to give an example for what we presented above, we assume that during the internal audit mission regarding the financial-accounting activity, the 2 2320 Standard - Analysis and evaluation

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internal auditors team that conduct their activity within an economical entity from the passenger transportation field has deduced that there is a high probability for a lack in the administration of tickets and subscriptions due to the fact that this administration hasn’t been subjected to an inventory for a long period of time. In order to verify the lack of administration, the internal auditor will extract a larger sample of tickets and subscriptions then he would for an audit in which the probability for a lack in administration is lower. Similarly, if the internal auditor comes to the conclusion that, at the entity’s level, there are internal control mechanisms regarding the organization of the administration of tickets and subscriptions, he will form a smaller sample for the respective audit.

Besides the size of the sample, the individual elements subjected to testing affect the validity of the evidences. In practice, this aspect it is highlighted by the fact that the internal auditors consider as being valid those samples that contain elements with high monetary value, elements with a high probability of error and other representative elements for the tested population.

In order to be conclusive, evidence must be both sufficient and solid. The reliability of evidences3 refers to the extent to which evidences can

be considered to be plausible and reliable. After being considered reliable, the evidences contribute in a greater manner to the certitude of the internal auditor that the internal control systems within an entity are functional. For example, the inventory of the cash performed by the auditor constitutes more thorough evidence than if the cashier of the entity presents her own situations regarding the administration of the monetary value.

The reliability of the evidences it is assured by the existence of the following seven characteristics at a high level:

• Relevance. The evidences must be referred to the internal audit mission’s objectives, the auditor performing a series of tests in order to become convinced by their reliability. For example, the internal auditor it is preoccupied by the fact that the entity doesn’t invoice correctly the value of services for those clients that it assures transportation facility. If the auditor selects a sample from these invoices and confronts them with documents, 3 In practice it is used the term of reliability of evidences as synonym for the notion of solidness


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then these evidences will not be relevant in terms of completeness and, as thus, won’t be considered reliable evidences for the respective operation. A relevant procedure would be to start from an invoice sample and to be realized a score with the beneficiaries in order to determine if all afferent expenses for the services have been invoiced. Unlike the first example of procedure, this second audit procedure it is relevant since the services provided represent the normal criterion used to determine if a sale has been really occurred and if it should be invoiced. By redrawing the path from the documents that underline the invoice, downstream till the invoices, the auditor can determine if the services have been invoiced to the beneficiaries. But if the auditor starts with the invoices and moves upstream to the primary documents, then it will be impossible for the auditor to discover the uninvoiced deliveries.

• the independence of the source. Good practice in the field recommends to the auditor to resort to information sources outside the audited structure/entity. This is because these sources are more reliable then the ones collected within it. For example, external evidence such as the Account statement for confirming a liability to a client represents, as a general rule, more reliable evidence then the answers received following the questioning of the personnel within the audited structure/entity.

• the existence of functional internal control systems. Under the conditions in which, at the level of the audited structure, the internal control systems function in an efficient manner, the collected evidences are seen as reliable. For example, if the internal control system of the financial activity it is reliable, then the internal auditor can obtain from the sales’ invoices and other documents regarding the services provided a greater reliability for the evidences then he would if the control system would be inadequate.

• the direct information of the auditor. The evidences obtained directly by the auditor through comparisons, examinations, recalculation, confirmation, agreement, monitoring etc. are more solid then the information obtained indirectly. For example, if the auditor calculates the expense made with the annual depreciation for tangible assets, then the evidences obtained are more valid then if the auditor would have based himself on the calculation made by the accounting department.

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• the professional training of the person that offers the information. Even in the situation in which the independence of the information sources is confirmed, the evidences can not be valid unless the person giving the information has an appropriate professional training. For example, the information within a court order regarding the receivables collected are more confident then their confirmation by a person unfamiliar with the economic environment. Also, the evidences obtained directly by the auditor can be considered to be unreliable if the respective auditor lacks the necessary skills and competence to evaluate these evidences.

• degree of objectivity. Good practice in the field recommends to the internal auditor the usage of some adequate collecting techniques that differ from one case to another and from one mission to another, with the purpose in obtaining some objective evidences. This is because objective evidences are more reliable then those that require a serious dose of subjective reasoning in order to determine if they are correct or not4.

• opportunity. This characteristics refers to either the moment when these evidences are collected either to the period subjected to the audit. For example, the formation of a sample referring to the total amount of invoices for acquisition of fuel for the entire auditable period will be more valid then an extract referring to the acquisition of fuel for a shorter period of time.

Schematically, what we presented regarding the factors that determine the conclusive character of the internal audit evidences can be seen, in a synthetic manner, in the figure below:

4 Arens A., Loebbecke K, - Audit: an integrated approach, 8th edition, Arrow Publishing House, Chişinău, 2003, page.210.


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Figure no. 1. The factors that determine the conclusive character of the internal audit evidences5

3. Conclusions

If we take into account all that we presented above, the establishing the conclusive character of the evidences implies the realization of an evaluation by the internal auditor in order to determine the extent to which both the solidity and sufficiency criteria of the evidences and the factors that influence them have been taken into consideration.

Also, at the time when the auditor makes a decision regarding the audit evidences, he must regard both their conclusiveness and the resources and time allocated in order to obtain them. This is because the main objective of the internal auditor consists in getting conclusive evidences with a minimum consumption of resources. Still, the internal auditor can not ever invoke the costs for eliminating a necessary procedure6 or for constituting a sample of insufficient dimensions.

5 Adjustment after the source: Arens A., Loebbecke K, - Audit: an integrated approach, 8th edition, Arrow Publishing House, Chişinău, 2003, page. 212. 6 The procedure of collecting evidences - – a set of detailed instructions regarding the collection of a certain type of evidence that will be obtained at a certain moment during the audit

Relevance

The independence of the source

The existence of functional internal control systems

The direct information of the auditor

The professional training of the person that gives the information

Degree of objectivity

Opportunity

The quantity of the internal audit evidences

The adequate dimension of the selected sample

The reliability of the internal audit

evidences

Sufficient evidences

The quality of the inernal

audit evidences

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In these conditions, we can state that the auditor during an internal audit mission when regarding the collection of evidences he must take an ensemble of decisions that can be divided in the following categories:

1. What internal audit techniques must he use? 2. What is the right dimension for the selected sample needed to

correctly apply a certain technique? 3. What elements must be extracted from the population subjected to

analysis? 4. When the respective technique must be used? Referring to the collection of evidences, the Standard 2320 “Analysis and

evaluation” states “The analytical audit procedures are useful in identifying, for example:”

• the unforeseen differences; • the lack of the estimated differences; • possible errors; • irregularities or possible frauds; • other transactions or unusual or non-recurrent events”. Regarding the types of internal audit evidences, they can be classified

in the following four categories: • physical evidences are considered to be the best evidences but not

always the most relevant ones. For this reason, the internal auditor, in the phase of collecting evidences, must take certain precautions:

- to collect his evidences on site; - to avoid superficial and fugitive appraisals; - to establish a cause – evidence – findings relation.

• the testimonies are considered by practitioners as being the most fragile. At the basis of this reasoning we find the postulate saying that “to trust someone else’s testimony presumes two risks: the risk of a finding made by someone else and the risk regarding the manner in which the evidence it is restored7.

7 Renard J., Chaplain J.M.,- Theorie et practique de l’audit interne, sixieme edition, Editions d’Organisation, Paris, France, 2008, pag,270.


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• the documented evidences take various forms: financial-accounting documents, operational procedures, reports etc. These evidences have the advantage of being written but at the same time they present two risks:8:

- the risk associated to the quality of the document; - the risk regarding the manner in which the reading of the

document it is made. • the analytical evidences are those that are the result of some

calculations, deductions, different comparisons etc. The usage of such evidences presumes that the following risks to be submitted by the internal auditors:

- the error in calculation or deduction made by the auditor; - the risks connected to the documents and the testimonies that

form the base of this analysis. From this perspective, the relations between The International Internal

Audit Standards, the tehniques used for collecting evidences and the four decisions regarding the internal audit evidences can be synthetized as it follows:

8 Renard J., Chaplain J.M.,- Theorie et practique de l’audit interne, sixieme edition, Editions d’Organisation, Paris, France, 2008, pag,270.

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FIGURE NO. 2 The relations between the international internal audit standards, the tehniques used for collecting evidences and the four decisions regarding the audit evidences

References

Arens A., Loebbecke K, - Audit: O abordare integrată, ediţia a-8-a, Editura Arc, Chişinău, 2003.

Bertin E., - Audit interne, Editions d’Organisation, Paris, France, 2007. 3. Ghiţă M., - Auditul intern – ediţia a doua, Editura Economică, Bucureşti,

2009. Ghiţă M., Menu M, Vilaia D., Popescu M., Croitoru I. – Guveranţa Corporativă şi

Auditul intern, Editura Tehnică - Info, Chişinău, 2009.

Morariu A., Suciu Ghe., Stoian F. - Audit intern şi guvernanţă coorporativă, Editura Universitară, Bucureşti 2008.

Renard J., Chaplain J.M.,- Theorie et practique de l’audit interne, sixieme edition, Editions d’Organisation, Paris, France, 2008.

*** Norme profesionale ale auditului intern, editată de Ministerul Finanţelor Publice printr-un proiect finanţat de Phare, Bucureşti, 2002.

Qualifications and conduit

The main categories of evidences an auditor can collect

Verification, observation, the

interview, analysis

The dimension of the sample and

the tested

The time schedule of the tests

THE FOUR DECISIONS

REGARDING THE AUDIT EVIDENCES

Reporting

Internal audit standards

Collecting the evidences

Types of evidence

The general recommendations regarding the qualification and conduit of the auditor, the collection of evidences and reporting

Audit tehniques

Specific instructions for the collection of different types of evidences


*** Ordinul ministrului finanţelor publice nr. 38 din 15.01.2003 pentru aprobarea normelor generale privind exercitarea activităţii de audit public intern, publicat în M.Of. nr. 130 bis din 27.02.2003

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Theoretical and practical aspects to the usage of internal control questionnaires

George Calotă*, Traian Iana**

Abstract. The questionnaire represents a specific instrument for the financial audit used

in data collection and it has been assumed and adapted for the practice of internal audit and it can be realized by the audit personnel in a direct or indirect manner.

The article presents the theoretical and practical aspects regarding the usage of the internal control questionnaire.

The internal control questionnaire represents an instrument used at a large-scale for the evaluation of the expected and existing control instruments together with other information relevant for audit during the unfolding of an internal audit mission.

In order to elaborate a correct internal control questionnaire, the auditor must not omit the five fundamental questions that represent the equal number of regrouping poles for his problem and gives him the guarantee that he hasn’t omitted anything: who, what, where, when and how?

These five questions constitute the basis of the general frame that sustains the internal auditor when formulating specific questions for each elementary task.

Also, the usage of the five questions can help the internal auditor when elaborating the internal control questionnaire when he finds himself in the situation when he needs to detail a theme that had a clear picture. By applying these five questions, the auditor realizes the first identification of the elementary tasks.

JEL Classification: M00;M41;M42 Keywords: internal audit, questionnaires, internal control

* Central Unit for Public Internal Audit Harmonization - Ministry of Finance, Adress: 12 Libertăţii Street, Third Floor, room 21, Bucharest, Romania. E-mail: [email protected]. ** University Titu Maiorescu, Faculty of Economics Targu Jiu, address: Romania, Targu-Jiu, Victoria Street, bl.13, sc.1, ap.10 Email : traian.iana @ mfinante.ro.


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1. Introduction

Our demarche regarding the research and importance of the usage of internal control questionnaire has been mainly determined by our experience and by the need to clarify some practical aspects in this sense.

Our approach has as an objective the presentation of our own view on the role of internal audit questionnaire, respectively the collection of information both in the Internal audit mission preparation phase and Intervention on the spot phase.

During the phase Understanding the audited structure/entity and the phase Obtaining the evidences, the collected information must by sufficient in order to identify the existence and evaluation of the internal controls’ functionality, the evaluation of risks, the establishment of the Intervention on the spot program and the substantiation of recommendations.

The questionnaire represents a specific financial audit instrument, used for the collection of information, which was assumed and adapted for the practice in the internal audit field and can be realized by the audit personnel directly or indirectly, by the hiring of specialists (experts) on the basis of a contract for the services provided. In the conditions in which this document it is well designed, planned, unfolded and processed, it can represent a useful mean for obtaining the audit evidences.

2. Base reference for the usage of the internal control questionnaire

Good practice in the field of internal audit recommends the usage of the questionnaire for obtaining audit evidences in the conditions when the questionnaire it is well designed, planned, realized and processed. This is because a good planning for the manner in which this instrument will be used assures a high efficiency due to the fact that in this stage the purposes of the questionnaire are established and also the manner in which they will be achieved.

For the efficient usage of the internal audit mission’s allocated resources, the auditor must take into the account the following:

George Calotă, Traian Iana

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a) the necessity and opportunity of the questionnaire’s usage

Since the evaluation criterion for the questionnaire’s opportunity it is represented by the value added to the audit in regard to its costs, the auditor must know what audit evidences must obtain and what advantages can be realized if he decides to turn to this instrument. In these conditions, the team of auditors must decide when regarding the objective of the questionnaire the necessary information to be obtained with its help and also the type of the group on which it will be tested.

For example, in the case of an audit for the financial-accounting activity within an entity from the sector of local public transportation, it represents an advantage to use this instrument to obtain view points and opinions regarding the quality of the services provided to citizens and group of citizens through programs financed through public resources (transportation services subsidized from the Local Council’s budget).

Even if the usage of the questionnaire offers certain advantages, the audit team must keep in mind the limit of such an instrument:

• from the point of view of involved financial costs, the questionnaires presume a high consumption of resources;

• the questionnaires are the carriers of some “hidden” costs sustained by the person that answers it, costs materialized in the time allocated to analyze the questions and to formulate answers. Ordinarily, this time it is not paid, but the auditor, under the virtue of good practice, must estimate and evaluate its opportunity;

• examined through the quality light, the answers obtained can not be seen as consistent information when they are based on individual expectations, perceptions, experiences and general knowledge. In order to obtain accurate and consistent information, it is necessary for the auditor to identify the most adequate ways to collect them. In the context of the above information, we can state that for an auditor

it is never too late to reconsider if it is really necessary a new questionnaire.

b) Preparing the questionnaire.

The stage of the questionnaire’s preparation includes: b1) pre-questionnaire research. Preparation of questionnaires

includes the following:


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• formulation of questions in total accordance with the objective of the audit;

• testing the content of the questionnaire in order to obtain an assurance for the credibility and sufficiency of the audit evidences that will be collected. When regarding the preparation of the questionnaires, we consider as

necessary in order to formulate clear questions for the auditor to analyze and examine behaviors, actions and facts.

b2) the management of the project. If the auditor team executes the entire activity imposed by the questionnaire with its own forces, then it is necessary the planning of some administration procedures. For this it is necessary the elaboration of a monitoring system for the respective answers. We appreciate that for the questionnaire activity to unfold in good

conditions it is necessary for the team of auditors to take into considerations the usage of specialized software for collecting, analyzing and presenting the questions.

c) the necessary resources.

Sometimes, the auditor finds himself in the situation to call for outside specialized personnel when unfolding more complex questionnaires or parts from it such as the processing of data. In such case, the questioning becomes more expensive requiring great time and financial resources, the respective costs depending upon the size of the questionnaire, the techniques used and the quantity of data that must be processed.

In the specialized literature for the field of internal audit it is highlighted the fact that, in order to reduce costs, it is recommended the usage of data from multiple audits, and also the usage of the „omnibus1” and „joint2” questionnaires.

1 Weekly questioning, carefully elaborated in order to be representative within a population, realized on a sample by using telephone or face to face interviews. 2 Weekly questioning, carefully elaborated in order to be representative within a population, realized on a sample by using telephone or face to face interviews.


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d) designing the questionnaire.

When projecting the questionnaire, the auditor must bear in mind the population subjected to the questioning, the programmed results, the importance of the questioning and the available resources. In some cases, the population subjected to the questioning it is sufficiently small to allow a census and, in other cases, it is imposed the realization of a questioning over a sample, due at least because of the restraints of time and costs.

In our vision, obtaining information characterized by accuracy, with the help of a questionnaire, can be realized only in the conditions when the efforts are concentrated on a sample extracted from the population.

e) questioning techniques

Regarding the manner for contacting the persons needed to be questioned we can distinguish the following questioning techniques: postal questionnaire (self addressed), personal questionnaire (face to face interview), electronic questionnaire, telephonic questionnaire.

Since every above type of questionnaire has advantages and disadvantages, the internal audit team must make a decision regarding the technique to be used considering the following criteria:

• time and cost of the questioning; • information that need to be collected.

In the table below we present a comparative situation regarding the questioning techniques, with their advantages and disadvantages:

Table no. 1.Synopsis regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the questionning

tehniques

No. Type of the

questionnaire Advantages disadvantages

1. Postal questionnaire (self addressed)

• represents a good mean to reach the elements of a population scattered on a very large area; • it has lower costs then the face to face interview; • it is very useful when the respondents need time to carefully research the information needed to

• requires a great amount of time; • low rate of responses; • requires reminder letter; • it is mostly based on the comprehension degree of the interviewed and the correct completion of the respective part of the questionnaire.


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No. Type of the

questionnaire Advantages disadvantages

complete the questionnaire; • allows more time for the auditor to think, check the data and to see the experts in the field.

2. Personal questionnaire

• allows the realization of a complex questionnaire; • good rate of responses; • allows the approach of more sensible and difficult questions; • gives the interviewer the possibility to use a list of possible answers (show-card); • allows open questions

• it is slightly faster then the telephonic questionnaire; • it is the most costly (expensive) technique; • requires training from the interviewers; • requires high traveling expenses

3. Electronic questionnaire

Uses the logistic potential of the multimedia when asking questions and getting answers.

• High costs

4. Telephonic questionnaire

• rapid collection of data; • lower costs when implemented; • accessibility at a large scale because regional or national areas can be easily covered.

• difficulty in putting questions with a long list of possible answers, and therefore being admitted only up to four variants; • the necessity of assurance from the auditor over the making of adequate controls over the sample’s selection.

By comparing the four techniques for questioning, we can draw the

conclusion that there it is not a single technique able to always answer the auditors’ needs and because of this the audit team must decide over what technique it is more appropriate for the characteristics of the audited entity/structure, the type of population, time and costs of the questioning.


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Internal audit norms3 that apply in our country provide the following types of questionnaires:

a) becoming familiar questionnaire (BFQ) – comprises questions concerning the socio-economical context, the internal organization, the functionality of the audited entity/structure;

b) internal control questionnaire (ICQ) – guides the internal auditors in their activity for the objective identification of dysfunctions and real causes for these dysfunctions;

c) check-list questionnaire (CLQ) – it is used for establishing the conditions that every auditable field must fulfill. Comprises a set of standard questions regarding the defined objectives, the responsibilities and the methods, the financial, technical and information means, the existing human resources. Within this paper, the authors have proposed to approach the problem

regarding the usage of the Internal control questionnaire. The Internal control questionnaire represents an instrument used at a

large scale for the evaluation of the expected and existing control instruments, together with other relevant audit information, during the unfolding of an internal audit mission.

Mainly, this questionnaire comprises a set of questions concerning the control instruments that every auditor expects to find as being implemented in the system. This document it is usually set before the Intervention on the spot phase and it can be based on a standard model that it is adapted regarding the specific of every mission.

In practice, it is recommended that every question from the questionnaire to be answered by a “Yes” or “No” answer. Usually, the auditors consider the “Yes” answers as being good answers (there are control instruments and/or they are efficient), and the “No” answers as being a sign for a negative situation (there are no control instruments and/or they are not efficient).

In our opinion, the elaboration of a questionnaire by the internal auditor represents a benefic activity for him because it offers a great liberty for initiative and stimulates the findings. Because of the fact that every 3 Order of the Minister of Public Finance no. 38/2003 for the approval of the general Norms regarding the exertion of the internal audit activity, Romanian Official Gazette no.130 bis/2003.


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aspect/component of the system will be covered by the internal control questionnaire, when an audit mission it is repeated in a short period of time, the internal control questionnaire it is based on the previous questionnaire.

In this context, we consider as being an advantage that, at the level of the internal audit structure, to be established an electronic archive for this document that will allow the auditor to update this document considering the specific of different internal audit missions.

Another advantage for the usage of such an archive it is represented by the fact that such a document it is correctly established, a less experienced auditor can use it to complete it.

For the establishment of a correct internal control questionnaire, the auditor must keep in mind not to omit five fundamental questions that represents the equal number of regrouping poles for his problematic and offers him the guarantee that he hasn’t forgotten anything.

In order to sustain this rule for the elaboration of the internal control questionnaire, we consider as relevant the opinion of an known specialist in the field, Cf. Rudyard Kipling, adopted by other authors of papers in the field4, as it follows: “I had six trusted teachers that thought me everything I know. There names were where, and what, and when, and why and how, and who.’’

These questions help the auditor to regroup all the aspects connected to the control points:

• Who? Refers to the operational personnel that must be checked if it exists and in what measure there is a correspondence between the needs of the system and the allocated human resources;

• What? Questions regarding the objective of the operation: what it is the nature of the provided service and what are the persons involved:

• Where? It allows us to check every place where the operation unfolds: storage facilities; manufacturing places and so on ;

• When? Allows the regrouping of the questions regarding time: the time when the operation was fulfilled, the duration, the season, the plan and so on;

4 Renard J., – Theorie et practique de l’audit interne, Editions d’Organisation, Paris, France, 2002, translated in Romanian through a PHARE financed project, under the coordination of the Ministry of Public Finance, Bucharest, 2003, page 235.


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• How? Refers to the mode of operation: how the inventory was made, how the personnel it is recruited, how the acquisition process unfolds and so on.

3. Conclusions

As a conclusion, for activity for establishing the internal control questionnaire, these five questions represent the general basic frame that supports the internal auditor in formulating the specific questions for every elementary task.

Also, the usage of the five questions can assist the internal auditor in the elaboration of an internal control questionnaire when he finds himself in the situation when a theme must be detailed in order to have a clear image. By applying these five questions, the auditor realizes a primal identification of the elementary tasks.

The Romanian normative frame that regulates the exertion of the internal audit activity doesn’t provide a distinct procedure for the completion and transmission of such a document.

In such conditions, we considered as being necessary the realization of a study over the specialized paper5 concerning the method of elaboration of the Internal control questionnaire document.

Our proposed model presented below for such a document, completed with the aspects of an internal audit mission regarding the financial-accounting activity. Entity X Internal audit structure

INTERNAL CONTROL QUESTIONNAIRE NO….

for the evaluation of the internal control system for the cash desk addressed to Mr. Mardare Radu, director of the Financial-Accounting Directorate

Audit mission: Financial-accounting activity

Audited period: 01.01.2009 - 30.06.2009

5 http://www.mfinante.ro/audit/index.jsp


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No. Audit activity Yes No No

answer Comments

Cash book activity

1.

Is the cash book established by the person assigned for this activity or by the person empowered to replace her?

X

The person assigned to establish the cash book has this task registered in the job description which has been updated and signed by this respective person.

2.

Is the cash register checked by the person responsible with keeping the financial-accounting evidence of the cash desk?

X

The person responsible with keeping the accounting evidence for the cash desk checks on a daily basis the legality and fairness of the operations written in the cash book

3.

Are there any completions or modifications in the cash book made by the person responsible with keeping the financial evidence for the cash book activity within the Financial-Accounting Directorate?

X

4.

If so, can you present the tabs from the cash book that have been modified and completed?

X

The modifications within the respective tabs reflect errors of mathematical computation noticed during the verification of the operations from the cash book.

5.

Present me, please, the manner in which these errors from the cash book are made by the person responsible with keeping the financial evidence for the cash book activity within the Financial-Accounting Directorate?

X

6. Does the cashier of the entity On a daily basis, the


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answer Comments

Cash book activity informs the director of the Financial-Accounting Directorate when the operations imply a large volume of cash?

X director of the Directorate for Budget and Internal Accounting it is informed by the cashier of the entity about the cash from the cash desk and the operations that will be made the respective day.

7.

If so, can you exemplify the system for the information of the director of the Financial-Accounting Directorate with respect to the operations involving a large volume of cash?

X

8.

If not, can you appreciate what could be the consequences of the lack of information given to the coordinator of the cash desk activity when there are operations involving a large volume of cash?

X

A large volume of cash unrolled through the cash desk of the entity can increase the risk for fraud.

9. Do you have a system of procedures for the cash desk activity?

X

10.

Is there a correspondence between the provisions of the procedures and the responsibilities established in the job description?

X

11.

Is there, at the entity’s level, a space set up for the development in good conditions of the cash desk activity?

X

12. Is the cash book updated on a daily basis?

X


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answer Comments

Cash book activity

13. Is the cash book prepared at the entity’s cash desk?

X

14. Are the registrations from the cash book checked on a daily basis?

X

15. Is the inventory of the cash book made on a timely basis?

X Testing

16. Is the cash book binded and numbered?

X

17.

Do the documents that are at the basis of the making of the operations through the cash desk contain all the elements provided by the normative frame?

X

18.

Can you present the documents from the first and last two days of the period subjected to the audit?

X

Data: Internal auditor, Supervisor, 25.10.2009 Teodorescu Ileana Nica Ion

References

Arens A., Loebbecke K, - Audit: O abordare integrată, ediţia a-8-a, Editura Arc, Chişinău, 2003.

Bertin E., - Audit interne, Editions d’Organisation, Paris, France, 2007.

Ghiţă M., - Auditul intern – ediţia a doua, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2009.

Ghiţă M., Menu M, Vilaia D., Popescu M., Croitoru I. – Guvernanţa Corporativă şi Auditul intern, Editura Tehnică - Info, Chişinău, 2009.

Morariu A., Suciu Ghe., Stoian F. - Audit intern şi guvernanţă corporativă, Editura Universitară, Bucureşti 2008.

Renard J., – Theorie et practique de l’audit interne, Editions d’Organisation, Paris, France, 2002, tradusă în România printr-un proiect finanţat de PHARE, sub coordonarea Ministerului Finanţelor Publice, Bucureşti, 2003.

*** Norme profesionale ale auditului intern, editată de Ministerul Finanţelor Publice printr-un proiect finanţat de Phare, Bucureşti, 2002.


*** Ordinul ministrului finanţelor publice nr. 38 din 15.01.2003 pentru aprobarea normelor generale privind exercitarea activităţii de audit public intern, publicat în M.Of. nr. 130 bis din 27.02.2003

*** Hotărârea nr. 88 din 19.04.2007 a Camerei Auditorilor Financiari din România pentru aprobarea Normelor de audit intern, publicată în M. Of. nr. 416 din 21.04. 2007.

http://www.aair.ro/new4. http://www.mfinante.ro/audit/index.jsp.

http://www.mfinante.ro/control_prev/index.jsp

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Non-intellectual intelligences in the change management

Daiana Curtean*, Monica Chira**

Abstract. People are the most precious capital of a company. Those who know how to

work with people are among the most appreciated employees. They are the ones to know how important it is to have "the right man at the right place”. The present paper focuses on the profile of the "right man" from the practitioner’s point of view, therefore, the approach will be an empirical and intuitive one. Starting from the term of intelligence (practical, social and emotional) and reaching the one of ability, the executant’s "portfolio" has to include firstly practical/technical skills, and then the social and emotional ones. We believe that the "portfolio" of the leader has to include in the following order of importance: social, emotional and practical/technical skills.

JEL Classification: A12, M12, O39

Keywords: practical, social, emotional intelligence; change management

1. Introduction

The current global economy is going through a stage of transition from the one with national, regional and international markets to the one with global markets. The degree of globalization of the economic relations has been accelerated mainly because of the revolution occurring in communications, transmission and information processing through IT technologies, and the improvement of the conveyance means. IT Technologies provide timely information about the phenomena on financial and good markets all around of the world, about competition and corporations, about the economic, political and social situation in different parts of the world, imposing in the same time in the business world a style

* Faculty of Machine Building, Address: B-dul Muncii , no.103-105, Cluj-Napoca. E-mail: [email protected] ** Technical High School „Elisa Zamfirescu”, Address: B-dul Cloşca , no.72-74, Satu Mare. E-mail: [email protected]

Daiana Curtean, Monica Chira

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characterized by dynamism and a strong strategic orientation. The Romanian Businesses and its enterprises are in a process of transformation and transition, being in the same time under the impact of the rise of the integrated global economy system (Badrus & Rădăceanu, 1999).

The liberalization of the economic activities is the major concern of the economic policies in most countries. As a matter of fact, all governments take measures to strengthen private enterprises by reducing the state's role in their organization and management, by adopting appropriate specific laws or government measures meant to open market competition between domestic competitors and external ones in order to prepare local companies for further penetration into foreign markets.

All countries pay a great attention to their external economic relations to become the most dynamic component of the liberalization process, as liberalization of foreign trade and capital investment may be a more efficient resource allocation, the main way of boosting economic growth and general welfare. Trade liberalization is the major reason to restructure and to upgrade production technology in order to resist to the foreign competition. Thus, consumers will benefit from better quality products and affordable prices (Badrus & Rădăceanu, 1999).

The driving force of the globalization process are the private companies. As firms consider the transnational productive activities profitable they exercise an increasing pressure on governments to open action opportunities at a transnational level (Badrus & Rădăceanu, 1999). But along the economic exchanges, cultural values are traveling too, as the history illustrates. Cultures imported from countries of origin interact with the host country ones, the result of these mergers are hybrid cultures whose viability is directly proportional to the degree of authenticity in the process of assimilation.

Local workforce needs to assimilate as professional life norms the managerial values that come together with the economic power of the foreign companies which impose their own managerial policies and cultures as they consider them to be the best solution to ensure business success. When foreign firms in the host country have reached the conclusion that the activity is not profitable anymore because of various reasons (wages and utility costs too big, or high and instable taxes policy), they depart leaving behind them an exhausted workforce. Therefore, the


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values proclaimed as regularities by these companies must be critically filtered by the Romanian leaders and managers who work directly with people.

2. Change Management

The change management stake is very high because changes in the life of an organization must succeed, most often in a very limited time. A failed change leads to a crisis, which is more difficult to manage and leaves moral streaks on the staff. Literature is full with conceptual models or effective organization ones that can improve, streamline the process of transformation. In our opinion, this side of change management belongs to the "right place" chapter, place which has to be organized in as flexible as possible way, with the technological flow lines that can carry out various tasks. Our concern is the people’s profile the firm should have. If company doesn’t have them, then the organization (arrangement of people and cars) should be very well set to compensate the human resources’ level. We believe that a strategic orientation towards an efficient staff policy is not very costly, being necessary in the same time in ensuring the company’s sustainability.

3. What is intelligence ? Definition

There are many definitions of intelligence, this concept related to the human nature is still subject of debate among scientists. In common language, to say about someone that is smart means that he/she is more clever or smarter than most of us. A satisfactory definition is the one given by Roberto Colom, specialist of Spanish origin, a professor at UCLA School of Medicin: „Intelligence is a very general mental capability involving ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience” (Colom, 2004).

Intellectual intelligence. David Wechsler (n. 1896, Lespezi - 1981)

Although his main research field was the intellectual intelligence and the measurement tests (IQ coefficient determination), the American scientist, of Romanian origin, specialized in experimental and clinical psychology, who also designed and new types of intelligence tests (he


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developed the first standardized intelligence test for adults, Wechsler-Bellevue Scale, in 1939), supported the idea that intelligence involves the abilities to succeed in life and the fact that „non-intellective” skills are essential in making a prediction related to an individual's ability to succeed in life (Gale Encyclopedia, 2001).

Non-intellectuale Intelligences

Howard Earl Gardner (born 1943, professor of psychology at Harvard University) brought his theory on multiple intelligences (MI) to the public attention for the first time in his book „Frames of Mind. A Theory of Multiple Intelligences”, in 1983. The presented concept quickly became a „classic” in addressing human intelligence, both in psychology and in education and business.

Multiple intelligences theory of Howard Gardner

Table 1: Multiple intelligences. Gardner Model 1983

Type of intelligence

Capacities and perceptions description

Linguistic Words and language Logical-Mathematics Logic and numbers Musical Music, dance, sound, rythm Bodily-Kinesthetic Body movement control, driving,

sports Spatial-Visual Images and space Interpersonal Other people's feelings Intrapersonal Self-awareness

(Observation: Intrapersonal capacity enables an emotionally mature response to external and internal stimuli.) (BusinessBalls, 2009).

Additional intelligences suggested by Gardner

Gardner argues that multiple intelligences are not limited to the original seven. In 1999, he consider the possibility of defining other additional intelligences, but whose delimitation is difficult because of their complex character and many overlaping issues.


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Table 2: Additional Multiple Intelligences. Gardner Model 1999

Type of intelligence Capacities and perceptions description Naturalist Natural environment Spiritual/Existential Religion, sense of life, good-hearted Moral Ethics, humanity, value of life,

common sense (BusinessBalls, 2009)

Karl Albrecht

The American specialist in the field of business performance optimization, rearranges into six primary categories and re-labels the model defined in scientific terms of Gardner, giving to it a greater simplicity and transparency by describing it in terms of street language,but leaving its content unchanged:

Table 3: Multiple Intelligences. Albrecht Model

Type of intelligence Capacities and perceptions description Abstract Symbolic reasoning Social Dealing with people Practical Getting things done Emotional Self-awareness and self-management Aesthetic Sense of form, design, music, art and

literature Kinesthetic Whole-body skills like sports, dance or

flying a jet fighter (Karl Albrecht, 2009)

People have a set of intelligences, not just one type. Most people are hard in average on three of them. This systematization provides guidance on the preferred style of people to work and learn, and the style of their strengths and natural behaviour. The truth is that we all are intelligent in different ways. Each of us has a unique blend of different types of intelligences, and usually the least intelligent people from a conventional poin of view, have actually an enormous talent unrevealed or often underestimated. It is important to note that intelligence itself is not a measure of right or wrong. All intelligences are valuable in life. But no one is good to all of them. In an organization we need people who are good at


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different things. A well-balanced team is necessarily composed of people who have different mixtures of intelligences. (BusinessBalls, 2009).

Using this classification, the weaknesses of the staff can be easily traced, which is extremely important when assignig tasks in a team. For example, those with practical and kinesthetic skills are preferred as performers in teams that participate in a change process. Their strengths are advantages for the team. The distribution of tasks in a team according to the members’ strengths will make them happier and thus more efficient at work. There is no doubt, the development of a person's strengths will increase perceptiveness in learning, stimulating the lifelong learning process, too, goal aimed by human resources management.

3. Practical Intelligence

Introduction

The concept of practical intelligence reflects the idea that there are some general skills, in addition to the mental skills measured by IQ. These skills explain how individuals handle real situations in their lives as appropriate responses based on objective facts and circumstances appeared at some point in time. The assessment of this type of intelligence can not follow the classical methodology of measuring IQ, as practical tasks have often more solutions and the importance of the information defining the task varies from individual to individual, and in addition, can change during the task performance. Adapting effortlessly to changing conditions reflects in a very accurate way the level of practical intelligence. Moreover, practicality defines precisely that dynamic feature of adaptability to environmental changes. Therefore, a practical intelligence test is very difficult to conceive outside the definite reality (Klehe, 2007).

Ute-Christine Klehe

The author, associated Professor at the Department of work and organizational psychology at the University of Amsterdam, take into account the pretty large coverage of this concept, defined the following areas:


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Table 4: Practical Intelligences. Klehe Model 2007

Type of intelligence Capacities and perceptions description Practical know-how Learning without formal training Practical mathematics Rapid mental calculations Practical planning Practicality in daily routine Practical presupposition Spontaneous forecasting Social judgment Social roles adoption

(Klehe, 2007)

„Practical know-how” (without formal training) refers to solving concrete, physical tasks, such as an operation execution within a process, equipment mending, driving or cooking without adequate information, such as formal education, technical textbooks or specialized tools (Klehe, 2007). The most obvious form of practical know-how is acquiring knowledge without an organized form of teaching in a didactic meaning. In current production activity, this component of practical intelligence can be metaphorically assimilated with the expression "stilling a profession”.

„Practical mathematics” in a roughly translation means „everyday mathematics”, which differs from the official abstract mathematics taught in schools. Those who possess this form of intelligence perform quick mental calculations (Klehe, 2007). A good example is to make a fast production calculation: "By morning, this machine will produce about x meters, so in total, on all machines, about y meters per entire department." This feature is frequent to foremen or department heads who known well their production equipments and the personnel arrangement serving the machines.

„Practical planning” (practicality in daily routine) refers to the way people organize their daily activities and reorganized them when something occurs. Thus, although everyone has an established routine, the effective strategies used to respond to unexpected problems may differ from individual to individual (Klehe, 2007). This feature is extremely useful when occuring contingencies in the production process (equipment failures, emergencies due to changes of work regim, needed changes in the manufacturing technology etc..)

„Practical presupposition” (spontaneous forecasting) refers to the concept of learning from everyday situations and assimilate them into own experience, a feature that enables further detection of legitimacies and


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upon them, predictions can be spontaneously made (Klehe, 2007). From people who have this "talent" one often can hear "I told you so." Or "That will not work." Colloquially, the "talent" is improperly called "instinct" or "intuition" .

„Social judgment” (adopting social roles): Due to the social character of our life, practical intelligence may be reflected by how one achieves the aimed objectives and the way they are traded. Individuals who possess this quality know how to assume roles (get easily in the „character’s shoes”) or positions that allow them to reach their goals (Klehe, 2007). Certainly everyone of us has met people who "know and get what they want".

Given the unusual nature of practical intelligence, much of the research has been made in the form of study cases which reflect how practical intelligent individuals improvise in order to complete their tasks by adapting the resources that are at their hand (practical know-how), solve the encountered problems in daily routine (planning practice) or solve mathematical problems easily if they come from a familiar context. The study of using practical intelligence in personnel selection worths further investigations (Klehe, 2007). The testing periods before contract employment can give only guiding informations on the practical intelligence level of an individual who will occupy a perfomer position. According to the company’s profile, the human resources managers together with the production ones should develop tests or tasks through all the sides of this intelligence type requested in their organization should be checked.

Karl Albrecht

Practical intelligence is an essential part of life, its level may be improved once the mechanisms that guide its processes are well understood. Albrecht defines it as "mental capacity to face challenges and opportunities of life”. The concept under which we think only with the brain has to be reconsidered; the man thinks with his entire body, with the entire nervous system, with all its sub-systems located in our muscles and organs, including hormones and chemical senders. Through this reconsideration the principle that man has more than one mind is spelled out as "a collection of mental functions" working constantly no matter we are aware of this activity or not.


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The processing of the informations is characterized by the following four „key-aspects”:

1. Mental flexibility - absence of mental rigidity 2. Positive thinking - perceiving, thinking, speaking and behaving

in an emotionally healthy way; 3. Semantic sanity - a consciously and tidy usage of the language; 4. Valuing ideas - instant openess to various ideas of any nature.

These skills or „key-aspects” can be "optimized" mainly through the awareness of own thoughts and reactions, honesty and courage to self and others, moral language and conduct, assessing and judging ideas without pre-defined convictions. The optimization process must be continuous, throughout the whole life. Once this process started, the four dimensions of thinking will be easily developed:

Table 5: Practical Intelligence. Albrecht Model 2007

Type of „mega-skills” Polarities „Bivergent” thinking Divergent – Convergent Spectrum „Helicopter” thinking Abstract – Concret Spectrum „Intulogical” thinking Logical – Intuitive Spectrum „Viscerational” thinking Rational – Emotive Spectrum

(Albrecht, 2008)

The above model fits well in assessing technical personnel in leading positions (foremen, heads of department), both in selection and employment, and periodic testing. Obviously, individuals who excel in all four "mega-skills" are very hard to find. It is preferable that the „techinician’s” profile leading a process of technological change would be "stronger" in the first two, but it necessarily must include a minimum of the last two.

4. Social Intelligence

Introduction

For a society to be functional, it is imperative that its members should be able to efficiently communicate with each other at all levels. The human being is above all, a social one, carrying out activities within the community, exceptions from the rulre are, of course, certain small


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categories of individuals whose mainly religious beliefs urge them to live in isolation. Everyone can give examples of people whose presence is very pleasant and people who know how to cultivate relationships and "know everything about everyone". At a closer look at some of them one can note that they don’t "shine of intelligence", but they know how to maintain a pleasant atmosphere around them or to make others listening to them. These people have social intelligence above the average that most people have.

According to the widely accepted definition, social intelligence is, in essence, the ability to interact appropriately and effectively with our peers. Howard Gardner has named it interpersonal intelligence. In a very close connection with social intelligence is emotional intelligence. For an effective interaction with others, the ability of understanding own emotions and others is essential. This very important skill, often ignored, is a major component of the emotional intelligence. As a consequence of the above lines, it is clear that these two intelligences play a crucial role in having success throughout our lifetime.

Daniel Goleman

The author presents his model by adding the observation that it is only a "suggestion, not definitive at all" and then goes further, showing how social intelligence skills are included in the emotional intelligence model: Table 6: Social Intelligence. Goleman Model 2006

Emtional Intelligence EI Social Intelligence SI Primary empathy

Empathic accuracy

Emotional Resonance

Self-consciousness Social conscience - referral interior state - understanding of feelings and thoughts -„reading” complex social situations

Social Cognition

Synchrony Self image Influence

Self-management Social disengagement - the ability to interact effectively in any social situation Concern

(Goleman, 2007)


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Unfortunately, given the limited space of this presentation, we can not detail this model in its components, with examples illustrating its utility. We mention however that starting from it one can establish effective criteria for selecting members of a team responsible for coordinating the process of change. The methodology of applying this principle is obviously, the responsibility of the human resources department.

Karl Albrecht

According to the author, the social intelligence is “the ability to get along well with others and to get them to cooperate with you”.

Table 7: Social Intelligence. Albrecht Model 2006

Skill Dimension Involves Awarness / Situational awarness Understanding the social contexts that

influence behaviour; Choosing the behavioural strategies most likely to be successful.

Presence The external image or sense of self that is perceived by others (ie. confidence, self-respect or self-worth), the charisma

Clarity The ability to self-express clearly, explain concepts clearly and using language effectively, while persuading with ideas

Authenticity The way of behaviour which gives a perception of honesty

Empathy The ability to create a sense of connection with others and to encourage them to cooperate, rather than work against, as well as an appreciation for the emotions and experiences of others.

(Albrecht, 2009)

The model presented in Table 7 has the advantage of to be "in everybody’s language" and can serve as a working tool to foremen and heads of departments in the member selection of the performers team in


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the process of change. We point out, however a more delicate matter: in the teams aimed to complet urgent tasks the "stars" should be avoided (are people who have a high social IQ but use it to satisfy their personal ego or non-formal „opinion leaders").

5. Emotional Intelligence

Introduction

The existing variety of definitions of emotional intelligence is due to the divided opinions of specialists in the field of psychology. Despite this, in all definitions there are common elements: the ability to identify own and others emotions, to use them to drive thoughts and interpersonal relationships, to demonstrate empathy and compassion.

The term was rigorously defined for the first time in the academic field by John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey in 1990. In 1995, Daniel Goleman published a book on emotional intelligence thus bringing into the public attention the concept that later aroused the interest of specialists in education and business.

The popularity of this theory in business is understandable because according to it, to work with people taking into account their personal skills increase productivity, and in the mean time, give to the personnel policies and to the ideal employee profile, a much more human ”colour”(Ford-Martin, 2001) .

Definition

Undoubtedly, the most frequently cited definition of emotional intelligence remains the one that Salovey and Mayer formulated in 1990 as "a subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate between them and use this information to guide one's thinking and actions.”

Models

Models that structure emotional abilities or competencies are also in fairly large numbers. Below we consider two models as being best suited to our approach, first as a „classic ”model applicable in areas ranging from


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the teaching to industry”; the second model fits better to the organizational psychology as gives a detailed view upon the emotional skill subcategories.

John D. Mayer, Peter Salovey

The Mayer-Salovey model, known as The four branches model of emotional intelligence, was created in 1997. About it, the authors make the following comment: "Each branch describes a set of skills that make up overall emotional intelligence. Each branch has its own developmental trajectory, proceeding from relatively easy skills to more sophisticated ones.” (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2008)

Table 8: Emtional Inteligence. Mayer-Salovey Model, 1997

Managing emotions so as to attain specific goals Understanding emotions, emotional language, and the signals conveyed by emotions Using emotions to facilitate thinking

Emotional Intelligence EI

Perceiving emotions accurately in oneself and others

(Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2008)

Daniel Goleman

In 1998, the author developed a model with five domains and 25 emotional competencies, and made it public in his book „Working with Emotional Intelligence”, published in Romanian by Curtea Veche Publishing House, „Inteligenţa emoţională, cheia succesului în viaţă”. The model is revised and presented in 2002 in his new book "Primal Leadership", published also in Romanian by Curtea Veche Publishing House. Table 9: Emotional Intelligence. Goleman Model, 2002

Emotional self-knowledge Accurate self assessment

Emtional Intelligence EI

Personal Skills (skills relating to the manner in which we take care about ourselves)

Self-knowledge

Self confidence


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Emotional Self-control Transparency Adaptability Ambition Initiative

Self-control

Optimism Empathy Organizational awareness

Social conscience

Solicitude Inspired leadership Influence Changes Catalyst Managing conflict

Social Skills (skills on how we manage relationships with others) Sociability

Team spirit and cooperation

(Goleman, 2005)

The Goleman Model, 2002, is less dense than its predecessor, and it can be used successfully as a working tool in preparing profiles for leading management positions. It is obvoiu at the first glance, the model includes social skills,too. A clear separation between these two types of intelligence is almost impossible since they are closely interrelated.

Conclusion

In the change management the most important factor are people.The success or failure of a change heavily depends on them. We believe that the profile of those who manage change must differ depending on the position held in the organization. The performer’s profile must contain firstly practical abilities, and then social ones, and finally, emotional ones. The leader’s profile as the head of the organization should include in this order: social abilities, emotional and practical ones. It is important to mention the


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technical manager’s profile who leads the change, abilities must be in the following order: social, practical and emotional ones.

Bibliography

Alic M. (2001), Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology 2nd Edition (2001), Gale Group, Farmington Hills, MI, USA, p 663-665

Albrecht K. (2008), “Inteligenţa practică. Arta şi ştiinţa simţului practic”, Curtea Veche, Bucureşti, 2008, p.97-102

Albrecht K. (2009), www.karlalbrecht.com/articles/socialintelligence.shtml, site accesat la 15 decembrie 2009, ora 14:00

Badrus Gh., Rădăceanu Ed. (1999), „Globalitate şi management”, ALL BECK, Bucureşti, p.1-19

BusinessBalls (2009), www.businessballs.com/howardgardnermultipleintelligences.htm, site accesat la 2 decembrie 2009, ora 14:00

Colom R. (2004), “Intelligence Assessment”, Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology, Volume 2, Elsevier Academic Press, USA, p.307

Ford-Martin P. (2001), Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology 2nd Edition (2001), Gale Group, Farmington Hills, MI, USA, p.217-218

Goleman D., Boyatzis R., McKee A. (2005), “Inteligenţa emoţională în Leadership”, Curtea Veche, Bucureşti, p. 62-63

Goleman D. (2007), „Inteligenţa socială. Noua ştiinţă a relaţiilor umane”, Curtea Veche, Bucureşti, p. 102, p.376-377

Klehe U.-Ch. (2007), “Practical Intelligence”, Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Sage Publications, 2007, p.633-635

Mayer J.D., Salovey P., Caruso D.R., (2008). “Emotional Intelligence. New Ability or Eclectic Traits ?”, American Psychologist, September 2008, p.503-517.

Salovey P., Mayer J.D. (1990), „Emotional Intelligence”, Baywood Publishing Co., Inc., New York, p.185-212

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Short considerations regarding the Strategy for Sustainable Development at the EU and Romania’s level

Ionel Didea, Elise-Nicoleta Vâlcu*

Abstract. The Strategy for Sustainable Development, launched by the EU summit in

Gothenburg in 2001, was renewed in June 2006. It addresses a number of seven challenges, namely, climate change and clean energy, sustainable transport, sustainable consumption and production, preservation and natural resource management, public health, social inclusion, demography and migration, global poverty.

The European Union promotes an active approach aiming at sustainable development issues so that every two years (since September 2007) the Commission shall submit a progress report on the Strategy for Sustainable Development in the European Union and the Member States, including the future priorities, guidelines and actions.

In the year 2009, the European Commission stresses in particular the need to find a greater synergy with the Lisbon Strategy to increase jobs, scheduled strategy to be reviewed in 2010. Specifically, at the end of 2009 and the beginning of 2010, the European Commission, in its new constitution, will present formal proposals for the Lisbon Strategy post-2010 and at the Summit in March 2010 to adopt major policy guidelines for Lisbon post-2010.

In this regard is sought a better coordination and closer links in areas such as climate change, energy, financial and social sustainability

JEL Classification: F15, H 77, K33

Keywords: following principles, the areas of regulation, financial sources

1.Introduction

The European Council adopted on Gothenburg the first Sustainable Development Strategy of the European Union1. This was completed by an

* Nedeclarat 1 Complex issues of sustainable development have become a global political dimension, being addressed at the highest level at the World Conference on Environment and

Short considerations regarding the Strategy for Sustainable Development ...

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external dimension in 2002, at the European Council in Barcelona, having in regard the World Summit regarding the Sustainable Development in Johannesburg (2002).

In 2005, the European Commission started a renewal process of the Strategy by publishing, in February, a critical evaluation of the progresses registered after 2001, which emphasizes a number of directions for action to be followed.

The Commission’s document emphasized some unsustainable trends, with negative effects over the environment, which could have affected the future development of the European Union, namely climatic changes, threats to public health, poverty and social exclusion, the depletion of natural resources and the corrosion of biodiversity.

As an identification of these problems, in June 2005, the heads of states and Governments of the EU’s Member States adopted a Declaration regarding the guidelines of the sustainable development, which incorporates the reviewed Lisbon Agenda for economic growth and jobs, as an essential component of the overarching objective of sustainable development.

After a wide consultation, the European Commission presented, on 13December 2005, a proposal to revise the strategy in Gothenburg in 2001.

2.The defining elements of the revised Sustainable Development Strategy of the European Union

As a result of this process, the EU Council adopted on June 9, 2006, the Strategy for Sustainable Development revised for a larger Europe. This document establishes an unique strategy, coherent regarding the way in which the European Union will efficiently accomplish its long-term engagement to answer to all the challenges of the sustainable development.

The overall aim of the renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy is to identify and develop actions to enable the EU to achieve continuous improvement in quality of life, both for the present and the future generations by creating sustainable communities able to manage and use

Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro (1992), at the Special Session of the UN General Assembly and the adoption of the Millennium Goals (2000) and at the World Conference on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg (2002).

Ionel Didea, Elise-Nicoleta Vâlcu

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their resources efficiently and to capitalize the innovative socially and environmentally potential of the economy, ensuring prosperity, environmental protection and social cohesion.

To ensure the balanced integration and linking of economic, environmental and socio-cultural aspects of sustainable development, the EU Strategy stipulates the following principles:

An active promotion of the sustainable development world wide and ensuring that the domestic and foreign policies of the EU are in accordance with the global sustainable development and with the international agreements of the EU.

Prevention and reduction of the environment. Promotion of education and public awareness over the

sustainable development. The EU Strategy for Sustainable Development and the Lisbon Strategy for economic growth and jobs complement each other. Thus, these two strategies admit the fact that the economic, social and environmental objectives can support each other, and therefore progress together. The purpose of both strategies is to support the needed structural changes to allow the Member State’s economics to deal with the issues raised by globalization.

The responsibility for implementation of the Strategy belongs to the European Union and its Member States, involving all the institutional components at a community and national level. It is also stressed the importance of a close collaboration with the civil society, social partners, local communities and citizens to achieve the objectives of the sustainable development.

In the SDS area we retain the fact that every two years (starting with September 2007) the Commission files a report of progress over the implementation of the SSD in the European Union and its Member States, report that includes also the future priorities, directions and actions.

Regarding the national level, the progress report of the Commission is built on the actions of the Member States to implement the SDS of the EU and on results obtained from Peer Reviews. In this regard, each Member State shall appoint a representative who will be empowered to provide necessary information on national progress in accordance with the National


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Sustainable Development Strategies (NSDS) and, if necessary, take into account the developments at a sub-national level.

Based on the progress report of the Commissions and of the contributions brought to it by the Council, the Council of Europe of each December shall review the evolution and priorities for each two years and establish general guidelines on policies, strategies and instruments for sustainable development, taking into account the priorities of the Lisbon Strategy for economic growth and jobs.

The European Parliament will be invited to contribute with its own opinions in cooperation with the Council and the Commission and may, also collaborate with the national Parliaments.

The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) must play an active role in the creation of a new unity, among others by acting as a catalyst for stimulating the debates at the EU level, the preparation of information for the biannual progress report of the Commission, including a collection of the “best practices” of the members.

The Committee of the Regions can collaborate with the sub-national or local levels.

3.Brief considerations regarding the areas of regulation of the EU revised Sustainable Development Strategy

“The conservation and management of the natural resources” is the prime area of approach and treated by the SDS. In this sector, the SDS establishes as a general objective the improvement of the management and the avoidance of the over-exploitation of the natural resources, the recognition of the value of the benefits from the ecosystems.

For this sector is envisaged the improvement of the management and the avoidance of the over-exploitation of renewable natural resources such as fishery resources, biodiversity, water, air, soil and atmosphere, restoring degraded marine ecosystems by 2015, according to the Johannesburg Plan (2002), including the attainment of maximum fisheries harvest in 2015.

Also, by 2015, the Member States must implement the EU Biodiversity Strategy, both in its European and global dimensions (Convention on Biological Diversity) and, in cooperation with the Commission to take


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measures to identify and implement the priority actions to achieve the objective of halting biodiversity loss by 2010 and after this year.

In the area of “public health”, the reviewed SDS sets as the overall objective the promotion of an appropriate public health in an equitable manner and the improvement of the protection against threats to health. Specifically, the Commission in collaboration with the Member States, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDPC) and WHO will further develop and strengthen the capacities at EU and Member States level to respond to threats to human health in an organized manner inter alia by upgrading existing action plans on how to manage the threats to health.

In the same approach on the public health sector, the Commission will propose supplementary improvements in the area of the food legislation, in accordance with the principles stipulated by Art 14 and 15 of the Regulation (EC) 178/2002 regarding the safety of the food products.

A special attention will be given by the Commission and by the Member States to vulnerable groups, especially children, by the EU’s contribution to the Children's Environment and Health Action Plan for Europe (CEHAPE).

4. The evolution of the process of sustainable development in Romania –strategic-objective documents

With regard to Romania, in a first stage the partial incorporation of the principles of sustainability into public policy took place on the spur of the UN debates and its specialized agencies by assuming specific obligations under declarations and conventions to which Romania became part2.

In the period 1997-1999 was developed first, with assistance from the UN Development Program (UNDP), a National Strategy for Sustainable Development, which was completed after a number of contributions assembled in a broad participatory and adopted as an official document by the Romanian Government.

2 For example, Romania is among the first European Countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climatic Changes.


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After the Romania joined the EU, the Strategy from 1999 became the object of an interim report to the European Commission on the implementation of the sustainable development’s goals, in July 2007.

Romania has undertaken to complete its own revised National Strategy for Sustainable Development by the end of 2008 and then present it to the European Commission, the first report being set within June 2011.

Programmatic documents and sector strategies developed in Romania in the pre-and post-adhesion contain relevant provisions and specific objectives (in some cases) that have, in the utmost, contributed as the reference to draft the strategy. Remembered in this connection:

Romania's Accession Treaty to the EU, signed on April 25th, 2005, and the Protocol annexed include Romania's concrete commitments to transpose the entire communitarian acquis in practice and provide some of the time lag for implementation of environmental obligations (by 2015 for industrial plants with high and complex pollution risk, 2017 for municipal waste dumps, 2018 to expand the urban systems of water resources and sewage treatment).

The National Development Plan for 2007-2013 (NDP) represents the strategically planning and multiannual financial programming which orients and stimulates the economical and social development of the country in accordance with the principles of the Policy of Cohesion of the European Union.

The plan sets as the global objective the swift reduction of the socio-economic development disparities between Romania and other EU Member States and details the specific objectives of the process on six priority directions that and/or indirectly integrates the short and medium term requirements of sustainable and environmental development:

The objective of increasing economic competitiveness and development based on knowledge includes, as one of the main sub-priorities the improvement of the energetic efficiency and capitalization of the renewable resources for the reduction of climate changes’ effects caused by human activities.

Bringing to the European standards the basic infrastructure lays accent on the sustainable development of the infrastructure and means of transportation by promoting the intermodal transports.


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The priority regarding the protection and improvement of the environmental quality stipulates the improvement of life standards based on the insurances of the public utility services especially regarding the management of water and waste; the preservation of biodiversity; the ecological reconstruction; the prevention of risks and intervention in case of natural calamities.

The perfection and efficient use of human capital has in view the promotion of a social inclusion and strengthening the administrative capacity for the development of a modern and flexible labor market.

The development of rural economy and increment of productivity in agriculture, forestry and fisheries contains provisions on the rational use of the land, the ecological rehabilitation of degraded or contaminated land, food safety.

The aim to reduce the development disparities between and within the envisages regions, among other things, the improvement of administrative performance of local public infrastructure, the protection of natural and cultural heritage, the rural integrated development, urban regeneration of the areas affected by industrial restructuring, strengthening the business environment and promoting innovation. Also, are provided actions in the area of international, transnational and interregional cooperation for socio-economic integration of border areas and increasing the accessibility of the regions of Romania within the EU.

The National Strategic Reference Framework 2007-2013 (NSRF), approved by the European Commission on June 25th, 2007, establishes the intervention priorities of the EU’s Structural Instruments (The European Fund for Regional Development, the Social European Fund and the Cohesion Fund) within the economic and social cohesion policy and connects the priorities of the National Development Plan 2007-2013 with those of the EU established by the Community Strategic Orientations on Cohesion 2007-2013 and the revised Lisbon Strategy. The NSRF presents the Romanian socio-economic situation at the moment of the adhesion, the analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT


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analysis), the strategic vision and the synthesis of the Sector Operational Program (SOP) and of the Regional Operational Program (ROP) which will be implemented in the “Convergence” objective.

In November 2008 the Government approved the National Strategy for Sustainable Development for 2013-2020-2030. The document follows the methodological prescriptions of the European Commission and represents a joint program of the Executive, by its Ministry of Environment and of the UN Program for Development, by its National Center for Sustainable Development. The actual Minister of Environment, Mr. Attila Korodi, launched in December 2008 the Romanian National Strategy for Sustainable Development with objectives for 2013, 2020 and 2030 regarding climatic changes, pure energy, sustainable transport and preservation of resources.

The strategy sets targets for the transition, in a reasonable and realistic timeframe, to a new model of development of the European Union and widely shared – that of sustainable development. The development of the Strategy is the result of commitments assumed by Romania as a member of the European Union according to the agreed objectives, notably those stipulated in the Treaty of Accession, in the Lisbon Strategy for growth and jobs and the revised EU Strategy for Sustainable Development in 2006.

Following the comprehensive discussion of the draft at the national and regional levels, with active involvement of stakeholders and the conceptual support of the Romanian Academy, the Strategy proposes a vision of development in the perspective of the next two decades, with goals that transcend the electoral cycles and conjuncture political preferences :

a) Horizon 2013: Incorporating organic principles and practices of sustainable development Romanian policies and programs;

b) Horizon 2020: Achieving the current average level of EU countries in key indicators of sustainable development;

c) Horizon 2030: The significant approximation of the Romania's average in that year of the EU countries.

The National Strategy for Sustainable Development 2008 is the first policy document officially drawn up in Romanian after gaining the EU membership and sets realistic development targets that will enable the convergence with the EU countries.


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Taking into account the strategic guidelines inserted into SDS-EU-2006, Romania has set by the NSDS-2008 the following targets:

The emissions of greenhouse gases in the post 2012 period, which it complies with the European Union policy objectives undertaken in the spring session of the European Council of March 9th, 2007, namely the reducing, by 2020, with 20% of the carbon dioxide emissions at the EU level.

In the area of energy policy, Romania needs to mobilize efforts in accordance with the priority objectives and policies agreed at the EU level. The general framework of the Community energy policy has four major objectives on medium and long term: the increment of the energy supply security and critical infrastructure, the increase of competition in energy, the reduction of the environmental impact and integration into the regional energy market.

Romania has the obligation to comply with the general objective SDS/EU in the area of transport. In this respect, Romania seeks the development of transport in urban systems to facilitate their inclusion in the European area by improving particularly air and rail services with the main destinations in Europe. The relative indicator of accessibility (combining services, transshipments, prices and travel times) is to align progressively by 2020 at existing metropolitan areas in Europe. Thus, by 2013 Romania has proposed as a national objective the promotion of a transport system in order to facilitate the safe, fast and efficient people’s movement.

Romania must fulfill the SDS/EU general objective, namely the promotion of sustainable production and consumption practices. In this respect Romania has proposed as the national target by 2013 the eco-efficient management of resource consumption and their maximum recovery by promoting a model of consumption and production to allow a long-term sustainable economic growth and gradual approximation of the environmental performance of the EU countries.

Romania must fulfill the general SDS/EU, "Improving the management of natural resources and prevent their over-


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exploitation, recognition of the value of ecosystem services”. In this respect we must remind that the Romanian “Sector Operational Program for Environment” for 2007-2013, approved by the European Commission in July 2007, is linked to the development strategies and other programs financed by the European and national funds and aiming the compliance with the EU directives, while reflecting the national interests

Romania is required to fulfill the general objective SDS/EU, namely the creation of a society based on social inclusion by taking account of the solidarity between generations and within them and ensuring the quality of life of citizens as a condition of individual well-being. However the EU average gaps in accessing the welfare services and active measures to promote social inclusion remain important and will be the subject of serious concerns, by a set of public policies, and after 2013. Relevant provisions for social inclusion area are found practically in all national strategies and sector programs. A separate chapter devoted to these issues is contained in the Sector Operational Program "Human Resources Development 2007-2013”, approved in October 2007.

In the current stage is not envisaged the settlement of a separate budget for the implementation of the objectives of the National Strategy for Sustainable Development. Subsequent revisions, since June 2011, will determine the need and feasibility of this measure. Target-objectives of this Strategy and its subsequent revisions will be landmarks for the development and substantiation of the state budget and local budgets (annual and multi-annual) and for the formulation and support of Romania's proposals for development and approval of financial allocations in future EU budgets (2014-2020 and 2021-2027).

5. Sources of funding for achieving the National Strategy for Sustainable Development

The possible financial sources for achieving the National Strategy for Sustainable Development’s objectives, according to the National


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Development Plan, Operational Programs and specific action plans approved are:

o The EU’s contribution by its structural instruments (European Fund for Regional Development, Social European Fund, Cohesion Fund) for the objectives “Convergence” and “European territorial cooperation” and the national public (state budget, local budgets, external credits, other public sources) and private co-finance.

o The EU structural funds (European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development, European Fund for Fishing) and national co-finance from public and private sources.

o Funds allocated from state budget and local budgets for development programs with investment objectives similar to those co-financed from Community funds mentioned above.

o Foreign Loans for investment from international financial institutions (European Investment Bank - EIB, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development - EBRD, World Bank etc.) and from other sources (sovereign funds, private funds with investment profile, etc) for sustaining national projects congruent with the objectives of the National Strategy for Sustainable Development and the EU Strategy.

o Other financial instruments (encouraging further foreign direct investment, more use of active capital market, in particular by launching initial public offerings (IPO), enlarging the bank loans by stimulating domestic savings, developing long-term investment instruments, concessions of infrastructure projects and public utilities, promoting public-private partnerships, etc).

For additional funding objectives of the National Strategy for Sustainable Development can be accessed on a competitive basis, by projects submitted by EU Member States, individually or through participation in consortia, directly to the European Commission and other EU funds that are not part of the structural and cohesion funds, such as for example:

The EU Solidarity Fund which aims at providing financial assistance in case of disasters, including the effect of climate change, totalling EUR 1 billion per year, for the entire Union;


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The “Marco Polo II” Program which aims at the interconnection of different ways of transport, improvement of environmental performances in transports and decongesting traffic in the cities, as well as on the trans-European road rails, totaling an amount of EUR 450 million.

Competitiveness and innovation program that supports the objectives of sustainability of production and consumption, with a total financial allocation of EUR 3.62 billion.

“Progress: employment and social solidarity” Program to support the introduction of increases and incentives for reducing unemployment, combat discrimination, foster equal opportunities and promoting social inclusion, with a total financial allocation of EUR 743 million.

European Globalization Adjustment Fund to support retraining and repositioning the employment of employees affected by changes in global trade, with total funding amounting to a maximum ceiling of EUR 500 million a year.

“Lifelong learning” Program to facilitate mobility of teachers and strengthening of links between educational and continuous training programs through the “Comenius”, “Erasmus”, “Leonardo de Vinci” and “Grunting” with a financial allocation of EUR 6.97 billion.

Framework Program 7 (FP7) to expand capacity for scientific research, technological development and innovation within the European Union and other partners with a financial allocation of EUR 53.272 billion.

The trans-European Networks Program to facilitate sustainable mobility and free movement of people, goods, capital and energy between the EU Member States, with a financial allocation of EUR 8.168 billion.

In addition to the EU programs, Romania can access the funds allocated by the European Economic Area Financial Mechanism established by Western European states which are not EU members (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway) for mainly strengthening the administrative and institutional capacity and projects in the environmental protection or


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training area, with a financial allocation amounting to 50.5 million Euros for the period 2008-2011, the allocation of funds being made as a grant at the rate of 60-90%. These funds are added to those granted under the bilateral assistance by Member States or other European countries (Norway, Switzerland).

As a conclusion, according to the “Romanian National Strategy for Sustainable Development Horizons 2013-2020-2030”3 achieving these strategic objectives will ensure on a medium and long term, a high economic growth and, consequently, a significant reduction of the socio-economic disparities between Romania and other EU Member States.

References:

1.Romanian National Strategy for Sustainable Development. Horizons 2013-2020-2030.

2.National Reference Framework 2007-2013 (NRF).

3.National Development Plan 2007-2013 (NDP).

3 VIth Version, 2nd Revision, September 10th, 2008, approved by the Romanian Government in November 2008.

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Sistem de asistare a deciziilor de alegere a furnizorilor în pieţele electronice

Alpar Fekete, Lucian Hancu*

Abstract: În acest articol propunem o arhitectură a unui Sistem Suport pentru Decizii

folosit pentru alegerea furnizorului optim într-o piaţă electronică. Sistemul de asistare pentru alegerea furnizorului optim este capabil să întocmească mai întâi o fişă de cerinţe, care conţine numele şi atributele importante ale produsului căutat pentru aprovizionare. Sistemul caută în piaţa electronică, pe baza acestei fişe, ofertele care corespund respectivilor parametri. Valoarea acestor atribute trebuie să fie identică cu cea din cerere sau în intervalul specificat de firma cumpărătoare. Aceste atribute pot să aibă o valoare discretă, un set de valori sau un interval de valori. Utilizatorul poate specifica importanţa valorilor, unele putând avea o pondere mai mare decât altele. Rezultatele căutării trebuie să satisfacă valorile sau intervalele solicitate de client şi vor fi punctate pe baza preţului ofertei, a costului de transport şi a solidităţii financiare a furnizorului. Va fi propusă de sistem oferta firmei care a obţinut cel mai mare punctaj. Descrierea cererii include şi informaţii cum ar fii cantitatea cerută, locaţia curentă, preţul de bază şi data cea mai apropiată şi cea mai distantă în care va fi disponibil (pentru produsele oferite), destinaţia şi cea mai apropiată respectiv cea mai distantă dată acceptată (pentru produsele cerute). Preţul final se calculează pe baza preţului de bază şi a preţului de transport.

Clasificare JEL: L81, P13 Cuvinte cheie: comerţ electronic, sisteme suport al deciziilor, pieţe electronice

Introducere

Piaţa electronică joacă un rol important în desfăşurarea comerţului electronic B2B1 datorită faptului că promite creşterea eficacităţii respectivei pieţe, reducerea costurilor unei tranzacţii şi generarea de valoare nouă.

* Universitatea „Babeş-Bolyai” Cluj-Napoca, România 1 B2B=Business-to-Business

Alpar Fekete, Lucian Hancu

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Există mai multe definiţii date pentru piaţa electronică (e-Marketplace). Abordarea în sens larg a acesteia defineşte piaţa electronică ca fiind totalitatea comercianţilor şi clienţilor care sunt conectaţi electronic. În lucrarea de faţă, ne vom limita la abordarea mai restrânsă a pieţei electronice (respectiv, B2B), care, conform lui Grieger (2003), ”aduce împreună într-o singură piaţă centralizată cumpărătorii şi furnizorii şi implicit implică organizaţii financiare, companii de logistică, autorităţi de impozit şi regulatorii pieţei.”

Dezvoltarea rapidă a Internetului şi a comerţului electronic a deschis noi posibilităţi companiilor pentru a crea lanţuri de aprovizionare flexibile bazate pe o comunicare rapidă şi o conectivitate strânsă. Pentru a profita de oportunităţile care apar pe piaţă, companiile trebuie să ia decizii rapide şi inteligente bazate pe o cantitate mare de informaţii disponibile pe piaţă. Robert Rodin, directorul executiv anterior al companiei Marshall Industry a notat următoarea observaţie: „Comerţul de astăzi este lanţul meu de aprovizionare contra lanţului tău de aprovizionare”. Competiţia nu se desfăşoară între firme, ci între grupul meu de firme contra grupului tău de firme. Firmele colaborează, constituie grupuri unite pe marginea lanţului de aprovizionare.

În acest articol propunem o arhitectură a unui Sistem Suport pentru Decizii folosit pentru alegerea furnizorului optim într-o piaţă electronică. Sistemul alege oferta cea mai bună de pe piaţă bazându-se - pe de o parte - pe cerinţele, capacităţile şi posibilităţile firmei client şi analizând preţul oferit de furnizori, costul de transport, respectiv cât este de solidă financiar, aici bazându-ne pe indicatorii din bilanţul furnizorului. Articolul de faţă este structurat după cum urmează. În secţiunea următoare prezentăm o scurtă trecere în revistă a literaturii din domeniul Sistemelor Suport pentru Decizii aplicate comerţului electronic. În secţiunea a doua prezentăm arhitectura propusă de noi pentru un astfel de sistem, cât şi cele trei componente ale stabilirii alegerii finale: preţul ofertei, costul de transport, respectiv soliditatea financiară a furnizorului, ultima fiind deosebit de importantă în contextul actualelor turbulenţe manifestate în economie. Articolul se încheie cu un sumar al problemelor abordate în lucrare şi evidenţiază câteva direcţii viitoare ale cercetărilor noastre.


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1. Sistemele Suport pentru Decizii in Comerţul Electronic

Comerţul electronic constituie o componentă importantă a comerţului global, an de an tot mai multe firme intră pe piaţa electronică pentru a vinde produse. Pieţele electronice sunt atrăgătoare pentru comercianţi din mai multe motive: promit o eficacitate sporită în comercializarea de produse (preţuri mai mici), reducerea costurilor de tranzacţie şi generarea de venituri noi. Garicano and Kaplan (2001) au studiat piaţa electronică a maşinilor second hand şi au ajuns la concluzia că piaţa electronică a redus preţul maşinilor cu 5%, iar costurile de tranzacţie cu 80%.

În ceea ce priveşte reducerea costului de tranzacţie, piaţa electronică aduce beneficii pentru ambele tipuri de participanţi (comercianţi şi clienţi) (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2005). Costul de tranzacţie este asociat cu diferite activităţi de comerţ cum ar fi identificarea de parteneri, evaluarea ofertelor, negocierea preţului şi aranjarea de transport şi plată. Bandyopadhyay et al. 2005 a arătat că cu cât numărul de comercianţi este mai mare pe o piaţă electronică cu atât este mai mic preţul mediu, în condiţiile în care producţia agregată a rămas aceeaşi.

Alte avantaje ale pieţelor electronice ar fi: cei care intră pe ele nu trebuie să cheltuiască bani pentru dezvoltarea sistemului care face posibil comerţul electronic. De obicei, pieţele electronice se află în proprietatea unei terţe părţi. Acesta poate oferi şi sisteme de suport în diferite faze ale comerţului electronic. Taxele de intrare şi de servicii practicate de proprietarii pieţei sunt foarte importante. Dacă sunt prea mari, pot contracara avantajele amintite mai sus. Dacă sunt prea mici poate că nu merită asigurarea întreţinerii şi funcţionării pieţei.

Studiile efectuate despre impactul pieţelor electronice asupra managementului lanţului de aprovizionare se axează pe strategiile de achiziţionare, pe managementul relaţiilor cu furnizorii şi pe colaborarea pe lanţul de achiziţie. În metoda tradiţională de achiziţionare inputuri, firmele se bazaseră pe contracte pe termen lung. Dezvoltarea pieţelor electronice face posibilă procurarea materiilor necesare la faţa locului, fără a avea un contract prealabil semnat, căutând oferta cea mai bună. Companiile pot crea avantaje din ambele metode prin combinarea strategică a acestor strategii într-un portofoliu, conform Kleindorfer and Wu (2003) şi Wu and Kleindorfer (2005).


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Relaţia dintre furnizor şi cumpărător este mult mai dinamică pe piaţa electronică faţă de lanţurile de achiziţie tradiţionale. Cauzele sunt schimbările rapide ale mediului comercial, schimbările rapide de preferinţe sau de tehnologii, ceea ce necesită flexibilitate mare în selectarea de furnizori. (Gosain et al. 2005).

Wang şi Benaroch (2004) au comparat un cumpărător şi performanţele furnizorilor lui într-o piaţă tradiţională cu cele pe o piaţă electronică. Presupunând costuri de tranzacţii şi preţuri mai mici pe piaţa electronică, autorii au ajuns la concluzia că pe o structură descentralizată de lanţ de achiziţie pentru cumpărători afacerea este foarte profitabilă, iar profitabilitatea furnizorilor este afectată de taxa plătită pentru proprietarul pieţei.

Richard G., Frederick Wu, Rama A., Sesh M. (2001) au conceput un sistemele suport decizii pentru lanţul de achiziţii bazat pe tehnologia de agenţi. Această arhitectură bazată pe agenţi generează în prima fază o cerere. Agentul de căutare caută între oferte pe cele care pot satisface cererea. Agentul de potrivire primeşte rezultatele căutării şi caută potrivire dintre cerere şi ofertă. După ce agentul de potrivire găseşte un set de oferte bune acestea sunt evaluate din punct de vedere comercial iar agentul de filtrare selectează un mic subset de “soluţii cel mai bune” şi prezintă decidentului.

Managementul lanţului de achiziţie în mediu electronic necesită integrarea de date din mai multe sisteme (sistemul firmei furnizor cu sistemul pieţei electronice şi a sistemului firmei client), informaţia trebuie să treacă prin mai multe frontiere, şi diferitele sisteme trebuie să colaboreze. În viitor pentru ca fluxul de date să se facă în timp real, sistemele participanţilor în lanţul de achiziţie trebuie integrate. O tehnologie pentru realizarea acestei integrări este EDI acesta având un cost de instalare foarte ridicat. O altă tehnologie de integrare ar fi prin XML. Definiţia standardului XML este flexibilă, acesta nu specifică conţinutul semantic al datelor schimbate de sisteme. XML este mai flexibilă decât EDI în cea ce priveşte facilitarea interacţiunii în timp real.

În procesul de evaluarea a datelor ne bazăm pe tehnica AHP (Analytic Hierarchy Process). AHP este o tehnică structurată pentru soluţionarea problemelor decizionale complexe dezvoltată de Thomas L. Saaty.


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2. Arhitectura SSD în Comerţul Electronic B2B

Scopul Sistemului Suport pentru Decizii este de a oferi recomandări pentru alegerea celei mai avantajoase oferte pentru firma client, aflat pe o piaţă electronică, pentru aprovizionarea cu materii prime, materiale sau produse finite. Principiul de funcţionare al Sistemului Suport pentru Decizii (SSD) este următorul. Firma client completează un formular cu cerinţele şi informaţiile despre produs. Pe baza acestor cereri, se generează fişa de cerere care este trimisă la Sistemul Suport pentru Decizii. Acest sistem caută ofertele care satisfac cererea şi le evaluează pe baza a trei criterii majore: preţul şi disponibilitatea cantităţii cerute, costul de transport, respectiv soliditatea firmei. Sistemul generează o fişă de răspuns, prin care clientul vizualizează in mod descrescător cele mai bune oferte sugerate de sistem.

Fig.1. Arhitectura unui SSD pentru alegerea ofertei cele mai bune de pe o piaţă electronică

a) Baza de date

Orice firmă care intră pe piaţa electronică pentru a vinde produse sau materii prime trebuie să completeze diferite formulare. Un prim formular conţine datele de identificare ale firmei: numele firmei, adresa, sediul, respectiv locaţia.

Prin al doilea formular se introduc date relative la oferta de bunuri şi/sau servicii ale firmei (valorile pentru fiecare atribut al produselor din ofertă). Atributele obligatorii sunt: numele produsului, cantitatea existentă pe


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stoc, timpul de livrare şi caracteristicile materiilor prime şi a materialelor necesare clientului.

Pentru a calcula soliditatea financiară a firmelor ofertante în piaţa electronică, Sistemul Suport pentru Decizii are acces la surse de date externe care publică anual bilanţurile firmelor respective. Sistemul Suport pentru Decizii extrage periodic date precum cifra de afaceri a firmelor implicate în piaţa electronică, profitul brut sau pierderea brută, total active, total active circulante, prin conectarea la depozitele de date externe.

Datele colectate prin cele două formulare, precum şi datele extrase de la sursele Web externe, se stochează în baza de date a pieţei electronice, evidenţiată în partea dreaptă jos în figura mai sus menţionată.

b) Fişa de cerere

Firma client completează un formular care conţine atributele produsului căutat. Pe baza acestui formular se generează fişa de cerere sub forma unui alt formular în care se introduc valorile atributelor pentru produsul căutat. Se introduc valori între 0 şi 1 pentru ponderea celor trei criterii de evaluare a firmei: atributele despre produs, cost de transport, putere financiară. Atributele produsului căutat poate să conţină o singură valoare, un set de valori discrete sau un interval de valori. Fişa de cerere completată se trimite Sistemului Suport al Deciziilor într-o formă uniformă, folosind XML.

Alegerea XML pentru codificarea datelor se bazează pe faptul că există posibilitatea importării datelor in XML din ERP-urile firmelor care cer produse prin piaţa electronică.

c) Sistemul de suport decizii de alegere oferte

Sistemul de suport decizii are următoarele componente: agent de căutare între componente şi agent de evaluare a ofertelor găsite.


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Fig2. Componentele sistemului de suport decizii în procesul de achiziţie online

2.c.1. Căutarea şi evaluarea ofertelor

Sistemul primeşte datele de intrare de pe fişa de cerere în format XML. Caută în baza de date a pieţei electronice ofertele care satisfac valorile cerute. Căutarea datelor reprezintă o cerere SQL adresată bazei de date în care au fost înregistrate ofertele. În sintagma cererii SQL SELECT se specifică numele produsului căutat iar în clauza WHERE condiţiile extrase din fişa de cerere referitoare la valorile atributelor produsului cerut. Rezultatul cererii SQL se transmite agentului de evaluare a ofertelor.

Dacă agentul de căutare găseşte produse care satisfac cererea, acesta transmite rezultatul căutării sub formă tabelară la agentul de evaluare.

Se creează 3 tabele care conţin datele ofertelor găsite. Primul tabel se ordonează după preţ, al doilea după cost transport, al treilea după soliditate financiară. Se punctează ofertele de la 1 pana la numărul de oferte în primul tabel după preţ, oferta cu cel mai mic preţ primind punctajul maxim. În al doilea tabel ordonat se evaluează cu cel mai mare punctaj costul de transport minim, iar in al treilea tabel oferta se evaluează pe baza solidităţii firmei. Soliditate ridicată 3 puncte, cea medie 2 puncte, cea slabă 1 punct. Punctajele si ponderile se copiază într-un al 4lea tabel în care se calculează punctajul final adunând punctajele înmulţite cu ponderile aferente.

2.c.2. Calcularea costului de transport

Piaţa electronică dispune în baza de date de un tabel care conţine distanţele dintre localităţile mari (oraşe şi comune) din România. Presupunem că costul de transport este direct proporţional cu mărimea

Sistem suport decizii în alegerea ofertei optime de la furnizor

Agent de căutare între oferte

Agent de evaluarea ofertelor

Fişă de cerere

Fişă de răspuns


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distanţei dintre sediul depozitului furnizorului şi locaţia firmei client la care trebuie transportate produsele sau materialele.

Evaluarea după cost se face prin următorii paşi: 1. Se extrage din ofertele care corespund cererii numele localităţii

firmei furnizor 2. Se extrage din fişa de cerere numele localităţii firmei client 3. Se caută din baza de date distanţa dintre cele două localităţi

extrase 4. Se ordonează ofertele descrescător după mărimea distanţei

dintre localităţi, prima având distanţa cea mai mică 5. Se punctează cu 1 cea mai mare distanţă şi cu punctaj maxim

cea mai mică distanţă.

2.c.3. Calcularea solidităţii firmei

Soliditatea firmei se evaluează pe baza ratei profitului raportată la cifra de afaceri. Pentru a face această evaluare apelăm la siteul www.biztop.eu care conţine evaluarea firmelor conform datelor din bilanţ. La începutul anului piaţa electronica primeşte de la siteul www.biztop.eu evaluarea firmelor din Romania după profitul brut supra cifra de afaceri. Aceste date sunt stocate în baza de date a pieţei electronice. Datele primite sunt relative fata de firma cu cea mai bună rată a profitului.

Pe baza datelor din baza de date se stabileşte că firmele cu rata profitului raportată la cifra de afaceri sub 0.33 se consideră firme cu soliditate financiară slabă, cele între 0.33-0.66 cu soliditate financiară medie, iar cele peste 0.66 cu soliditate financiară bună.

d) Exemplificarea procesului de suport decizional

Să presupunem că o firma din Cluj care produce mobilă are nevoie ca materie primă de pal. Intră pe piaţa electronică şi formulează o cerere de pal cu următoarele caracteristici: Nume Produs: Pal, Cantitate: [30..50] mp, Grosime: 10 mm.


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Fig 3. Exemplu de fişă de cerere pal şi ofertele găsite

Se face căutarea în baza de date prin următoarea cerere SELECT: SELECT FROM oferte WHERE DENUMIRE=’pal’, AND CANTITATE

BETWEEN 30 AND 50 AND GROSIME=10; Din procesul de căutare rezultă două oferte care satisfac cererea: Oferta

Firmei A: Cantitate 40, grosime=10, pret=1000, respectiv Oferta Firmei B: Cantitate 45, grosime 10, pret=2000.

Evaluarea ofertelor se face prin a agentul de evaluare oferte pe baza a trei criterii: preţ produs, cost transport si soliditate firmă, luând în calcul importanţa acestora dată de client prin ponderi între 0 si 1. Cele două oferte satisfac criteriul de calitate. Prima oferta este la un preţ mai avantajos de aceea primeşte punctajul maxim 2. Costul de transport este mai mic în cazul primei oferte pentru că distanţa dintre Cluj-Sibiu e mai mică decât între Cluj - Bucureşti, de aceea firma A primeşte punctaj 2. Firma B este mai solidă financiar, deci firma A primeşte punctaj 1 la criteriul trei.

Tabel 1: Evaluare ofertă după preţ

Firma Nume Produs

Grosime (mm)

Pret (lei)

Cantitate (mp)

Soliditate financiara

Pct. preţ


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A Pal 10 1000 40 medie 2 B Pal 10 2000 45 ridicată 1

Tabel 2: Evaluare ofertă după cost transport

Firma Nume Produs

Grosime (mm)

Cantitate (mp)

Sediu firma

furnizor

Sediu firma client

Dist. km

Pct. cost

A Pal 10 40 Sibiu Cluj 143 2 B Pal 10 45 Bucureşti Cluj 408 1

Tabel 3: Evaluare ofertă după soliditatea financiară a firmei

Firma Nume Produs

Grosime (mm)

Pret (lei)

Cantitate (mp)

Soliditate financiara

Pct. preţ

B Pal 10 2000 45 ridicată 2 A Pal 10 1000 40 medie 1

Calculând punctajul celor două oferte folosind ponderile de importanţă ajungem la concluzia că oferta firmei A este cea mai avantajoasă.

Tabel 4: Calculare punctaj final oferte

Firma Pondere pret prod.

Pondere cost

trans.

Pondere Soliditate financiara

Pct. Pre�

Pct. cost

Pct. soliditate

Punctaj final

A 0.3 0.3 0.4 2 2 1 1.60 B 0.3 0.3 0.4 1 1 2 1.40

3. Concluzii şi perspective ale cercetării

În articolul de faţă am prezentat arhitectura unui Sistem Suport pentru Decizii pentru Comerţul Electronic B2B, precum şi o detaliere a criteriilor prin care este sugerată alegerea unui anume furnizor. Aceste criterii iau în considerare atât oferta curentă a firmei (exprimată prin preţul produsului), cât şi poziţia sa geografică (exprimată prin distanţa faţă de client) şi soliditatea sa financiară (este de aşteptat ca Sistemul Suport pentru Decizii să promoveze o firmă având indicatori financiari solizi, în detrimentul uneia cu o poziţie financiară inadecvată).

Ca şi perspective ale cercetării ne propunem să evaluăm posibilitatea de a utiliza metode alternative pentru alegerea ofertei finale pe baza cererii


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primite de la clientul pieţei electronice. Spre exemplu, ne propunem să includem şi alte criterii în mecanismul de alegere a celei mai bune oferte, cum ar fi: timpul de livrare a bunurilor sau de prestare a serviciilor, o evaluare a calităţii produsului pe baza recomandărilor primite de la clienţi sau, din contră, reclamaţiile primite de la clienţii pieţei electronice. Evaluarea calităţii produselor de către clienţi şi reclamaţiile primite de la aceştia întăresc caracterul colaborativ al pieţei electronice B2B prezentate.

Bibliografie

Analytic Hierarchy Process. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_Hierarchy_Process

Bandyopadhyay S, Barron J, Chaturvedi A (2005). “Competition among sellers in online exchanges”, Information Systems Research, Volume16 (1), pp. 47–60

Frada Burstein, Clyde W. Holsapple (2008). “Handbook on Decision Support Systems 2: Variations (International Handbooks on Information Systems)”, Springer, Chapter 38, pp. 24-30

Garicano, L., Kaplan, S. N. (2001). “The effect of business-to-business e-commerce on transaction costs”, Journal of Industrial Economics, Volume 49, pp. 463–485

Gosain S, Malhotra A, Sawy O.A.E. (2005). “Coordinating for flexibility in e-business supply chains”, Journal of Management Informations Systems, Volume 21(3), pp. 7–45

Grieger M. (2003). “Electronic marketplaces: A literature review and a call for supply chain management research”, European Journal of Operational Research, Volume 144, pp. 280–294

Kleindorfer P.R., Wu D.J. (2003). “Integrating long- and short-term contracting via business-to-business exchanges for capital-intensive industries”, Management Science, Volume 49 (11), pp. 1597–1615

Richard G., Frederick Wu, Rama A., Sesh M. (2001), “Decision Support for Managing an Electronic Supply Chain”, Electronic Commerce Research, Volume 1, No.1-2 February/March, pp.15-31

Wang C.X., Benaroch M. (2004). “Supply chain coordination in B2B electronic markets”, International Journal Prod. Econ., Volume 92, pp. 113–124

Wu D.J., Kleindorfer P.R. (2005). “Competitive options, supply contracting, and electronic markets”, Management Science, Volume 51(3), pp. 452–466

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Fiscal Policy in Contemporary Financial Crisis

Mihaela Göndör*

Abstract There are various ways in which a fiscal stimulus can be administered to stem

the budget deficit and the public debt in a crisis time. The scale of the challenge for fiscal policy is considerable. In this paper I intend to analyze especially the two main ways of providing fiscal stimulus which are Tax Cuts and Government Spending. By cutting taxes, the government can stimulate an increase in business fixed capital investment spending. Direct government spending in infrastructure, social welfare or other increases the Government Spending and helps boost the GDP. There’s also a debate on whether tax cuts or government spending programs are better for the economy. I also intend to analyze the multiplier effect of the fiscal policy, especially the effect on the business decisions. Expectations and dynamics, which play central roles in modern analyses, are almost completely absent in crisis times.

JEL Classification: E62, G01, H3, H6 Key words: financial crises, fiscal policy, budgetary impact, public debt

Introduction

The global financial crisis that emerged in 2007 has turned into a major, worldwide economic downturn more serious than any since the Great Depression of the 1930s. The financial and economic crisis has seen considerable debate about its origins and consequences, as well as the responses of policymakers. The crisis raises important issues about the role of markets and governments in the allocation of capital and the regulation of financial institutions. The scale of the challenge for fiscal policy is considerable. Over the past 12 months, governments, like central banks, have taken unprecedented action to restore stability to the financial system

* Phd. Associate Professor - “Petru Maior” University, Faculty of Economics, Law and Administrative Sciences 1, Nicolae Iorga Street, 540088, Tg.Mures, ROMANIA. Phone: 0265219034, [email protected]


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and to tackle the largest recession in post-war history. This action was largely justified. Fiscal authorities have implemented or are planning to implement substantial fiscal stimulus package that combine tax cuts with various kinds of spending increases.

What are the effects of tax cuts on the economy? How much does it matter whether they are financed by corresponding cuts of expenditure or by corresponding increases in government debt, compared to the no-tax-cut scenario? These questions are of key importance to the science of economics and the practice of policy alike. A lot of current studies point toward tax policy as the best fiscal tool to combat recession, particularly tax changes that influence incentives to invest, like an investment tax credit.

In a december 2008 working paper, Andrew Mountford of the University of London and Harald Uhlig of the University of Chicago apply state-of-the-art statistical tools to United States data to compare the effects of deficit-financed spending, deficit-financed tax cuts and tax-financed spending. They report that “deficit-financed tax cuts work best among these three scenarios to improve GDP.” (Mountford, Uhlig, 2008)

Much of the policy discourse has focused on the relative sizes of multipliers – how much GDP rises following a given fiscal stimulus – associated with tax cuts and various kinds of government spending increases and on the need to front – load the stimulus in order to “jump-start” the economy. (Princeton, 2009).

Economic theory predicts that a large expansion of government debt can have very different impacts on the macro economy, depending on how economic decision makers expect monetary and fiscal policies will adjust in the future. If taxes are expected to rise in the future, the stimulative effects of the fiscal expansion will be partially offset. If instead people do not believe future taxes will adjust, then fiscal expansion generates wealth effects that can serve to amplify policy’s impacts. (Princeton, 2009)

Alberto Alesina and Silvia Ardagna have recently conducted a comprehensive analysis of the issue. In an October study, they looked at large changes in fiscal policy in 21 nations in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. They identified 91 episodes since 1970 in which policy moved to stimulate the economy. They then compared the policy interventions that succeeded — that is, those that were actually followed by robust growth — with those that failed.

Mihaela Göndör

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The results are striking. Successful stimulus relies almost entirely on cuts in business and income taxes. Failed stimulus relies mostly on increases in government spending. These studies point toward tax policy as the best fiscal tool to combat recession, particularly tax changes that influence incentives to invest, like an investment tax credit. (Alesina, Ardagna, 2009)

Missing from the discourse is any serious connection between the policy initiatives and modern macroeconomic research. Expectations and dynamics, which play central roles in modern analyses, are almost completely absent in crisis times.

Fiscal policy is an important tool for managing the economy

Lower rates of corporation tax and other business taxes can stimulate an increase in business fixed capital investment spending. If planned investment increases, the nation’s capital stock can rise and the capital stock per worker employed can rise.

The government might also use tax allowances to stimulate increases in research and development and encourage more business start-ups. A favorable tax regime could also be attractive to inflows of foreign direct investment – a stimulus to the economy that might benefit both aggregate demand and supply. The Irish economy is often touted as an example of how substantial cuts in the rate of corporation tax can act as a magnet for large amounts of inward investment. The very low rates of company tax have been influential although it is not the only factor that has underpinned the sensational rates of economic growth enjoyed by the Irish economy over the last fifteen years.

Capital investment should not be seen solely in terms of the purchase of new machines. Changes to the tax system and specific areas of government spending might also be used to stimulate investment in technology, innovation, the skills of the labor force and social infrastructure. A good example of this might be a substantial increase in real spending on the transport infrastructure. Improvements in the transport system would add directly to aggregate demand, but would also provide a boost to productivity and competitiveness. Similarly increases in


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capital spending in education would have feedback effects in the long term on the supply-side of the economy.

The most immediate impact of fiscal policy is to change the aggregate demand for goods and services. A fiscal expansion, for example, raises aggregate demand through one of two channels. First, if the government increases purchases but keeps taxes the same, it increases demand directly. Second, if the government cuts taxes or increases transfer payments, people's disposable income rises, and they will spend more on consumption. This rise in consumption will, in turn, raise aggregate demand.

Fiscal policy also changes the composition of aggregate demand. When the government runs a deficit, it meets some of its expenses by issuing bonds. In doing so, it competes with private borrowers for money lent by savers, raising interest rates and "crowding out" some private investment. Thus, expansionary fiscal policy reduces the fraction of output that is used for private investment.

In an open economy, fiscal policy also affects the exchange rate and the trade balance.

Fiscal policy is an important tool for managing the economy because of its ability to affect the total amount of output produced—that is, gross domestic product. The first impact of a fiscal expansion is to raise the demand for goods and services. This greater demand leads to increases in both output and prices. The degree to which higher demand increases output and prices depends, in turn, on the state of the business cycle. If the economy is in recession, with unused productive capacity and unemployed workers, then increases in demand will lead mostly to more output without changing the price level. If the economy is at full employment, by contrast, a fiscal expansion will have more effect on prices and less impact on total output.

The level of government borrowing is an important part of fiscal policy and management of aggregate demand in any economy. When the government is running a budget deficit, it means that in a given year, total government expenditure exceeds total tax revenue. As a result, the government has to borrow through the issue of debt such as Treasury Bills and long-term government Bonds. The issue of debt is done by the central bank and involves selling debt to the bond and bill markets.

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In theory a positive or negative output gap can be relatively easily overcome by the fine-tuning of fiscal policy. However, in reality the situation is complex and many economists argue for ignoring fiscal policy as a tool for managing aggregate demand focusing instead on the role that monetary policy can play in stabilizing demand and output.

President Reagan cut taxes during the 1980s in the United States, and all projections were assumed for revenue shortfalls, or if nothing else, no increases in overall taxation revenues. However, the taxation revenue on individual incomes increased from 1980 to 1989, nearly doubling, from $244 billion $446 billion. Similar measures from the 1920s and 1960s also showed growth in overall taxation revenues after their implementation rather than expected shortages. In fact, when recession hit the United States in 1919, a series of tax cuts over the next nine years kept the economy stable, and the recession itself was over within two years. It was only after government spending increased in the 1930s in response to the 1929 Stock Market Crash that the economy plummeted into the true depths of its depression.

The Keynesian school argues that fiscal policy can have powerful effects on aggregate demand, output and employment when the economy is operating well below full capacity national output, and where there is a need to provide a demand-stimulus to the economy. Keynesians believe that there is a clear and justified role for the government to make active use of fiscal policy measures to manage the level of aggregate demand.

Monetarist economists on the other hand believe that government spending and tax changes can only have a temporary effect on aggregate demand, output and jobs and that monetary policy is a more effective instrument for controlling demand and inflationary pressure. They are much more skeptical about the wisdom of relying on fiscal policy as a means of demand management.

Fiscal policies in Romania during actual crises time

The general consolidated budget registered a deficit of 5.03% of GDP in the 2009 first nine months, against a backdrop of estimated revenues of 23.4% of GDP and public expenditure representing 28.4% of GDP. (MFP 2009)


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According to the Ministry of Public Finance (MFP), during the interval January - September, the budget deficit rose to nearly 25 billion RON, in absolute terms, the income to the general consolidated budget totaling 116.3 billion RON, while expenditures of 141.2 billion RON. The general consolidated budget registered a deficit of 4.5% of GDP after the first eight months of the year, up one percentage point compared to the level recorded at the end of July, 3.5% of the revised GDP. At the end of August, revenues indicated a 6.6% decrease over the same period in 2008, while total expenditures were up 8.3%.

The International Monetary Fund agreed in early August, after the first evaluation of the stand-by agreement, with a 7.3% increase in the budget deficit in 2009, from the earlier projection of 4.6 %. (MFP 2009). The new projection started from the fact that budget revenues are foreseen to be 17 billion RON lower this year, compared to the initial estimate.

In the first six months of the year, the budget deficit was mainly financed by issuing state securities on the domestic market, followed by granting the first tranches from the European Commission, the first loan from the Bank World (WB) and later a part of a tranche from the IMF. The first money from the IMF, the equivalent of 5 billion euros, came in early May, immediately after the approval of the agreement, but the money went entirely to the central bank reserve. The international financial institution approved also the release of the second tranche of the stand-by loan, equivalent to 1.85 billion euros. Half of this sum went to the National Bank reserve and half to the Treasury, money that the Ministry of Finance will use to cover the budget deficit.

Romania has a two-year stand-by loan agreement with the IMF, for the sum of 12.95 billion euros, and the total package of external financing, from the Fund, the European Union, the World Bank and the EBRD will reach 19.95 billion euros. (MFP 2009).

The emergence of a rising budget deficit has been due to a weaker economy and the effects of substantial increases in government spending. Both current and capital spending are rising sharply in real terms.

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Does a budget deficit matter?

There is a consensus that a persistently large budget deficit can be a problem for the government and the economy. Four of the reasons for this are as follows:

1. Financing a deficit: A budget deficit has to be financed and day-today, the issue of new government debt to domestic or overseas investors can do this. In a world where financial capital flows freely between countries, it can be relatively easy to finance a deficit. But it may be that if the budget deficit rises to a high level, in the medium term the government may have to offer higher interest rates to attract sufficient buyers of government debt. This in turn will have a negative effect on economic growth

2. Accumulated National Debt: In the long run, government borrowing adds to the accumulated National Debt. This means that the Government has to spend more each year in debt-interest payments to holders of government bonds and other securities. There is an opportunity cost involved here because this money might be used in more productive ways, for example an increase in spending on health services or extra investment in education. It also represents a transfer of income from people and businesses that pay taxes to those who hold government debt and cause a redistribution of income and wealth in the economy

3. Crowding-out - the need for higher interest rates and higher taxes. Eventually the budget deficit has to be reduced. This can be achieved by either by cutting back on public sector spending or by raising the burden of taxation. If a larger budget deficit leads to higher interest rates and taxation in the medium term and thereby has a negative effect on growth in consumption and investment spending, then a process of ‘fiscal crowding-out’ is said to be occurring.

4. Wasteful public spending: The financial crisis is weakening the ability of banks to provide loan. State require a huge amount of loan money to cover growing budget deficit, restricting the access of economic operators to credit, which emphasizes holding back investment and economic crisis. Neo-liberal economists are naturally opposed to a high level of government spending. They believe that a rising share of GDP taken by the state sector has a negative effect on the growth of the private


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sector of the economy. They are skeptical about the benefits of higher spending believing that the scale of waste in the public sector is high – money that would be better off being used by the private sector.

What are the main economic and social justifications for a higher level of government spending and borrowing? Two main arguments stand out:

1. Government borrowing can benefit economic growth: A budget deficit can have positive macroeconomic effects in the long run if it is used to finance extra capital spending that leads to an increase in the stock of national assets. For example, spending on the transport infrastructure improves the supply-side capacity of the economy. Increased investment in health and education can bring positive effects on productivity and

employment. 2. The budget deficit as a tool of demand management: An increase in

borrowing can be a useful stimulus to demand when other sectors of the economy are suffering from weak or falling spending.

Concluding, the argument is that the government should use fiscal policy to keep real national output closer to potential GDP in order to avoid a large negative output gap.

Under the accession treaty, Romania has vowed to adopt the euro in 2013, and therefore must meet the convergence criteria, which include a budget deficit of less than 3% of the GDP. Romania had a budget deficit of 2.5% of the GDP in 2007, and 2.7% deficit in the first 10 months of 2008.

The current fiscal crisis in Romania is a problem equally of revenue and expenditure as well as governance. Indirectly it is also a problem of economic growth and the lack of jobs. Economic negative growth in Romania it is also a problem of economic global crises. The new lump sum tax introduced by the government beginning with May 2009 led to an avalanche of companies which suspended operations or applied for dissolution or voluntary cessation. According to data provided by National Trade Register Office (ONRC, 2009), the number of companies which suspended their activity rose almost 11 times in the first half of this year, compared to the corresponding period of 2008. In the first half of the year, the number of companies which suspended their activity skyrocketed, to 80,013 from 6,698 in January-June 2008, 112.893 compared to 9186 during January-September 2008. The growth is of 1128.97%. (ONRC, 2009) However, this phenomenon is considered by businesspeople to be a

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consequence of the lump-sum tax. The companies chose to suspend the activity instead of paying the lump-sum tax. Consequently, the more the jobless and underemployed, the less there are tax payers. Economic growth requires macro-economic stability, which is gained by balancing the budget.

What happens during a fiscal crisis? Political instability Drop in average incomes High inflation High unemployment Currency depreciation

Effectiveness of Monetary and Fiscal Policies

In Romania, we can say that it exists today a condition in which government can no longer manage its debt due to a huge budget deficit. It exists an imbalance between revenues and expenditures. We can name this situation a fiscal crisis. A widening budget deficit means that the bulk of public revenues, mainly from taxes are used to pay debts, instead of going to basic public services and infrastructure, which are important for economic growth. When a fiscal crisis begun, the confidence of creditors in government goes down, and their interest rates go up. It means that a big part of public revenues from taxes go to pay the interest. Most everybody agree that the fiscal problem in Romania is turning into a crisis. The government wishes to arrest the fiscal problem and avert fiscal crisis by, among others, raising taxes and another revenues as well as lowering expenditures. At the same time it seeks to addresses the specific problem of poverty and the general problem of development. Bad governance compounds the problem, as when tax leakages and higher tax evasion sharply reduces public revenues, and when expenditures are riddled with corruption.

“A crisis is when a country is in default, its deficit is not manageable, and it has no access to foreign capital markets.” (Purissima, 2009)

The government has allowed the increase in government borrowing brought about by a slowdown in domestic demand and output. Moreover, the Romanian government has introduced its own fiscal rules meaning


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that government spending should be financed by increasing taxation and borrowing. Reducing public expenditure is based on reducing salary costs in public institutions, namely reducing the number of public employees and vacation without pay for those who remain in the public system, which has long term negative economic effects for the country. An expansionary fiscal policy means an increase in government spending which is financed in Romania by higher borrowing and new tax, like the lump sum tax, resulting higher interest rates and lower investment. Since investment spending is lower, the capital stock is lower than it would have been, so that future incomes are lower.

Although government borrowing is currently high and financing the budget deficit is a major problem for Romania as it seems unable to attract inflows of financial capital or foreign investors. This increases the risk of the crowding out effect taking place. If the governments of other countries have taken an increasing debt in order to have funds with which to help their own economies according their own anti-crisis programs, in Romania public debt increased because the government borrowed massive to have money for payroll and pensions.

When the economy is in a recession, monetary policy may be ineffective in increasing spending and income. In this case, fiscal policy might be more effective in stimulating demand. Other economists disagree – they argue that changes in monetary policy can impact quite quickly and strongly on consumer and business behavior.

However, there may be factors which make fiscal policy ineffective aside from the usual crowding out phenomena. Future-oriented consumption theories based round the concept of rational expectations hold that individuals ‘undo’ government fiscal policy through changes in their own behavior – for example, if government spending and borrowing rises, people may expect an increase in the tax burden in future years, and therefore increase their current savings in anticipation of this.

Monetary and fiscal policies differ in the speed with which each takes effect the time lags are variable. Monetary policy in Romania is flexible since interest rates can be changed by the National Bank of Romania each month, whereas changes in taxation take longer to organize and implement.

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Because capital investment requires planning for the future, it may take some time before decreases in interest rates are translated into increased investment spending. Typically it takes at least few months before the effects of changes in monetary policy are felt.

Public Debt in Romania

Romania's public debt went 27.6% up, on September 30, reaching 140.09 billion RON that is 28.17% of the gross domestic product (GDP) estimated for the current year (2009), according to data published by the Public Finance Ministry.

Total public debt was of 109.75 billion RON at the end of 2008 and represented 21.78% of last year's GDP. 61.96 % of the debt was maturing in the short run, 34.85 percent was medium-termed and 3.19% was maturing in more than 5 years.( MFP 2009).

The coming years will lead to a sharp increase in public debt, which is presently low, compared to the 60 percent of GDP ceiling imposed by the European Union for the adoption of the euro.

When talking about the public debt of Romania we have to face a twofold truth. First: the public debt of Romania is rather low, by both international and European standards. On the other hand, newspapers all over the world report currently that Romania is in danger of national bankruptcy and need external help to avoid default. The International Monetary Fund, IMF, and the EU are said to be the fitting institutions in this regard.

After Romania barely avoided default in 1999 with the help of the IMF, public debt in Romania as a percentage of GDP has been relatively low during the last years. Compared to Western European countries government debt in Romania and budget deficits were even modest. The budget deficit fluctuated around some 2% of GDP after 2000, while the public debt of Romania measured as a percentage of GDP has been even shrinking, from 26% in 2000 to some 12.40% in 2006. That was perfectly fine even with the stability and growth pact of the EU, even though, during the last years the EU urged Romania not to loosen its fiscal policy.

On the other hand, the problem lies in the method of measurement in combination with an additional factor, the weak tax collection in Romania.


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The GDP of Romania experienced a strong growth in recent years (up to over 8% in 2008) and grew even stronger than public debt, which in absolute terms also has been growing, though, at a slower pace. One should assume that this way sustainability of debt could be taken as granted as public revenue should increase likewise with GDP growth and money could be paid back in the future. However, this has not been the case in Romania. Romania’s fiscal sector had to face shrinking revenues all over the last years and an eroding tax base, even though, together with GDP growth, also employment in Romania was on the rise. The tax reforms introduced so far yielded only slight increases and could not make up the weaknesses of the tax collection system and the still negative impact of high social contributions. The Romanians’ eagerness of tax evasion and the propensity to activities in the shadow economy (estimated to be somewhere around 30% of GDP) might play some additional role. Hence, we can conclude, that other countries might have more debt, both absolute and relative to GDP, but they typically have also better prospects to pay the debt back.

This notion is also underpinned by the way Government spending in Romania is often allocated. Government spending in Romania has been hardly planned and in the end allocated to current spending, rather than to badly needed long-term investments, like infrastructure or other, competitively rising measures.

Conclusions

Effective public debt management is the cornerstone of financial stability and sustainable fiscal policy. A government's debt portfolio is often the largest in the country and can generate substantial risk to its balance sheet, with potential to undermine key development objectives. An increase in public debt must be accompanied by a rise in the primary surplus of the government to guarantee sustainability of public debt. The government can and should use fiscal policy to keep real national output closer to potential GDP in order to avoid a large negative output gap.

Taking a lower amount of taxes on a percentage basis is a short-term mechanism to stimulate economic growth that translates into higher taxes in the long term when there is more money overall to be taxed. Since it has

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been established that status quo taxation will provide incentives for citizens to subvert the legal norms of taxation payments, the reduction in taxation engenders loyalty between citizens their governments, and influences enough growth to more than pay for itself in a short time after implementation has occurred.

During a financial crisis, it is important to create incentives for working toward economic recovery. Since normal situations of high taxation already “discourage work effort, saving, and investment, and promote tax avoidance and tax evasion,” this can only be amplified in situations where people feel especially stretched thin during economic distress. Government coffers become stretched by the added burden of spending, and with economic downturn there is less revenue generated. This lack of government revenue is further aggravated by when workers are forced to adopt behaviors to avoid paying taxes (such as taking jobs that pay under the table and never report their income). This is counterproductive toward the aim of recovering the economy. This forces either deficit spending in order to cover the cost of whatever the government spending might be, or government spending being insufficient to cover the costs of its intended purpose. It lacks a guarantee that the government can afford to continue the spending it promises. This paper point toward tax policy as the best fiscal tool to combat recession, particularly tax changes that influence incentives to invest, like an investment tax credit.

Moreover It is impossible to predict accurately the consequences of a crisis and more specifically in the current global financial crisis. As things stand now, the fiscal costs of the economic and financial crisis are expected to be considerable. The most reasonable assumption is that, for the most part, the sizeable government deficits that is likely to build up this year and next will not be self-correcting. Instead, they will need to be corrected through policy actions. The scale of the challenge for fiscal policy is considerable. Most governments will come out of this crisis with the highest debt levels, as a proportion of GDP, ever to have been experienced in modern history.


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References

Alesina A., Ardagna S., (2009), Large changes in fiscal policy: taxes versus Spending, Harvard, http://www.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/alesina /files/Large%2Bchanges%2Bin%2Bfiscal%2Bpolicy_October_2009.pdf

Deloitte Study, (2009), New York, Tax Response to the Global Economic Crisis, https://www.deloitte.com/assets/Dcom-/Local%20Assets/Documents /dtt_tax_respondingtoeconcrisis__032009(4).pdf

Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the USA, (1996), Washington, The Reagan tax cuts, lessons for tax reform, JEC Report, http://www.house.gov/jec/fiscal/tx-grwth/reagtxct/reagtxct.htm

Keynes J., (w1936, e1972), The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes, London, Macmillan, Cambridge University Press,

http://www.heritage.org/Research/Taxes/bg1765.cfm

KPMG International Financial Reporting Group, 2009, London, KPMG's Report on Individual income tax and social security rate survey, http://www.kpmg.com/Global/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesAndPublications/Pages/income-tax-social-security-survey-2009.aspx

Mitchell D., (2003), The Historical Lessons of Lower Tax Rates, The Heritage Foundation Studies, http://www.heritage.org/research/taxes/wm327.cfm

Mountford A, Harald U, (2008), What are the effects of fiscal policy shocks? National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, http://www.nber.org/papers/w14551.pdf

Ministry of Public Finances (2009), Execution of the State Budget, http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/arhiva_buletine2009/bsl_7.pdf

National Institute of Statistics, (2009), Economic Development Report, http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/Web_IDD_BD/index.htm

Scarpetta S., Bassanini A., (2007), Paris, The Driving Forces of Economic Growth: Panel Data Evidence for the OECD Countries, OECD Economic Studies 33, 9-56, http://en.scientificcommons.org/23931421

The World Bank Annual Report, (2009), Washington, Fiscal Year Summary, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/EXTANNREP/EXTAR2009/0,,contentMDK:22319837~menuPK:6443070~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:6223978,00.html

The National Trade Register Office (2009) www.onrc.ro/romana/retea.php

OUG no. 34 of April 11, 2009

Conference on Monetary – Fiscal Policy Interactions, Expectations and Dynamics in the Current Economic Crisis, (2009), Princeton,www.princeton.edu

http://www.house.gov/jec/fiscal/tx-grwth/reagtxct/reagtxct.htm http://www.ibdeditorials.com/IBDArticles.aspx?id=334276867815560 http://www.ffw.org.ph

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Fiscal Harmonization to further the goal of a single market

Mihaela Göndör*

Abstract: The European Union (EU) is the largest single market in the world. The idea of

fiscal harmonization to further the goal of a single market that provides similar conditions to companies across national borders, has been floated in the EU for sometime now but has not been accepted by all the countries. As investment conditions within the EU become more homogenous, individual countries like Ireland have used tax competition as a means of differentiating themselves and attracting foreign investment. The paper argues that tax harmonization could allow the single market to realize its full potential, which it is unable to do at the moment due to obstacles such as double taxation, but concludes that lowering duties rather than harmonizing taxes would be a far more effective measure.

Jel Classification: F15, F59, H87 Key words: EU fiscal policy, Tax sovereignty, Single Market, Harmonization

Introduction

Tax harmonization consists in coordinating the taxation systems of the European countries to avoid non-concerted and competing changes in national fiscal policies, which could have an adverse effect on the internal market. Full tax harmonization covering 27 countries is a difficult undertaking, since this area remains largely the prerogative of the Member States. However, a minimum degree of harmonization has been achieved, e.g. with the common bands of value added tax, which require a minimum VAT rate of 15% on all products (apart from exemptions and special authorizations).

* Phd. Associate Professor - “Petru Maior” University, Faculty of Economics, Law and Administrative Sciences 1, Nicolae Iorga Street, 540088, Tg.Mures, ROMANIA, Phone: 0265 219034, [email protected]


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The actual context of EU fiscal harmonization policy

The fiscal policy is an important tool for managing the economy because of its ability to affect the total amount of output produced that is, gross domestic product. Tax sovereignty is considered one of the fundamental components of national sovereignty, so tax systems differ widely as a result of differences in economic and social structures and different conceptions of the role of taxation in general or of one tax in particular. Different countries have different tax regimes for different reasons. For example, the duty on tobacco in the UK is much higher than that in Spain and France. The question of how such taxes could be harmonized triggers massive problems - for example, the UK might claim to have higher taxes to discourage smoking and to provide external benefits to health and welfare whereas the tobacco industry in Spain might be hit hard by any increases in tax causing unemployment. But national tax systems have a negative effect on EU market integration. Remaining obstacles should be lifted to take full advantage of the single market. Tax harmonization is critical to the operation of the Single Market so that goods, services, people and capital can move freely around the EU. Basically, harmonization of taxes means making the levels of taxation more consistent in each country. Harmonization only affects indirect taxes, most notably corporation tax, which is much lower in the UK and Ireland than other Member States, and VAT (Value Added Tax) which ranges from 15 to 25% across the EU. At present, these taxes are not harmonized between the EU Member States, but it is one of the issues being debated in a proposed new EU constitution. Despite attempts by the European Commission to push tax harmonization forwards, there is a relative lack of support for the regime from a majority of the member countries and individuals involved. This is mainly due to the negative consequences for local governments, and the imperfect nature of the regime.

Both the creation of the Single Market and the completion of Economic and Monetary Union have led to new Community initiatives in the field of general taxation. The removal of restrictions on the mobility of capital has created fears that tax competition will erode national tax bases, with adverse consequences for employment and social protection. Economic policies are suggested and implemented at both the national and European

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level. Indeed, economic policy is primarily a national responsibility, even if the Treaty declares that it should be regarded "as a matter of common concern" and coordinated within the Council.

The last enlargement greatly increased tax disparities within the Union. At the same time, adoption of the single currency in 16 European countries has made it necessary to establish genuinely common rates of VAT and common rules for business taxation in the Union. When the euro came into being, monetary policy became the responsibility of the independent European Central Bank (ECB), which was created for that purpose, and the national central banks of the Member States having adopted the euro. Fiscal policy (tax and spending) remains in the hands of individual national governments – though they undertake to adhere to commonly agreed rules on public finances known as the Stability and Growth Pact. They also retain full responsibility for their own structural policies (labor, pension and capital markets), but agree to co-ordinate them in order to achieve the common goals of stability, growth and employment.

Objectives in the area of general taxation policy

Since 1997, the Member States have been conducting a wide-ranging debate on the scope for coordinated action to try to control the negative effects of tax competition. This has centered on three areas: company taxation, taxation of savings income and taxation of royalty payments between companies. With the "fiscal package" to combat harmful tax competition, the Council adopted:

a code of conduct for business taxation (December 1997); an instrument to reduce distortions in the effective taxation of

savings income in the form of interest payments ("Savings Taxation Directive", June 2003);

an instrument to eliminate withholding taxes on cross-border interest and royalty payments made between associated companies ("Interest and Royalty Payments Directive", June 2003).

Because different company taxation systems co-exist, cross-border activities are treated differently to similar domestic activities. The first measure was to introduce a Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base for


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EU businesses (CCCTB), a strategy the Commission has been working towards since 2001. A second series of measures is aimed at simplifying the tax environment. In order to create a level playing field, corporate taxation obstacles have to be removed concerning VAT compliance obligations; A third series of measures is aimed at removing cross-border tax barriers faced by EU businesses. The fourth measure is aimed at creating a new car taxation strategy to replace Member State registration taxes. The fifth measure concerns a new policy to combat distortions due to fraud and tax evasion.

In the area of general taxation policy, the Community is pursuing a number of objectives:

1. A first, long-standing aim has been to prevent differences in indirect tax rates and systems from distorting competition within the Single Market. This has been the purpose of legislation under Article 93 (99) on VAT and excise duties.

2. In the field of direct taxation, where the existing legal framework mostly takes the form of bilateral agreements between Member States, the primary objective of Community action has been to close the loopholes which permit tax evasion; and to prevent double taxation.

3. The objective of more recent moves towards a general taxation policy has been to prevent the harmful effects of tax competition, notably the migration of national tax bases as firms move between Member States in search of the most favorable tax regime. Though such competition can have the beneficial effect of limiting governments' ability to "tax and spend", it can also distort tax structures. In recent years the proportion of total taxation accounted for by taxes on relatively mobile factors like capital (interest, dividends, corporate tax) has fallen, while that on less mobile factors, notably labor – for example social charges - has risen.

4. The Maastricht Treaty provisions on Economic and Monetary Union introduced a new dimension to general taxation policy by severely limiting governments' ability to finance public expenditure out of borrowing. Under the Stability and Growth Pact, Member States participating in the € area must not at any

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time run budget deficits at a level above 3% of GDP. The general aim of the Pact is for Member States' budgets to be roughly in balance over the economic cycle. Higher public spending can therefore be financed only out of higher revenues. In this context, Fiscal Policy became a very special tool for the economic development of each state.

Despite broad acceptance of these objectives, national governments have been reluctant to make any major steps towards the harmonization of taxation within the Community, and to adopt the tax harmonization measures by unanimity in Council, as is required. Any proposal for Community action in taxation must take full account of the principles of subsidiary and proportionality (COM (96)546). Rather than "harmonization for harmonization’s sake", measures were needed "to provide a more effective defense against the loss of national fiscal sovereignty in favor of the markets experienced by Member States".

Improving European and national legislation to further the goal of a single market

Indirect taxes

The Value Added Tax (VAT) is one of the most successful taxes in the contemporary economy. Developed as late as in 1950’s, it has rapidly become the most widespread consumption tax in the world, currently being deeply entrenched in the tax systems of more than 140 countries. EC VAT has generally been treated with a certain amount of caution, in particular where transactions have occurred between different EC member states. This was previously identified and a uniform approach to the application of VAT was included in the 6th EC Council Directive, issued 17 May 1977. The intention of this Directive was to ensure a uniform basis of assessment was being applied in each of the member states. Due to the number of member states and the corresponding legislation of each member, there have been many problems to overcome before any measure of harmonization can be said to have been achieved. Standard rates vary between 15% (Luxembourg) and 25% (Sweden). VAT rates on certain supplies vary between countries, for example basic foodstuffs vary between 0% (UK) and 25% (Denmark). Cross border VAT repayment


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claims under the 8th Directive can be received within months from France and up to five years from Italy.

There are many other anomalies, most of them entrenched by state political necessities, and of course state budgetary requirements.

The introduction of the 8th Directive on 6 December 1979 essentially tried to enable that VAT incurred by a taxable person in one member state was available for refund in another member state, subject to the relevant conditions set out in the Directive. Article 3 of the 8th Directive sets out the conditions for qualifying for a refund of VAT suffered in other member states. The Directive also gives examples of the format of the certification to be used.

The advent of the 8th Directive certainly cleared up a number of the previous problems of suffering VAT in other member states; however, the states were only too well aware of all the anomalies and possible frauds.

However, with the amendments to the existing Directives, the member states are continuing their commitment to the harmonization of VAT, although this is obviously a complicated matter to take into consideration when dealing with other member states.

Excise duties on alcohol, tobacco and energy are indirect taxes on the consumption or the use of certain products. In contrast to Value Added Tax (VAT), they are mainly specific taxes, i.e. expressed as a monetary amount per quantity of the product. The most commonly applied excise duties are those on:

Alcoholic beverages, Manufactured tobacco products and Energy products (motor fuels and heating fuels, such as petrol

and gasoline, electricity, natural gas, coal and coke). All EU Member States apply excise duties to these three product

categories. The revenue from excise duties accrues entirely to the Member States. EU legislation in the area of excise duties on these products was mainly adopted in the context of the establishment of the Internal Market on 1 January 1993, which involved the abolition of controls of a fiscal nature at internal borders between Member States.

This legislation, which has been further developed since, can be divided into three main categories:

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The structure of the tax to be applied to a particular group of products. The structure of taxation means the definition of the product categories, the way in which the excise duty is calculated (e.g. per hl; per degree alcohol; per 1000 pieces, etc.), the scope of possible exemptions, etc.

The minimum rates of duty that Member States have to respect for each type of product. Above those minimum rates, Member States can freely fix their own rate levels.

General provisions that apply across the product categories. These provisions concern in particular the production, storage and movement between Member States of excise products.

In the field of customs duties EU obtained the most successful level of tax harmonization. Customs duties were abolished for the intra-Community trade, and in commercial relations with other countries the Member States practice a common customs tariff.

Direct taxes

Personal taxes

The Commission in its Communication "Tax Policy in the European Union - Priorities for the years ahead" of 23 May 2001 stated its belief that taxes on personal income may be left to Member States even when the European Union achieves a higher level of integration than at present. At the same time the Commission acknowledged that co-ordination at EU level is in some cases necessary to safeguard the application of the Treaty freedoms and to eliminate tax obstacles to cross-border activities. The Commission also referred to the need to co-ordinate personal income taxes to prevent double taxation or unintentional non-taxation in cross-border situations, or to tackle cross-border tax evasion.

The European Court of Justice has consistently held that, in the absence of harmonization, taxes on personal income fall within the competence of the Member States but they must respect the fundamental Treaty principles on the free movement of workers, services and capital and the freedom of establishment (Articles 39, 43, 49 and 56 of the EC Treaty). In particular, there must not be any direct or indirect


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discrimination on the basis of nationality, nor may there be any unjustified restrictions to the four freedoms.

Moreover, in more general terms, the Treaty provides that every citizen of the Union has the right to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States (Article 18 of the Treaty). It should be noted that the applicability of the four freedoms is extended to Norway, Liechtenstein and Iceland through the Agreement creating the European Economic Area (Articles 28 to 45).

The Communications on the taxation of pensions of April 2001 and dividends of December 2003 are the first two examples of the Commission's new approach to achieve a co-coordinated response from Member States to important case-law of the European Court of Justice and eliminate tax obstacles to the Internal Market. Both Communications stress that Member States are free to choose their pension and dividend taxation systems as long as they respect the four freedoms of the EC Treaty.

However, many Member States do not allow tax deduction for pension contributions paid to a pension fund in another Member State. This effectively seals off their national markets from competition from other Member States, it makes it difficult to create pan-European funds and it constitutes a major obstacle to the free movement of workers within Europe.

Tax obstacles to the cross-border provision of occupational pensions

In a first step, the Commission submitted a Communication on the elimination of tax obstacles to the cross-border provision of occupational pensions, on 19 April 2001. The Commission concluded, on the basis of the EC Treaty and the case-law of the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg (ECJ), that Member States were not allowed to restrict the freedom to provide services and the free movement of workers by refusing tax deductibility for pension contributions paid to pension funds in other Member States. The Communication of April 2001 also developed ideas on the exchange of information and the elimination of double taxation.

As a second step, the Commission launched new infringement proceedings under Article 226 of the EC Treaty against Belgium, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Denmark and the United Kingdom in order to amend its legislation.

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Taxation of dividends received by individuals

The taxation of dividend income received by individuals is not harmonized at the EU-level, nor does the Commission intend to harmonize it. However, Member States may not restrict the free movement of capital within the EU. This means that dividends from another Member State received by individual shareholders cannot be subjected to higher taxation than domestic dividends. Similarly, dividends paid to individuals in another Member State cannot be subjected to higher taxation than domestic dividends.

If Member States cannot agree on solutions, the Commission will be obliged to initiate legal action against those Member States whose dividend tax rules do not comply with the Treaty.

Member States operate different systems for taxing dividend income in the hands of individual shareholders. For domestic dividends, most Member States prevent or reduce economic double taxation (which results from the levying of corporation tax and income tax on the same dividend income) by applying either:

an imputation system or a scheduler system.

Where Member States differentiate between the taxes treatment of domestic and inbound or outbound dividends in applying their systems, this may constitute a restriction on cross-border investments and can result in fragmented capital markets in the EU. Analysis of case law leads to certain conclusions on the design of dividend taxation systems. Member States cannot levy higher taxes on:

inbound EU dividends than on domestic dividends; or outbound EU dividends than on domestic dividends.

Member States should re-examine their systems in light of this law. Any necessary changes will help to optimize capital allocation in the Internal Market.

Moreover, a coordinated approach to ensure the rapid removal of any tax obstacles will help to:

create a more stable and investment-friendly environment; and remove uncertainty created by potential legal conflict and

litigation.


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Such co-ordination is in the interests of both individual investors and business. It would also help ensure maximum efficiency of the Internal Market, with consequent positive effects on the competitiveness of the Union in the global marketplace.

Cross-border workers

Under the EC Treaty, individuals are entitled to move freely for work reasons from one EU Member State to another without suffering discrimination as regards employment, remuneration or other conditions of work and employment. Cross-border workers are persons who work in one EU Member State but live in another. It should however be stressed that the definition of what a cross-border worker exactly is may vary from one field to another (e.g. tax law, right of residence, welfare entitlements).

Taxation of cross-border workers - no special Community rules exist

In the field of social security there exist Community rules which define the concept of cross-border worker for the purpose of determining in which Member State they are entitled to social benefits.

In the field of taxation there exist no rules at Community level regarding the definition of cross-border workers, the division of taxing rights between Member States or the tax rules to be applied. Neighboring Member States with many persons crossing borders to work often agree special rules for cross-border workers in their bilateral double taxation conventions. Since these rules reflect the special situation between two Member States and are the result of negotiations between them, it follows that these rules vary from one double taxation convention to another. This applies both to the definition as such, and the division of taxing rights between the Member States concerned. Normally any special rules for cross-border workers are limited to persons who both live and work close to the border and are employed.

Income earned by a cross-border worker may be taxed in one or both of the Member States concerned, depending on the tax arrangements. In the latter case, tax paid in the Member State where the work is carried out would normally be taken into account when determining the tax liability in the Member State of residence, in order to avoid double taxation.

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There are no rules which guarantee the cross-border worker the right to the most favorable of the tax regimes of the Member States involved. The economic freedoms laid down in the EC Treaty provide a powerful tool for the elimination of discrimination in the tax treatment of frontier workers. While they cannot remedy the disadvantages which may flow from differences in the tax legislation of the home State and the State of employment, they do prevent both these States from denying frontier workers the benefit of the tax relieves and incentives granted to persons who work and reside in the same Member State.

Taxation in the State of residence

The EC Treaty freedoms and the non-discrimination principle mean that the cross-border worker may not be discriminated against in his State of residence, because he works in another Member State.

To the extent that he/she is taxed in the State of residence on income from employment or self-employment exercised in another Member State, he/she should therefore normally have the same right to deduction for work-related costs or costs of a personal kind in the State of residence as if the work had been carried out there. This may be the case for instance as regards costs for traveling to and from work, social security contributions paid in the Member State of employment/self-employment, child-care fees, pension contributions etc.

Taxation in the State of employment

From the point of view of the State of employment, a cross-border worker falls within the broader category of non-resident workers, non-resident meaning that they have their tax residence somewhere else. The Court of Justice has constantly held that residents and non-residents are not generally in the same situation. Differences in taxation between residents and non-residents may therefore not necessarily constitute discrimination.

However, where a non-resident worker - including a cross-border worker - is virtually in the same situation as a resident worker (for instance because he/she earns all or almost all of his/her income in that State), the non-resident worker may not be subject to less favorable taxation rules in the State of employment than residents of that State.


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On 21 December 1993 the Commission issued a Recommendation on the taxation of certain items of income received by non-residents in a Member State other than that in which they are resident. The recommendation proposes to Member States a Community system for taxing income of non-resident workers. The main feature is that non-resident persons should benefit from the same tax-treatment as residents, if they obtain 75 % of their total income in one Member State. In such situations, the Member State of residence would be allowed to reduce the personal tax advantages correspondingly in order to avoid that personal allowances could be enjoyed twice.

Taxation of Savings Income

Income from interest on capital is one of the most mobile tax bases, and tax competition is rife. In order to ensure the proper operation of the internal market and tackle the problem of tax evasion the savings tax Directive was adopted in June 2003. It has been applicable since 1 July 2005.

The Directive applies to interest paid to individuals resident in an EU Member State other than the one where the interest is paid. Member States had to transpose its provisions into national legislation. The European Commission on 13 November 2008 adopted an amending proposal to the Savings Taxation Directive, with a view to closing existing loopholes and better preventing tax evasion.

Company tax

The Code of Conduct for business taxation was set out in the conclusions of the Council of Economics and Finance Ministers (ECOFIN) of 1 December 1997. The Code is not a legally binding instrument but it clearly does have political force.

The Code of Conduct requires Member States to refrain from introducing any new harmful tax measures ("standstill") and amend any laws or practices that are deemed to be harmful in respect of the principles of the Code ("rollback"). The code covers tax measures (legislative, regulatory and administrative) which have, or may have, a significant impact on the location of business in the Union.

The criteria for identifying potentially harmful measures include:

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an effective level of taxation which is significantly lower than the general level of taxation in the country concerned;

tax benefits reserved for non-residents; tax incentives for activities which are isolated from the domestic

economy and therefore have no impact on the national tax base; granting of tax advantages even in the absence of any real

economic activity; the basis of profit determination for companies in a

multinational group departs from internationally accepted rules, in particular those approved by the OECD;

lack of transparency. The EU's Finance Ministers established the Code of Conduct Group

(Business Taxation) at a Council meeting on 9 March 1998, under the chairmanship of UK Paymaster General Dawn Primarolo, to assess the tax measures that may fall within the scope of the Code of Conduct for business taxation (The Primarolo Code). In a report of November 1999 the Group identified 66 tax measures with harmful features (40 in EU Member States, 3 in Gibraltar and 23 in dependent or associated territories).

Member States and their dependent and associated territories have now introduced or are in the process of introducing revised or replacement measures in substitution for the 66 measures.

Conclusions

As the European Union heads down path toward a more complete integration, several economic policy questions have arisen and now remain without a definitive response. Among these, perhaps none are as contentious as the future of taxation within the Union. First, following the introduction of EMU and the "Europeanization" of monetary policy, fiscal policy including taxation remains one of the few tools left at the disposal of national governments in their effort to influence their own economies. Furthermore, even fiscal policy has been constrained by the introduction of the Stability and Growth Pact, making taxation perhaps the final component with which individual countries can deal with asymmetric shocks. This being said, it is no surprise that the debate over taxation within the EU is a heated one. This being said, the literature on the subject is fueled by one central question: Is regulated tax harmonization or is


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market driven tax competition the best solution to the awkward state of asymmetric tax rates that currently exists in the EU? Not surprisingly, the existing viewpoints run the gamut from entirely pro-harmonization to pure pro-competition stances. As a whole however, the literature simply reveals the ambiguity of the issue, as reflected by its increasingly complex attempts to convey the reality of the European situation.

From my point of view, as factor mobility increases within the EU, pressure will be placed on member states to lower their tax rates on mobile factors in order to attract business. This unchecked competition will lead to a 'race to the bottom' in which tax rates will dip so low as to threaten countries' abilities to supply public goods, but only on short term. If tax rates are cut in the process of competition, government expenditures have to be reduced; this helps to avoid waste and inefficiencies in the public sector, so reducing government revenues is not necessarily welfare-decreasing. On long term, lowering taxation will encourage investment and consumption in order to accelerate the economic growth, and to obtain harmony and prosperity, which means the exact goal of the European Union. The tax issue (and the prospect of harmonization) has been on the table since the Treaty of Rome, and will likely remain there for quite some time. Yet, what the literature does positively establish is that harmonization is not necessarily the only reasonable response to increasing integration. And despite serious study and debate, no optimal solution to the tax question has surfaced. Rather, a diverse variety of seemingly plausible options now demand attention from the EU and its members. In my conclusion lowering duties rather than harmonizing taxes would be a far more effective measure.

References:

European Commission, Tax harmonization, glossary updated given the recent signing of the Treaty of Lisbon, in http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/tax_ harmonisation_en.htm

European Commission, Towards Tax Co-ordination in the European Union: a package to tackle harmful tax competition, 1997, http://europa.eu/ legislation_summaries/customs/l11027_en.htm

European Parliament, Taxation in the European Union: Report on the Development of Tax Systems" (COM (96)546), in http://www.europarl.europa.eu/parliament/ expert/displayFtu.do?language=en&id=74&ftuId=FTU_4.18.1.html

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European Commission, Excise duties on alcohol, tobacco and energy: General overview, in http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/taxation/excise_duties/ gen_overview/index_en.htm

European Commission, EU Tax Policy Strategy, in http://ec.europa.eu/ taxation_customs/taxation/gen_info/tax_policy/index_en.htm

European Commission, Personal Tax: General overview, in

http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/taxation/personal_tax/gen_overview/index_en.htm European Commission, Taxation of occupational pensions in the Member States of the

European Union, in http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/taxation/ personal_tax/pensions/index_en.htm

Richard Lyal, 2008, Elimination of tax disadvantages for frontier workers: Non-discrimination and exceptions, Berlin, Ed. Springer, in http://www.springerlink.com/content/p411116727j87836/

Michael Lang, 2008, CFC legislation, tax treaties and EC lax, Hague, Ed. Linde Verlag Wien and Kluwer Law International Ltd. London

Ben J.M. Terra,Peter J Wattel, 2008, European Tax Law, Ed. Kluwer, Hague,

European Commission, The Commission Recommendation of 1993 regarding non-resident workers, in http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/taxation/ personal_tax/crossborder_workers/index_en.htm

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Equilibration and compensation of the risk structure in the german statutory health insurance

Grünewald Ioan B.*

Abstract : Enforced by demographic change taking place in Germany, the compulsory

health insurance had to denote dramatic losses each year. Therefore, an organisational overhaul of the compulsory health insurance system has been started in the last decade. The main concept of this overhaul is the Risk Compensation Scheme (RCS).

On 1st January 2007 the morbidity-orientated Risk Compensation Scheme was entitled in Germany. Many changes have been made. The situation owing to the introduction of this tool is described as well as the phased implementation of the RCS. The results are demonstrated. Actual possibilities to further development of the RCS are inspected. Conclusions and comparisons to other European countries having implemented a RCS are drawn.

1. Introduction

Social insurance is the core of the social network in the Federal Republic of Germany. More than 90 per cent of the German population is covered by social insurance. Traditionally, the statutory health insurance (SHI) system is one of the five branches of German social insurance. Apart from health insurance, the social network includes unemployment insurance, pension insurance, accident insurance and long-term care insurance. The key principles of the system are solidarity, benefits-in-kinds, equal financing by employees and employers, self-administration and plurality.

In this context solidarity deserves a special attention. This principle contains granting of benefits according to necessity (balance of risks and adjustment of the generations, income proportional contribution (adjustment of income), non-working family members are co-insured

* Universitatea UBB Cluj-Napoca, FSEGA

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exempted from contributions (adjustment of encumbrances of families), encumbrances are redistributed and defrayed collectively.

The health insurance system has its source in the “Health Insurance Act” of 1883 introduced by Bismarck. By this act, insured persons had a claim for medical and financial benefits in case of illness. The “Reich Insurance Code” of 1911 systematised health, pension and accident insurance, integrating them under one set of laws including the “Act on Continued Payment of Wages” of 1969, the “Improved Benefits Act” and the” Rehabilitation Act of 1974”. The main result of these reforms was a great expansion of the circle of compulsorily insured. Accordingly, the costs of the health care system rose significantly. A series of cost containment laws enacted in the years 1977 to 1983 and the “Health Care Reform Act” of 1st January 1989 incorporated as “Book V” in the “German Social Code” were the first steps to confine the costs. The consequences of this reform were not far-reaching enough. The consequences were not far-reaching enough mainly due to the structure of the SHI.

In the past, insured persons could not choose their health insurance unrestrictedly. Until 1996 only salaried employees and some other professional categories had the possibility to choose. Workers and retired persons were assigned to a health insurance by virtue of law. Due to this there was an unevenly distribution concerning persons earning a good salary and low income as well as healthy and ill contributors.

At present, about 400 health insurance funds are active in the German market of SHI. These can be classified into four categories: regional funds (the so called AOKs), substitute funds (the so called “Ersatzkassen”), company-based sickness funds (the so called BKKs), and other funds (guild funds, farmers’ fund, miners’ fund, and sailors’ fund). All funds are non-profit organizations and follow the principle of self-organisation. Contributions are paid in equal shares from the insured persons and their employers.

Enforced by demographic change taking place in Germany, the SHI had to denote dramatic losses. Therefore, an organisational overhaul of the statutory health insurance system has been commenced in the last decade. The main concept of this overhaul is the RCS.

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2. Description of the risk compensation scheme (RCS)

2.1 The main idea of the RCS

The Risk Compensation Scheme (RCS) was implemented by the “Health Care Structure Act” on 21st December 1992. Accordingly to this law insured persons could independently choose between different health insurance companies (open enrolment, since 1996). The central idea was to increase competition between the insurers on the German insurance market. By this, the government intended to force the insurance companies to improve quality of care and to reduce contribution rates. A critical point was that insurance companies have different risk structures resulting in a distortion of competition. Health insurance companies have different income and average expenditure due to the different types of insurants. For instance, elderly persons as well as chronically ill persons pay less contribution rates but access many benefits, whereas younger persons being in good health pay more money, and mean low expense for the health insurer. Furthermore, the incentive to practice risk selection should be minimized. This designation comprises all activities to gain low risk members and to divest high risk members. Risk selection would result in a declined situation for persons with a low health status. This would contradict the claim of solidarity. Thus, in 1994 the RCS was introduced in all health insurance companies. The RCS redistributes unequal distributions according to different risk structures of health funds. Id est that the financial effects of the risk structure which cannot be affected by the insurer are balanced by the RCS. In contrast to former financial compensations, the RCS does not consider actually formed expenditure of a health insurance, but it considers standardized expenditures for benefits adapted to the average expenditures of all health insurers. Expenditures for administrative tasks and for articles of association are not considered. Differences in expenditures between health insurers which cannot be ascribed to the compensable impact of risk structure must be exclusively funded by receipts from contributions. Since 2002 the funds can be changed continuously. A minimum duration of 18 months of membership after a change is required. Health insurance funds are asked to charge a contribution rate of at least 12.5%.

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The central challenge of the RCS is on the one hand to accomplish and ensure competition and thus cost consciousness and on the other hand solidarity balance according to § 1 SGB V, “Book V” in the “German Social Code”. In order to achieve these partly contradictory aspects, the micro- and the macroeconomic point of view must be taken into account:

1. From a microeconomic point of view, a long-term protection of the budget of mandatory insurance must be accomplished by the actuarial protection, and the benefits for insurants should not be based upon the risk structure of sub-stock.

2. From a macroeconomic point of view, resources regarding allocation, actuarial protection and benefit for insurants should be distributed according to the second Grossen’s law. This results in an efficient allocation provided that administrative prices within the SHI will be disestablished.

2.2 The main aims of the RCS

The main aims of the RCS are summed up below: The first aim is to allocate the patient the within SHI prescribed

health benefits according to form and quality and to leverage production factors in a way to perform services effectively and efficiently.

The second aim is to consider medical, technological and economic innovations in order to provide the patient with a constant quality at a budget level or in order to offer a higher quality at a constant price level.

The third aim is an economization through administration. Administrative procedures should be accelerated and service offers should be adapted to the insurants.

3. Calculation of the transfer payments

Calculation of RCS is effected centrally by the German federal social insurance authority (germ: “Bundesversicherungsamt”, “BVA”). The calculation is based on four different variables:


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Contribution rate: The insurant’s fee is calculated based on a fixed percentage of the insurant’s liable to subscription income (e.g. payment, pension, tax-privileged pension benefits).

Contribution revenues: The contribution revenues of a fund are the product of contributory income and individual contribution rate of the fund (LIT 18).

Financial Power: Financial Power denominates the product of a fund’s contribution revenues multiplied by the compensation need rate.

Beitragsbedarf: The contribution needs are offset against the compensation need rate and corresponds to the risk-related expenditures of a fund. Consequently, it demonstrates the objective financial requirements. Currently, the calculation of this parameter is based on the variables: age, sex, disablement and claims on sickness benefit (regulatory framework: § 267 SGB V, “Book V” in the “German Social Code”).

Compensation need rate: Owing to a data base that was created by the German federal social insurance authority BVA in 2002, this data base assigns by statistical methods risk groups. These risk groups differ in the probability of average expenses. This procedure can be easily used to determine the financial needs of an insurance company. The financial needs of an insurance company is calculated based on the data from complete inventory count and sampling surveys and must be covered by fees of members and employers in the RCS. To calculate the financial needs of an insurance company the contribution taxes of all funds are added and divided by the contributory income of all members of the SHI. This quotient denominates the compensation needs rate. This parameter specifies based on the financial power and the contribution needs how high the average contribution tax of all funds has to be to cover the expenditures of all insurants of the SHI (LIT 19).

Transfer payments according to RCS: The transfer payments of a fund result from the difference between the certain financial power of the insurance companies and the theoretical average contribution tax. If the difference is positive, the fund will have to pay transfer payments. If it is negative, the fund will receive transfer payments (LIT 14).

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In 2004, about 16,1 billion euro were redistributed between the insurers due to the RCS. The differences in the risk structure between the different insurers were in Germany so great that, without the RCS, some health insurers could manage with a contribution rate of under 5 per cent whereas other insurers would have to ask for a contribution rate of about 20 per cent.

As former mentioned, the German federal social insurance authority BVA is responsible for the calculation of parameters related to RCS. This institution is responsible for the generations of cost-homogeneous morbidity-classification as well as for the ascertainment of average costs payments. For this purpose, the database is provided by the health insurers. They have to provide details about age, sex, diagnoses, indication, medical treatment, payment of disability pension and arisen costs.

4. Phased implementation of the RCS

The RCS is being implemented in a phased manner. Phase 1 – Definition and planning of the schedule of the RCS reform. Phase 2 – Introduction of high risk pool and complement of financial

adjustment: The practical realizable model was developed and analyzed. In order to develop a model classification system for the German compulsory health insurance a representative database was created by studying an anonymous sample of insurants. This system was adapted and questions concerning the implementation were analysed and solved.

Phase 3 – Introduction of rebate funds (germ: Erstattungspools) for non-manageable benefits: After the presentation of the report, the upper management of the insurance companies analysed the situation.

Phase 4 - Construction of a basic dataset for a morbidity-orientated RCS: This phase can be subdivided into a first phase in which the health insurances were asked to provide the BVA with data and a second basic phase. In the second phase, these datasets were worked out with the aim of developing an advance payment procedure (germ: Abschlagsverfahren).

Phase 5 – The interim model on 1st January 2006: A phased reorganization of the demographic-based RCS to a morbidity-orientated RCS was


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initiated. Therefore, the parameters were extended from age and sex to diagnosis, indication, medical procedures and expenditure of medical treatment.

Phase 6 - Introduction of the all-German RCS: Based on updated calculations from 30th September 2006, the advance payments procedures were planned. On 1st January 2007 the all-German RSA with completely direct morbidity orientation was established.

These measures will be completed when the RCS becomes morbidity-based (see § 268 SGB V).

The RCS is complemented by two other adjustment tools. These are called “The Risk Pool” and “The Disease Management Programmes”.

5. Risk pool

In addition to the RCS, the risk pool went into effect in 2002. Due to this tool, the insurer could get a financial compensation of a fund for the care of cost-intensive patients. In the case that a threshold is exceeded, this fund pays 60 per cent of expenditures for inpatient medical care, pharmaceuticals, dialysis, etc. The threshold is adjusted annually (in 2007 the threshold was 21.051,- € per year). About 4 per cent of the expenditures of the SHI are financed by the risk pool; about 1 per cent of the insurants get financial aids from this risk pool. In 2007, the risk pool was transformed into a high risk pool. That means that only high above-average payments are compensated.

Only in the special case that defined expenditures for an insurant exceed 40.000,- DM, respectively 20.450,- € per year, the whole community of insurants pays up to 60 per cent of these costs. The expenditures are defined all sorts of costs for hospital treatment, pharmaceuticals, non-medical treatment, ambulant dialysis as well as sick benefit and death benefit (Rebscher, 2003:64-66). The paid amounts are financed by the standardized compensation needs ratio within the SHI. The receivables and the liability of the risk pool result from the balance of the amount of risk pool and the financial power of the insurer. Thus, competitive disadvantages are reduced.

Theoretically there is a difference between the RCS and the risk pool. In practice, the risk pool and the RCS are processed together (Rebscher,

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2003:64-66). The risk pool is a temporary remedy until the morbidity-orientated RCS will go into effect and will directly adjust the differences.

6. Disease management programs (DMP)

“Disease Management Programmes” were entitled in 2003, dealing with structured treatment programmes for patients with chronic illnesses. These programmes are promoted by the RCS with special payments on the condition that these programmes satisfy particular high quality standards. Subsequently, insurance companies will henceforth receive additional payments through the RSA for patients with a chronic disease status who are enrolled in a DMP. The special intents hereby are to increase significantly the level of care for chronically ill patients and to confine and to control the cost explosion in health care. The sickness fund has to cover 30% of necessary expenditures and gets 70% out of a joint fund. Currently, there are four diseases for which DMP are accepted: diabetes, breast cancer, coronary heart disease and asthma.

7. Results

Some results of the introduction of the RCS are already noticeable: Consumer mobility: On the one hand, company health insurance

funds (germ: BKK) have been able to acquire a lot of new customers (inter alia Nuscheler & Knaus, 2004). These BKK funds are compared to the classical health insurance companies relative small nonmonetar companies with favourable risk structure and frequently with low administrative costs through virtual offices. On the other hand, funds with a historically non-favourable risk structure and an area-wide office structure achieved a drastic decline of members.

Switching rate: Since the introduction of the open enrolment, insurants switch increasingly from one fund to another one. For example, the AOKs have lost 479.000 customers in 1997, 400.000 in 1998 and 292.000 in 1999, whereas the BKKs attracted 335.000, 516.000 and 971.000 new members in these three years. The switching rates are positively correlated to the contribution rates.


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Lower contribution rates were the prime reason for switching (Busse, 2005: 174-177).

Risk shift: Another cause for the success of the company health insurance funds is due to the negative correlation between health status and switching rate (Nuscheler & Knaus, 2004). Persons with poor health status are less willing to change their health insurer than persons with good health status. As a consequence, the movement of members between funds did not equalize the different risk structure.

Mergers: As a result of the increased competition and of the implementation of the RCS, sickness funds began to merge. The total number of sickness funds decreased form 1.221 in 1993, to 960 in 1995, 554 in 1997, 453 in 1999 and 420 in 2000 (Busse, 2005: 174-177).

Narrowed contribution rates: While in 1994, more than 30 per cent of all the members in the former West Germany paid a contribution rate differing by more than one percentage point from the average, this number dropped to 8 per cent in 1999 (Müller & Schneider, 1999:20-39).

Incomplete risk adjustment: There is a discussion on the effect of the reallocation. Some experts and funds complain about an effect of over-balancing. For example, in 2006 the AOKs received about 12.7 bn € and the miners’ fund about 1.6 bn € from the financial adjustment. The BKK paid in the most money about 8.9 bn € followed by substitute funds with about 4.1 bn €. Contrary to the intention of the RCS, some AOKs receiving payments from the RCS have lower contribution rates than BKKs as a payer.

8. Conclusion

All in all, the RCS is considered to be an appropriate tool and a success in Germany. However, there are still a lot of problems to be solved. Basically, there are three groups of consultants who have dealed with the potential for further development of the RCS. All groups focused on a defined problem area of the German health market, analyzed it and offered appropriate solutions.

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IGES/Cassel/Wasem (2001: 7-13, 15, 17-30, 67-69, 93): On behalf of the Federal Ministry of Health (germ: BMG), this group of consultants identified four criteria for a successful risk adjustment in the German health market. These are:

o (1) maintenance of quality and efficiency, o (2) avoidance of encouragement of stimulation of risk

selection, o (3) feasibility of the general concept and o (4) guarantee of equitableness of contribution rate.

Despite a partial conflict of aims, further development of the RCS can only be seen in a considerably stronger and more direct morbidity reference concerning the calculation of standardized benefits.

Lauterbach/Wille (2001:7, 9, 13, 16, 22, 27, 227-228): The focal point of this analysis was the switching rate within SHI. Clients were the central associations (germ: “Spitzenverbände”) of the health funds. Based on the findings of the analysis, the group proposed the following arrangements:

o (1) They recommended a changing component (germ: “Wechslerkomponente”) in order to estimate the morbidity and therefore to enhance the targeted precision of the RCS without a marked enlargement of the RCS-amount as well as without an interference of competition.

o (2) They suggested the implementation of solidarity reinsurance.

DIW/Breyer/Kifmann (2001: 2-6, 46): By order of the Federal Association of the BKKs, these group of consultants developed models of financial adjustment between the different insurance companies and models to assure reinsurance for the SHI. The group submitted the following proposals:

o (1) In the short-term, they advised to add the risk factors “income“ and “marital status“,

o (2) In the medium-term they suggested to introduce a direct morbidity-orientated RCS,

o (3) Interim, they recommended developing a system of no excessively heterogeneous high risk pools.


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To draw a conclusion, the RCS will persist in Germany. Stepwise refinements will further complicate the system.

Apart from Germany, there are some other European countries having implemented an RCS. Especially the Netherlands, Switzerland, Belgium and Israel have enacted significant reforms during the 1990s. The results of these reforms vary widely, potentially due to different switching rates (Laske-Aldershof et al., 2004: 229-241). Therefore implications for transferring RCS to other countries cannot be given. Further observations are imperative.

In Germany, further developments of the adjustment scheme are aimed at. In 2009, there will be a change from an internal adjustment to an external one. Thenceforward, the insurants will not pay contributions to their insurance company, but they will pay their contributions to an external federal health fund (Gesundheitsfond) which will, however, pay out a risk-adjusted sum to the insurance company (see the situation in the Netherlands or Belgium).

Bibliography

Bundesministerium für Gesundheit (1994), “Verordnung über das Verfahren zum Risikostruktur-ausgleich in der gesetzlichen Krankenversicherung vom 3.1.1994” (Regulation of 3.1.1994 on the risk struture compensation procedure in statutory health insurance. BGB1.I.

Busse, R. (2005), Risk structure compensation in Germany’s statutory health insurance, pp. 174-177.

BVA (2008), http://www.bva.de/Fachinformationen/Risikostrukturausgleich/ Bekanntmachungen/ bekanntmachungen.htm [Accessed 15.03.2008]

DIW; Breyer, F.; Kifmann, M. (2001), "Optionen der Weiterentwicklung des Risikostrukturausgleichs in der GKV", Diskussionspapier Nr. 236, Berlin, pp. 2-6, 46.

Files, A., & Murray, M. (1995), “German risk structure compensation: enhancing equity and effectiveness. Inquiry”, pp. 32, 300-309.

IGES; Cassel, Dieter; Wasem, Jürgen (2001), "Zur Wirkung des Risikostrukturausgleichs in der gesetzlichen Krankenversicherung - Eine Untersuchung im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Gesundheit", Endbericht, Baden-Baden, pp. 7-13, 15, 17-30, 67-69, 93.

Laske-Aldershof, T., Schut, E., Beck, K., Gre, S. Shmueli, A. & van de Voorde, C, (2004), “Consumer mobility in social health insurance markets: a five-country comparison”, Applied Health Economics & Health Policy, 3(4), pp. 229-241.

Grünewald Ioan B.

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Lauterbach, K.W.; Wille, E. (2001), "Modell eines fairen Wettbewerbs durch den Risikostrukturausgleich, Sofortprogramm - Wechslerkomponente und solidarische Rückversicherung - unter Berücksichtigung der Morbidität", Abschlussbericht, pp. 7, 9, 13, 16, 22, 27, 227-228.

Müller, J. & Schneider, W. (1999), “Entwicklung der Mitgliederzahlen, Beitragssätze, Versicherten-strukturen und RSA-Transfers in Zeiten des Kassenwettbewerbs: empirische Befunde im dritten Jahr der Kassenwahlrechte” (Development of member numbers, contribution rates, insurees’ structure and RCS-transfers in times of sickness fund competition: empirical data in the third year of choice of fund). Arbeit & Sozialpolitik, 53 (3/4), pp. 20-39.

Nuscheler, R. & Knaus, T. (2004). Risk selection in the German public health insurance system.

Rebscher, Herbert (2003): "Risikostrukturausgleich - Zahlen, Fakten, Hintergründe 2001/2002", Siegburg, pp. 64-66.

Stock, S.A.K., Redaelli, M. & Lauterbach, K.W. (2007), “Disease management and health care re-forms in Germany – Does more competition lead to less solidarity?”, Health Policy, 80(1), pp. 86-96.

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The regional development within the national economy

Romeo Ionescu*

Abstract : Some regions obtain advantages from the national economic growth and other

regions lose in the same period. On the other hand, the economic growth isn’t stable in time. The elements which support the regional economic growth are those connected to the aggregate supply and demand. Another element of the aggregate supply’s analysis is the efficiency of the economic activity. On the other hand, the paper deals with the aggregate demand action on the regional economic growth.

A distinct part of the paper is focused on the business cycle evolution, connected with the aggregate expenditures structure’s change. So, we defined the concepts of regional multiplier and regional accelerator. The last part of the paper deals with the impact of the internal investments on the regional economic growth.

The main conclusion of the paper is that the regional growth is complex and it is an element and a result of the society evolution, as well.

JEL Classification: R – Urban, Rural and Regional Economics Keywords: economic growth, inputs’ mixes up technology, production management system, regional multiplier, regional accelerator.

The article realises an approach from a new point of view in order to analyse the elements which support the regional sustainable development. We divided these elements and their analysis into specific categories and we tried to use the mathematical instruments in order to support our conclusions. Some analyses were done before, in order to quantify the regional economic growth (Armstrong and Taylor, 2000), the evolution of regional employment (Bade, 2006) or the mathematic methods of the regional analysis (Mitra-Kahn, 2008).

The paper deals with another approach in which all the elements which support the regional development are analysed together in the same time.

* Ph.D.Professor, Dunarea de Jos University, Galatz, Domneasca Street no.111, 0336130165, [email protected]

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The regional economic growth represents an output growth, an output/labour growth or an output/inhabitant growth, as well. As a result, it is important to specify the manner to quantify the regional growth.

There are some cases in which a region has a low output, but a fast output/inhabitant growth rate as a result of a massive emigration.

It is a powerful connection between these three indicators. The use of a specific indicator depends of the final interest. The output growth is used in order to quantify the productive capacities growth, which partly depends of the region’s capacity to attract capital and labour from other areas. The output/labour growth is often used as an indicator of the economic activities change. Practically, there isn’t a perfect indicator which is able to quantify the regional economic growth.

On the other hand, the researchers’ conclusions about the regional growth process are not the same. Some researchers use the neoclassic methods, based on the labour supply, the capital stock and the technical progress action within the economic growth. These methods are based on the idea that the market realises an efficient distribution of the resources and the regional productivity disparities are the result of the resources reallocation according to Pareto’s optimal level. Other researchers adopt the Keynesian theory connected to the demand influence, in order to describe the regional exports as the main source of the output growth. Maybe, the most interesting regional economic growth theory is that based on the cumulative principles, in order to explain the regional disparities using the demand. This theory considers that the present growth disparities become cumulative and tend to perpetuate alone.

The economic growth is usually defined as a GDP/capita growth, which has effects on population and inflation rate dimensions. It is important to understand that this growth isn’t the same for all regions of a national economy. As usually, some regions obtain advantages from the national economic growth and other loose. On the other hand, the economic growth isn’t constant during a period. It has a fluctuant evolution as in figure 1.


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Figure 1: The economic growth and cycles The long term output expansion (GDP, GNP) is described by GG line.

The regional economy operates in a point like A, when the short term economic expansion is greater that the average trend rate of the economic growth. When the economy operates lower than the average economic growth trend, it achieves a point like B.

Under similar conditions, the regional economy will develop faster than the national economy. The reality disproves the hypothesis of the same development conditions for the all regions from a country. In order to discover the elements which support the regional economic growth, the analysis has to be made in connection to the aggregate supply and the aggregate demand.

According to the aggregate supply approach, the economy ability to produce output and to grow (during a period) its actual and potential supply is fundamental in economic growth achieving. In order to achieve this growth, the national aggregate economic supply (OT) has to translate to the right (during a period), from OT0 to OT1, as in figure 2.

(Euros)

Figure2 : term aggregate supply growth

Output

G A

G

B t

0

Q OT0

OT1

0 t

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From this point of view, the economic growth represents a growth of the economy’s supply capacity without output strangulation. This means the achievement of a higher level for the economic activity. The extension of the economic growth without pressure on the prices level represents the elasticity of the aggregate supply.

The economic capacity to produce output depends on specific factors. One of these is the inputs’ quantity and quality. The land supply is inelastic on short term, especially in constructions and industrial activities. On long term, the supply becomes more flexible, even that this elasticity is limited to the geographic conditions.

The labour supply varies very much at regional level. The labour quantity depends on the population density, the demographic structure, the economic activity rate and the unemployment rate, as well. The labour quality is represented by the human capital stock, which isn’t uniform distributed in all regions of a national economy. The regional workers number is influenced by the central government policies, such as those connected to the revenue taxes level. A decrease of the marginal revenue rate, for example, can imply the labour supply growth, because the substitution effect will be greater than the revenue effect. The labour mobility can be improved by training and education, which realise the labour quality growth, as well. This labour quality can be influenced by the regional and local politic initiatives. The labour migration is able to improve the workers’ number on the regional labour market.

The capital supply is analysed as quantity and quality. The physical capital is relative immobile and the financial capital is mobile. The regional financial capital supply is relative inelastic and reflects the regional disparities connected to the risk and the stipulated efficiency. The government regional and urban policies’ implementation can create taxes advantages for specific locations such as industrial and assistance areas, when it influences some variables as the general interest rate.

The second element which influences the economic capacity to produce output is the inputs mixing up technology, which leads to a specific efficiency. This efficiency appears when the inputs growth supports a greater output growth and a decrease of the average production costs. The efficiency can be internal and external. The internal efficiency supports the decrease of the average costs, as a result of the internal changes. The


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efficient use of the equipments can lead to greater benefits from the output growth. The enterprises can find easily development possibilities and can obtain supplementary benefits from the internal efficiency under the economic growth. The external efficiency is dimensioned by the cost of the derivate advantages from external sources. Such sources are the improvement of the applicative research activity and the existence of a adequate technical support for this. As a result, there are some specific policies and initiatives which are focused on the external efficiency acceleration. These policies consist of infrastructure improvement and transport and energy modernisation, which have direct effects on the individual enterprises.

Other factors which dimension the economic capacity to produce output, from the aggregate supply point of view, are the efficiency of the economic activity and the production management.

The aggregate demand can influence the regional development using the investments, which has to be analysed quantitative and qualitative. The investments for the physical capital are supported by the financial capital. On the other hand, the savings represent the essential source for the investments. The savings have to be focused on those productive investments which have a direct effect on the economic growth. In order to achieve the economic growth, the resources have to be carefully repartee between consumption and investments (savings). The consumption is considered as a present consumption and a present use of the resources, but the investments dictate restrictions on this present consumption, in order to facilitate a future greater consumption. This connection can be demonstrated by Harrod-Domar equation:

gs

v ,

where g represents the economic growth rate, s – the savings rate and v – the capital needs to produce a additional unit of output. If the capital is used more intensive for the production process, v will grow. As a result, more investments or savings will be necessary in order to achieve a specific economic growth rate. On the other hand, the revenue (Y) is divided into consumption (C) and savings (S):

SCY .

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As a result, the Harrod-Domar equation can be rewrite, using the multiplier c’, in connection to the present consumption:

v

cg

'1 .

This theory considers that a savings growth will support greater investments and output growth and a regional economic growth, as well. The trend of this regional economic growth can be described using the trade cycle.

Boom

Depression

Figure 3: The regional trade cycle

The regional trade cycles are irregular and endemic for the developed

regions, independent of their political and institutional structures’ particularities. The cyclic regional development doesn’t imply an automat insurance of the prosperity for all enterprises. Moreover, the greater output level will be achieved latter. This specific lag comes from the direct influence of the regional trade cycles on the derived demand, the labour market and the inputs use.

The first effect of the regional trade cycle is the change of the aggregate expenditures structure and level, which can be quantify as:

PIBExpGICCh nT ,

where C represents consumption, I – investments, G – government expenditures and Expn – net export. Usually, the regional cyclic fluctuations are connected to the changes in investments and government expenditures. The greatest part of the consumption is financed from credits more than

Level of economic activity

Recession Refreshment

t 0


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from the current revenues. As a result, the consumption becomes more influenced by the interest rate. At a specific point of the regional trade cycle evolution, the economic effects become cumulative under the acceleration and the multiplication mechanisms. The regional multiplier is dimensioned by the marginal consumption propensity. A greater multiplier implies a greater effect on the output, under the change of the aggregate expenditures, like in figure 4.

Figure 4: The aggregate demand change

The acceleration effect suppose that a accelerate development of the output is necessary when the investments grow. On the other hand, the investments have to cover the need of goods and the capital depreciation.

The capital/output consumption varies between industries. A region with high capital/output (metallurgy, high volume chemistry) needs a high capital stock. On the other hand, the regions with low capital/output (textile) are able to develop with lower investments.

When the region is under recession, a greater number of unemployment will be not paying the revenues taxes. Others will decrease their expenditures as an effect of their revenues decrease. The cumulative effect is that the revenues flux from taxes collection will decrease, as well. On the other hand, recession grows the unemployment rate and the government specific expenditures for unemployment pays. As a result, the financial flux from the central government to a region in recession will

Expenditures Expenditures Y S2

S0

S1

45

Y= Q 0 Y1 Y0 Y2

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grow. Moreover, the decrease of the revenues from taxes will support the growth of the national and regional public expenditures (Clarke et al, 1992).

When the regional economy succeeds to pass over depression, the unemployment and public unemployment pay will decrease. The supplementary labour demand will support the growth of the workers revenues and the increase of their revenues taxes, as well. The final result will be the decrease of the net government expenditures.

Under a zero growth, the regional unemployment can grow. The regional revenues have to grow annually at least 3% in order to maintain constant the inputs use level. If a region wants to achieve 1% of the inputs use level growth, its output has to grow at least 5% (Armstrong and Taylor, 1993).

These processes lead to great regional disparities across the E.U.27. Some regions become supranational growth areas, which have a GDP 50% greater than the European average (Hamburg, Ile de France, Brussels and Inner London, for example).

Recent analyses are focused on the elements which are able to support the success or the fiasco of the regions performance. The tentative to answer to these questions are focused on the internal social characteristics which appear and create the regional performance disparities (Popescu, 2003).

The government decentralisation in regions isn’t enough to guarantee the success. The most developed European regions have a high level of social cohesion and participation. They promote the industrial cooperation, flexibility and security. As a result, the enterprises cooperate with each other and build a cooperation network, as well.

The developed regions attract the internal investments with high added value for the regional economy, support the innovations and the technologic transfer and have government institutions which learn to learn.

All these elements contribute to the trans-border synergies maximisation and build a vibrant civil society which is accepted by the state (Hudson, 2003).

References

Armstrong H., Taylor J.( 1993) Regional Economics and Policy, Harvester Wheatsheaf.


Armstrong H., Taylor, J. (2000) Regional Economics and Policy, Blackwell, London.

Bade F.J. (2006) Evolution of regional employment in Germany: forecast 2001 to 2010, in A. Reggiani & P. Nijkamp (editors) Spatial Dynamics, Network and Modelling, Edward Edgar, Cheltenham and Northampton.

Clarke M., Gibbs D., Brime E.K., Law C.M.(1992) Regional Development in the 1990's, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London.

Hudson R.(2003) European Integration and New Forms of Uneven Development, European Urban and Regional Studies , 10(1).

Mitra-Kahn B. H.( 2008) Debunking the Myths of Computable General Equilibrium Models, SCEPA Working Paper, January.

Popescu C.R.( 2003) Disparităţi regionale în dezvoltarea economico-socială a României, Editura Meteor Press, București.

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Determinants concerning the access to financing romanian SME’s

Lăcătuş Viorel Dorin*, Nicolaie Mariana**, Cozac Alexandra***

Abstract: The study of the evolution of the economic performances from the

industrialized countries reveals more and more, along the XXth century, the important role of the SME’s, a role recognized in Romania’s case as well, the country of which economy is in transition to market economy. But, the SME’s from Romania are being confronted with problems of acces to financing, which becomes an obstacle in their development. In order to facilitate the acces to financing, the leaders of SME’s must administrate varios business practices and adopt behaviours which allows them to reduce the risks associated to their company, as it is apprehended by the financing banks. Even if the Government has created sustaining programmes and exercises pressures on the financial institutions, the acces of the external financing represents a cronical issue. The favourisation of the SME’s external financing acces allows an improvment of the decision’s quality taken by the enterprise and has repercussions on it’s performances.

Key words: SME’s, financing acces, ways of financing, banking financing

Introduction

Nowadays, „Access to financing is considered as ”human right”, not a „gift” or „sympathy” of an individual or an institution”1. The importance of the small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) sector has become a real basis for defining and developing a modern, dynamic knowledge–based economy.

The field of SMEs can make a substantial contribution to Gross Domestic Product, enhance employment opportunities and stimulate export growth. SMEs have the ability to respond flexibly in a strongly

* Conf. dr., Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj- Napoca ** Drd., Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj- Napoca *** Masterand, Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj- Napoca 1 M. Siddiquee, K.M. Islam, M. Rahman - Daffodil International University Journal of Business and Economics, Vol. 1, No. 1, July 2006


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competitive market and to adapt quickly to cyclical and structural changes in the global economy.

Therefore, a dynamic SMEs sector is needed to ensure continued economic growth, to stimulate the employment and the improvement of the living standards. It is also a job creator, it offers lowcost employment opportunities, facilitates the mobilization of small and scattered private savings and the development of industrial entrepreneurship.

SMEs are an engine of innovation and growth, they help reduce poverty as they are, but they are constrained by institutional and market failures2, as we will explain further in this paper.

The Role and General State of SMEs in the Romanian Economy

The role of SMEs in the Romanian economy is indisputable. They are those that provide clearly continue development of the industry. In the Romanian economy, SMEs are recognized as a major source of innovation, flexibility and growth. On the other hand, they proved to be more vulnerable than big companies, being threatened by scarce resources and by fierce competition that increases even more now, upon the accession into the European Union.3

In order to improve the performance of Romanian SMEs, and to keep their failure rate as low as possible, both entrepreneurs and government have an important role to play. The intensity of developing the entrepreneurial phenomenon within a country is given by the indicator of density SME’s at 1000 inhabitants. The figure below contains figures regarding the status of Romania in comparison with other EU countries.

2 Thorsten Beck, Financing Constraints of SMEs in Developing Countries: Evidence, Determinants and Solutions, 2007

3 Rască Lavinia, Deaconu Alecxandrina - Romanian Small And Medium Sized Enterprises- Challenges Upon Accession Into The European Union

Lăcătuş Viorel Dorin, Nicolaie Mariana, Cozac Alexandra

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Figure 1. Density, distribution and profile of Romanian SMEs

Source: Angelescu C. “ Romanian economy and EU”, ASE Publishing House, Bucharest, 2008

From an examination of the dates it is observed that the density of SMEs within Romania is 23, inferior amount versus the number registered on the whole of European Union. The comparative analysis of SMEs density at 1000 inhabitants indicates the tremendous effort which Romania has to do for structural compatibility with European economy.

A Literature Review and Previous Research Evidence

Small and Medium Enterprise Financing has always been a topic of significant research interest and an issue of great importance to the policy makers around the world. The literature review led us to consider that SMEs are successful if they collectively meet the following three conditions or determinants: the business age is over five years, the business is still in operation and shows a trend of growth, and the business is profitable.

The literature has discussed reasons why it is harder for SMEs to access debt financing. For example, Berger and Udell (1995) found that small and young firms – with generally shorter banking relationships – pay higher interest rates and are more likely to be required to pledge collateral. Satio and Villanueva (1981) and Peel and Wilson (1996) showed that in general SMEs have higher costs and reduced access to financing because of the


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information asymmetries associated with newer, smaller firms. Furthermore, Levy (1993) concluded that restricted access to financial services slows the growth of SMEs.

Beck Demirguc-Kunt, and Maksivmovic (2002) showed that small firms are most credit constrained as a result of underdeveloped financial and legal systems and higher corruption. We expect legal development to affect SME access to financing in our sample of Eastern European countries. Other studies have discussed the effect of the development of the lending environment on access to financing. For example, Egerer (1995) found that firms had difficulty borrowing, since corporate performance is not transparent and weak creditor rights and collateral laws discourage collateral-based lending.

Finally, it is relevant to comment on a recent paper that studied Romanian financial markets (Chaves, Sanchez, Schor and Tesliuc, 2003). The paper suggests that part of the reason for the low level of financing in Romania is the inability to borrow long-term, which is caused by inflation and weak legal protection. The report also discusses the overall low profitability levels that characterize Romanian firms.

Acces to Financing for Romanian SME’s

Improving the access to finance of small and medium enterprises is crucial in facilitating entrepreneurship, competition, innovation and growth in Romania. Access to sufficient and adequate capital to grow and further develop their activities is a difficulty faced by many Romanian SMEs.

This situation is compounded by the difficulties in accessing finance as SME financing is considered by many financial providers as a high risk activity that generates high transaction costs and/or low returns on investment. Moreover, SMEs need to meet the challenge of adapting to the changing financial environment and the increasing complexity and extent of financial reporting. The main facts and general state regarding the SME’s access to finance can be summarised as follows:

SME’s are most in need of social and fiscal regulations that are more suited to their sector of activity in order to develop further;


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To encourage access to finance through the use of small loans, SME’s are most interested in lower interest rates, less demanding guarantee requirements and simpler procedures for granting loans;

Many SME’s meet their financial management needs internally. To date, banks are the financial institution that SME’s have used

most in order to obtain financing; Access to financing from banks is perceived as pertinent to the

financial well-being of SME’s; Many SME’s find it more difficult than previously to obtain a bank

loan, especially now, taking into consideration the financial crisis; Leasing or renting and overdrafts are the types of financing most

frequently used by SME’s to finance their activities. The use of venture capital is rare among SME’s;

Banks are by far the financial institution most used when SME’s need financing. According to a survey, close to 8 out of the 10 companies surveyed went to a bank in order to obtain financing (79%). Around a quarter of the SME’s approached leasing or renting companies (24%) and one in ten went to public institutions supporting investment (11%). 4

Figure 2. Institutions used by SME's to obtain financing

4 FLASH EB N°174 SME Access to Finance, Executive Summary, European Commission


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To see this broad point more clearly, it is useful to go over some specific issues, several of which pertain specifically to SME financing and influence directly their acces to financing:

Creditor rights - set of laws and institutions that protect lenders from nonpayment (of interest and/or principal);

Collateral - helps in dealing with various sources of market imperfection in financial transactions, it also decreases bankruptcy costs for banks;

Credit registries and credit scoring - it is precisely the lack of such assets that contributes to the situation where many small enterprises are underserved by the formal banking system;

Credit guarantee schemes - arise when well capitalized guarantors have privileged information and/or leverage over a borrower as compared to lenders.

Determinants of Getting Bank Financing for SMEs

The Romanian banking sector has been lately the victim of some profound structural changes, generated by the perspective of integration in the European Union and of course, the financial crises. The target segment of the credit institutions seems to be recently the SMEs for some well-established reasons. Thus, SMEs represent one of the major sectors of all economies both from a market share point of view and from the fact that these firms contribute definitively to the creation of GDP and engage a great part of the existent working force.

The SMEs sector is a field unexplored yet at its full potential. Therefore, it is no doubt that, in order to attract an important share of the credit market, banks initiated an aggressive campaign of conceiving some products specially designed to meet the particular financing needs of the SMEs’ sector.

The impact of institutional and civilization context on merchant bank financing for private firms follows the following determinant trends (Figure 3):


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These three determinants for the accessibility of a bank loan are also

inter-related: SMEs at an early growth stage started by establishing positive

connections with managers of other SMEs and with friends or relatives, and haven’t developed strong bonds with government officials yet, so cheaper government subsidies are not available to them, making them more eager to apply for a medium to long term bank loan, as it was previously stated.

SMEs found at a larger growth stage have proved their legitimacy, thus improving networking with government.

Moreover, professional management policies are stronger for firms at a larger state of growth.

According to a survey to which have participated the European countries many SME’s are not finding it as easy today to obtain a bank loan (42%) than they did a few years ago. Answering the question: “Would you say that today, access to loans granted by banks is ....”, around a third of the SME’s feel that it is easier nowadays than it was a few years ago to obtain a bank loan (33%) and 15% say that nothing has changed5.

Would you say that today, access to loans granted by banks is ....

5 FLASH EB N°174 SME Access to Finance, Executive Summary, European Commission


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Government schemes to support access to finance

Government should continue to improve awareness of publicly-funded schemes to support access to finance and better manage SME expectations, should include better communication about the fact that lenders may require security, including personal guarantees and that the overall cap on public exposure to bank claims brings significant risk to the bank in the credit facility. Such awareness would help address SME disappointment and misunderstanding of the conditions of the scheme. Arrangements should be simplified wherever possible, descriptions clarified, and requests for information from businesses minimized.

The government’s role is raising awareness about the importance of financial management as part of public policy efforts to improve access to finance. This might include the following:

Dignifying that evidence of sound financial management is essential when approaching lending institutions;

Make public the range of finance options available to SMEs and the broad advantages and disadvantages of the various types of finance, including equity;

Improving understanding of lending conditions and terms, including personal guarantees and security and loan covenants;

Emphasizing the value and importance of seeking independent high-quality financial advice, pointing out wider sources of financial advice.

What exactly government’s role is in this matter, is still a subject in discussion. Researchers are still struggling to define exactly, which policies can work under which circumstances but what works in one country, might not work in others. Government is the natural provider of key institutions such as legislation and court systems. Through these ideas the government helps develop markets that can then be used by financial institutions to reach out to SMEs.

While the government often does not intervene directly in the market in the case of most schemes the past forty years have seen many examples of market-substituting policies to facilitate SMEs financing, with the result balance bending into the negative. Such policies include directed credit, often combined with interest rate subsidies, and the establishment of


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development finance institutions focused on SME lending. These policies share the problems of all government-managed financial sector programs – the trade-off between commercial and social goals results in high losses and non-sustainability of many of these programs. (Cole, 2005; Dinc, 2006; Khwaja and Mian, 2006).

Are SMEs Financing Constrained?

As already mentioned, SMEs represent an important sector for all economies. Though, in spite of the dynamics and of the importance of this segment for the economic development, SMEs continue to be faced with different problems linked to their access to financing. Small and medium enterprises are more constrained by financing and other institutional obstacles than large enterprises, exacerbated by the weaknesses in the financial systems of many developing countries.

The difference between small and large firms is at least as big or even bigger for some of the specific financing obstacles, such as collateral requirements, bank paperwork, interest rate payments, the need for special connections and banks’ lack of lending resources. Also the lack of access to specific forms of financing such as export, leasing and long-term finance is significantly more constraining for small firms’ growth than for large firms’ growth. Access to and cost of finance is often ranked as one of the most constraining feature of the business environment by SMEs, next to tax rates, macroeconomic instability and economic policy uncertainty as well.

We have found important to further discuss different policies which alleviate SMEs’ financing constraints:

Market developing policies aim at improving the state variables and include reforms in the contractual and informational frameworks and macroeconomic performance. While these reforms are not specific to the SME lending market, they will help level the playing field between small and large enterprises. The results of such reforms can take a long-time; high lending interest rates may reflect doubts about fiscal solvency and a history of asset confiscation or inflation volatility, and will be often associated with crowding out of private investment. This crowding out will especially hurt SMEs that do not have acces to alternative finance providers. Under such circumstances, the appropriate policies to foster access to credit would be


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those that aim at enhancing the resiliency of fiscal solvency and at establishing a credible record of low and stable inflation.

To the extent that a financial system is operating below the possibilities frontier, there is room for market-enabling policies that may facilitate the expansion of access to financing even in the absence of perceptible changes in state variables. Where the lack of profitable, credit-deserving investment projects is the main problem, nonfinancial sector policies are called for. Where the main reason for being below the possibilities frontier is the demand problem of self-exclusion, the appropriate policies would emphasize raising financial literacy. If – as is more likely - the main problems reside with sub-optimization in credit supply, by contrast, a wider range of policy options can be considered, starting with competition policy.

A third group of policies, which we define as market-harnessing, try to prevent the financial system from moving to an unsustainable equilibrium beyond the frontier due to imprudent lending. Such imprudent lending binges can arise from the same competition that market-enabling policies try to foster if not accompanied by a proper defined regulatory and supervisory framework. Market-harnessing policies therefore aim at keeping banks’ incentives to take aggressive risks in check through a mix of measures aimed at strengthening market and supervisory discipline. Summarizing, policy makers have to strike a fine balance between marketenabling policies that push financial institution towards the frontier and market harnessing policies that prevent them from moving beyond the frontier, with the balance varying from country to country.

References

Rască Lavinia, Deaconu Alecxandrina - Romanian Small And Medium Sized Enterprises- Challenges Upon Accession Into The European Union, Bucharest

Thorsten Beck - Financing Constraints of SMEs in Developing Countries: Evidence, Determinants and Solutions, 2007

D. Deakins, D.North, R.Baldock, G. Whittam - SMEs’ Access to Finance: Is there still a debt finance gap?, November 2008 - Belfast

Ipsos Mori - Sme Access To Finance Research Report, July 2009

L. F. Klapper , V. Sarria-Allende, V. Sulla -World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2933 - Small and Medium-Size Enterprise Financing in Eastern Europe


Brîndusa Covaci, PhD - Credit Risk In Financing Sme In Romania, Spiru Haret University, Bucharest, Romania

R. Pripoaie, Lect, Phd. C. Sirbu, Lecturer, Phd. N. Chebac, Reader, Phd. C. Cretu, Lecturer, Phd. - Statistic Analysis Upon The Manner In Which The Romanian Imm –Small And Medium Private Business -Are To Be Affected By The Integration Of Our Country In The European Union

***, ec.europa.eu/enterprise/entrepreneurship/financing/

***, ec.europa.eu/enterprise/entrepreneurship/financing/publications.htm

***, ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash/fl174_summ_en.pdf

***, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/53/27/37704120.pdf

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Studiul comparativ privind sistemul contabil anglo-saxon

Lenghel Radu*

Din analiza celor două sisteme de contabilitate (britanic şi american),

se pot desprinde următoarele concluzii : a) În ceea ce priveşte sistemul juridic contabil, acesta este format din :

Legislaţia societăţilor comerciale; Doctrina, care este formată din interpretări şi avize asupra

cărora reglementările contabile nu fac referiri cum ar fi: răspunsurile Ministerului de Finanţe, recomandările diferitelor organisme profesionale contabile, cursuri universitare, reviste de specialitate, publicaţii periodice ale profesiei contabile;

Avizele şi luările de poziţii ale Comisiei de Valori Mobiliare; Cadrul conceptual contabil emis de către organismele de

normalizare independente (ASB) în Marea Britanie şi FASB, în SUA;

b) În ceea ce priveşte relaţia fiscalitate contabilitate, în sistemul anglo-saxon, asistăm la o decuplare a contabilităţii de fiscalitate, care se realizează prin:

Legislaţia fiscală, care are influenţe limitate asupra practicilor contabile curente şi nu afectează conţinutul şi modul de prezentare al informaţiei financiare către investitori în special (SUA, Marea Britanie) şi publicului în general (Marea Britanie).

Impozitele şi taxele sunt stabilite pe baza datelor din evidenţa contabilă, de către inspectori financiari independenţi, inspectori, care întocmesc şi declaraţii fiscale;

* Lector univ. dr.-Universitatea ”Dimitrie Cantemir”, Facultatea de Ştiinţe Economice Cluj-Napoca

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Pieţele de capitaluri, sunt extrem de sensibile la informaţia contabilă publicată de societăţi, care influenţează direct cursurile bursiere;

Profesia contabilă este independentă de autorităţile publice; c) În ceea ce priveşte profesia contabilă, aceasta este realizată de către

Institutul Experţilor Contabili (ICAEW în Marea Britanie şi AICPA în SUA), organisme profesionale, care au rolul de a forma profesionişti contabili (experţi contabili, auditori) şi de a emite principii de organizare ale auditului ;

d) În ceea ce priveşte sistemul de finanţare, în cadrul sistemului anglo-saxon predomină finanţarea prin emisiuni de acţiuni cotate la bursă, în care informaţia financiară publicată trebuie să fie credibilă, pentru ca investitorii actuali şi potenţiali să poată face previziuni privind viitorul firmei;

e) În ceea ce priveşte calitatea informaţiilor contabile publicate, principalele caracteristici comune celor două sisteme de contabilitate sunt:

Pertinenţa, care reprezintă capacitatea informaţiei contabile de a influenţa deciziile utilizatorilor;

Inteligibilitatea, care reprezintă calitatea informaţiei contabile de a fi înţeleasă uşor de utilizatori;

Comparabilitatea, care reprezintă calitatea unei informaţii contabile de a permite analizarea tendinţelor şi comparaţiilor performanţelor financiare de la o perioadă la alta şi de la o întreprindere la alta;

f) În ceea ce priveşte situaţiile financiare anuale publicate acestea sunt reprezentate de:

- în SUA (bilanţ, cont de profit şi pierdere, anexe, tablou de trezorerie, tabloul capitalurilor proprii, rezultatul global);

- în Marea Britanie (bilanţ, cont de profit şi pierdere, anexe, tablou de trezorerie, tabloul câştigurilor şi pierderilor).

g) În ceea ce priveşte utilizatorii situaţiilor financiare publicate, în SUA, situaţiile financiare sunt adresate în special investitorilor actuali şi potenţiali iar în Marea Britanie, ele sunt adresate unei game mai largi de utilizatori (investitori actuali şi potenţiali, creditori, furnizori, clienţi, stat);


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h) În ceea ce priveşte principiile contabile, care guvernează sistemul anglo-saxon, acestea sunt reprezentate în special de către: principiul imaginii fidele, principiul reprezentării reale şi exacte, principiul importanţei relative, principiul primordialităţii realităţii economice asupra apartenenţei juridice.

i) În ceea ce priveşte obiectivele situaţiilor financiare, acestea sunt diferenţiate astfel:

i1) în SUA, obiectivele situaţiei financiare sunt: de a ajuta utilizatorii în luarea deciziilor economice; de a furniza o informaţie inteligibilă pentru

previzionarea fluxurilor viitoare de trezorerie; de a furniza o informaţie relativă la resursele economice

şi la obligaţiile faţă de creditori şi proprietari; i2) În Marea Britanie, obiectivele situaţiei financiare sunt:

- de a oferi informaţii utile unei game largi de utilizatori (investitori, creditori, furnizori, stat);

- de a oferi informaţii privind performanţa financiară (profitul) şi poziţia financiară (resursele economice, lichiditatea, solvabilitatea).

j) În ceea ce priveşte normalizarea contabilităţii, aceasta se diferenţiază astfel:

j1) În SUA, normalizarea contabilităţii este în sarcina organismului independent de normalizare (FASB), organism, care a elaborat cadrul conceptual al contabilităţii americane şi al Comisiei de Valori Mobiliare (SEC), care are sarcini de a aviza normele contabile şi informaţiile financiare publicate;

j2) În Marea Britanie, normalizarea contabilităţii se realizează de către legea societăţilor comerciale şi organismul independent de normalizare (ASB), organism, care a elaborat cadrul conceptual al contabilităţii britanice.

În concluzie specific, contabilităţii anglo-saxone este că lipseşte un plan de conturi unic, aplicabil agenţilor economici, fiecare societate creându-şi propriul sistem de conturi, în vederea atingerii imaginii fidele ale patrimoniului şi ale situaţiei financiare.

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2.Studiul comparativ privind sistemul contabil continental

Din analiza sistemelor contabile din: Franţa, Germania, România se pot desprinde următoarele concluzii: a) În ceea ce priveşte sistemul juridic- contabil, acesta este format din :

tratatele şi acordurile internaţionale concretizate în reglementări şi directive (Directiva a IV –a, a VII-a), care din momentul ratificării devin obligatorii, reglemetările au un aspect general cu aplicabilitate obligatorie iar Directivele lasă la latitudinea statelor modul de aplicare, fiind obligatorie doar finalitatea lor;

toate sistemele analizate şi-au asimilat dreptului lor contabil reglementările contabile conforme cu Directiva a IV–a şi cu Directiva a-VII-a;

textele legislative adoptate de parlament, referitoare la domeniul financiar-contabil (legea contabilităţii şi Codul Comercial în Franţa, legea contabilităţii în România, Codul Comercial în Germania);

ordine, instrucţiuni ministeriale în domeniul contabilităţii, care vizează rezolvarea unor probleme specifice din domeniul contabilităţii;

dreptul comunitar, care priveşte armonizarea legislaţiei contabile şi fiscale;

jurisprudenţa Curţii de Casaţie, concretizată în soluţiile date cu privire la aplicarea corectă a legislaţiei în domeniul financiar-contabil;

doctrina, concretizată în: interpretări ale profesioniştilor contabili, universitarilor, recomandări şi răspunsuri ministeriale, cu privire la aplicabilitatea normelor contabile.

b) În ceea ce priveşte relaţia fiscalitate – contabilitate, în sistemul continental asistăm la o conectare a contabilităţii la fiscalitate, conectare, care se realizează prin :

fiscalitatea, care exercită o influenţă asupra contabilităţii în ce priveşte regulile de evaluare, asupra deductibilităţii cheltuielilor, reglementările contabile se aliniază dispoziţiilor fiscale;


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Administraţia fiscală impozitează profiturile din contabilitate limitând deductibilitatea cheltuielilor, ceea ce implică utilizarea unor metode contabile ce vizează minimizarea profiturilor;

sistemele contabile continentale sunt puternic normalizate prin legi şi reglementări naţionale, cadrul legislativ (legea contabilităţii în Franţa, România) şi Codul de Comerţ în Germania), creează un echilibru pe piaţa cererii de informaţii contabile din partea tuturor utilizatorilor, Administraţia fiscală deţinând rolul central în fixarea raportului ,,transparenţă-confidenţialitate”;

situaţiile financiare anuale sunt întocmite în scopuri fiscale, marja de libertate lăsată de reglementările contabile fiind redusă iar situaţiile financiare anuale consolidate nu constituie o prioritate;

profesia contabilă liberală este ataşată puterii publice, normele elaborate de profesia contabilă nu sunt obligatorii, ci doar cu titlu de recomandare;

c) În ceea ce priveşte profesia contabilă, aceasta este bine reprezentată de către:

CECCAR şi CAFR în România, organisme, care au rolul de a forma profesionişti contabili (experţi, auditori);

Ordinul Experţilor Contabili, ce formează experţi contabili şi Comisia Naţională a Comisarilor de Conturi, care formează auditori, în Franţa;

Revizori contabili, revizori agreaţi, consilieri fiscali, care realizează auditul legal, contractual şi expertize în Germania;

d) În ceea ce priveşte sistemul de finanţare, în cadrul sistemului continental predomină finanţarea prin sectorul bancar, în care informaţia financiară publicată trebuie să fie utilă şi credibilă, pentru ca utilizatorii acesteia (creditori, investitori, stat), să poată face previziuni privind viitorul firmei.

e) În ceea ce priveşte calitatea informaţiilor publicate, principalele caracteristici comune celor trei sisteme de contabilitate sunt:

regularitatea, ce se referă la conformitatea cu regulile şi procedurile contabile;

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sinceritatea informaţiei contabile, ce depinde de obiectivitatea, cu care s-au selecţionat informaţiile difuzate precum şi de exhaustivitatea înregistrărilor şi de verificabilitatea acestora;

inteligibilitatea, reprezintă uşurinţa în înţelegerea informaţiilor contabile de către utilizatori;

comparabilitatea, reprezintă posibilitatea utilizatorilor de a compara şi previziona în timp şi spaţiu rezultatele unei entităţi sau unor grupuri de entităţi;

f) În ceea ce priveşte situaţiile financiare anuale publicate, acestea sunt reprezentate de:

- în România, (bilanţ, cont de profit şi pierdere, situaţia modificării capitalurilor proprii, situaţia fluxurilor de trezorerie, note explicative);

- în Franţa, (bilanţ, cont de profit şi pierdere, tablou de finanţare, anexe) ;

- în Germania, (bilanţ, cont de profit şi pierdere, tablou de finanţare, anexe).

g) În ceea ce priveşte utilizatorii situaţiilor financiare publicate, aceştia

sunt reprezentaţi de o gamă largă (creditori, investitori, clienţi, furnizori, stat).

h) În ceea ce priveşte principiile contabile, care guvernează sistemul continental, acestea sunt reprezentate în special de către: principiul continuităţii, principiul permanenţei metodelor, independenţei, necompensării, prudenţei, prevalenţei economicului asupra juridicului, costului istoric, pragul de semnificaţie;

i) În ceea ce priveşte obiectivele situaţiilor financiare anuale, acestea sunt diferenţiate astfel : i1 În România, obiectivele situaţiilor financiare sunt :

de a oferi informaţii utile unei game largi de utilizatori (investitori, creditori, furnizori, stat) ;

de a oferi informaţii utile în luarea deciziilor economice; de a oferi o imagine fidelă ale poziţiei financiare, ale

modificărilor capitalurilor proprii şi ale fluxurilor de trezorerie; de a oferi o imagine fidelă, clară şi completă a patrimoniului, a

situaţiei financiare, a rezultatelor.


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i2 În Franţa şi Germania, obiectivele situaţiilor financiare sunt: - de a oferi informaţii utile unei game largi de utilizatori; - de a oferi o imagine fidelă a patrimoniului şi a situaţiei

financiare; - de a oferi informaţii privind rezultatul administrării firmei,

inclusiv al modului de gestionare a resurselor.

j) În ceea ce priveşte normalizarea contabilităţii, aceasta se diferenţiază astfel: j1 În România, normalizarea contabilităţii se realizează de către

Ministerul Economiei şi Finanţelor, care a emis legea contabilităţii 82/91 modificată şi completată în 2007 şi OMFP 1752/2005 privind armonizarea contabilitiăţii cu Directivele Europene, reglementări, care guvernează organizarea contabilităţii în România.În România nu există un cadru conceptual, normalizarea contabilităţii se realizează prin: legi, ordine ministeriale, jurisprudenţă, doctrină contabilă iar opţional pentru necesităţi proprii de informare a utilizatorilor se pot întocmi şi un set de informaţii financiare în conformitate cu Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară.

j2 În Franţa, normalizarea contabilităţii se realizează de către Ministerul Finanţelor, Industriei şi Comerţului, care a emis legea contabilităţii ce asimilează Directivele Contabile Europene şi Codul Comercial iar situaţiile financiare anuale pentru societăţile cotate, care întocmesc conturi consolidate sunt în conformitate cu Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară.

j3 În Germania, normalizarea contabilităţii se realizează de către Codul Comercial German, cod, care a asimilat Directivele Contabile Europene iar situaţiile financiare anuale pentru societăţile cotate sunt în conformitate cu Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară.

Din analiza contabilităţii ţărilor din Europa Centrală şi de Est (Polonia, Ungaria, Cehia, România), se pot desprinde următoarele concluzii:

1. În ceea ce priveşte planurile contabile, elaborate putem distinge: - -în România şi Cehia, au fost inspirate din planul contabil

general francez, obligatorii pentru societăţile comerciale;

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- -în Ungaria, a fost inspirat din planul contabil german, care oferă o structură minimă şi care va fi adoptat şi detaliat în funcţie de specificul firmei;

- -în Polonia, de inspiraţie germană, dar care nu este obligatoriu, societăţile putându-şi adopta propriul plan contabil.

2. În ceea ce priveşte obiectivele situaţiilor financiare anuale, referitor la oferirea imaginii fidele se pot distinge: - în Polonia, situaţiile financiare anuale trebuie să prezinte o

prezentare adecvată şi clară; - în Ungaria, situaţiile financiare anuale trebuie să prezinte o

imagine de încredere şi adevărată; - în Cehia, situaţiile financiare anuale trebuie să prezinte

fidelitate; - în România, situaţiile financiare anuale trebuie să prezinte o

imagine fidelă. 3. În ceea ce priveşte situaţiile financiare anuale, toate cele patru ţări

cuprind: bilanţ, cont de profit şi pierdere, situaţia modificărilor capitalurilor proprii, situaţia fluxurilor de numerar, notele explicative.

4. În ceea ce priveşte auditarea situaţiilor financiare, se pot distinge : - -în România, obligaţia auditării revine societăţilor, care

îndeplinesc două din criteriile: o cifra de afaceri 7,3 mil. EURO; o active totale 3,65 mil. EURO; o nr.personal 50.

- -în Ungaria, entităţile care depăşesc cifra de afaceri de 2.400.000 EURO;

- -în Polonia, pentru societăţile pe acţiuni, care depăşesc două dintre:

o cifra de afaceri 5 mil. EURO; o active totale 2,5 mil. EURO; o nr.personal 50.

- -în Cehia, entităţile, care depăşesc două din criteriile : o -cifra de afaceri 2.560.000. EURO; o -active totale 1.280.000 EURO; o -nr.personal 50.


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5. În ceea ce priveşte raportarea financiară, putem distinge: - în România, întreprinderile mari conform OMFP 1752/2005

privind reglementările conforme cu Directiva a IV-a şi a VII-a iar societăţile cotate vor întocmi în viitor, situaţii financiare consolidate conform IFRS;

- în Polonia, în conformitate cu legea contabilităţii de către societăţile comerciale iar grupurile de societăţi conform IFRS, cu prezentarea diferenţelor faţă de legea contabilităţii;

- în Ungaria, societăţile comerciale conform legii contabilităţii iar grupurile de societăţi conform IFRS/US GAAP, cu obligaţia reconcilierii sumelor conform legii contabilităţii;

- în ceea ce priveşte Cehia, societăţile necotate conform legii contabilităţii, societăţile cotate conform legii contabilităţii şi conform IFRS (impuse de Bursa de Valori) iar grupurile de societăţi conform IFRS/ US GAAP.

În concluzie specific sistemului continental, este existenţa planurilor de conturi diferenţiate pe sectoare de activitate, fiecare entitate putând să-şi detalieze în analitic conturile în conformitate cu obiectul de activitate în vederea atingerii imaginii fidele ale patrimoniului şi ale situaţiei financiare.

Bibliografie:

Lenghel Radu-”Concepte şi doctrine contabile contemporane ”, Teză de doctorat, UBB, 2008.

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Concepte teoretice privind taxa pe valoarea adăugata

Cristian Mazilu*

Abstract. The VAT is an indirect tax that applies on the entire economic circuit up to the

end user of products or services, but applied to the added value only at each stage of this circuit. The added value is equal to the difference between sales and purchases in the same stage of the economic circuit. The level of VAT has been decided as a percentage quota, function of various criteria, but for the same product, the same VAT is established, regardless of economic circuit area and length.

Keywords: capital adjustment deduction for goods, intra-community supply of goods, acquisition of intra-community goods, taxable person

1. Introducere

Taxa pe valoarea adaugata reprezinta un impozit indirect care se aplică pe intreg circuitul economic până la utilizatorul final al produselor sau serviciilor, însă numai la valoarea adăugată în fiecare fază a acestui circuit. Valoarea adăugată este egală cu diferenţa dintre vânzările şi cumpărările aceluiaşi stadiu al circuitului economic. Perceperea taxei pe valoarea adăugată s-a făcut sub forma unor cote procentuale diferenţiate in funcţie de anumite criterii, însă pentru acelaşi produs se percepe acelaşi impozit, indiferent de întinderea circuitului economic pe care îl parcurge. În ţara noastra, în condiţiile trecerii la economia de piaţă şi pentru alinierea fiscalităţii la practica ţarilor dezvoltate impozitul pe circulaţia mărfurilor, care funcţiona ca un impozit indirect a fost înlocuit cu taxa pe valoarea adaugată, aceasta constituind o condiţie pentru aderarea la Uniunea Europeana.

Pentru aceasta au fost necesare emiterea unor acte normative pregatitoare, taxa pe valoarea adăugată a fost introdusă prin Ordonanţa de *Facultatea Stiinte Economice, Specializarea Contabilitate si informatica de Gestiune Adresa:

mun. Ploiesti, B-dul Republicii nr. 291A, Romania. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], telefon: 0749151316.


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Guvern nr. 3/1992, aprobată prin Legea nr. 130 din 19 decembrie 1992, cu data de aplicare 1 ianuarie 1993. Ulterior, introducerea taxei pe valoarea adăugată a fost amânată pentru iulie 1993, pe pracurs Ministerul Finanţelor Publice a elaborat norme metodologice cu privire la sfera de aplicare, la regulile de impozitare, operaţiunile impozabile, baza de calcul, contribuabilii, obligaţiile şi drepturile acestora, prevederea legala fiind dezvoltata si actualizata prin Legea nr. 571/2003 Codul fiscal. Conceperea şi funcţionalitatea T.V.A. a avut in vedere limitarea evaziunii fiscale in sensul că neplata în fazele anterioare duce la sporirea taxei in fazele ulterioare ale circuitului economic.

Dezvoltarea sistemului contabil în tara noastra se realizeaza în strânsa corelare cu tendintele ce se manifesta pe plan european si international, urmarindu-se permanent eliminarea elementelor de originalitate în tratamentul contabil al operatiunilor economice.

Un sistem ideal de aplicare a TVA-ului pentru UE presupune luarea in considerare a destinaţiei(prin respectarea suveranităţii fiscale), un singur beneficiu sau o pierdere on-line pentru toate livrarile din UE (prin simplificarea costurilor de punere de acord a taxelor), achitarea taxei catre diferitele state membre de catre furnizor (prin eliminarea necesitatii unui sistem de compensare).

Pentru a se conforma cu acest cadru, persoanele impozabile trebuie să fie informate cu privire la normele aplicabile şi de a le facilita viaţa ca agent economic/intreprinzator prin furnizarea de informaţii cu privire la:

a) TVA-ul in Comunitatea Europeana b) obligaţiile declarative c) modul de facturare a TVA - ului d) modul de verificare a TVA - ului

a) TVA-ul in Comunitatea Europeana

Legislatia referitoare la TVA creează un cadru juridic sofisticat pentru efectuarea de afaceri pe Piaţa Internă UE, prezentand informaţii de bază cu privire la aplicarea TVA - ului în statele membre, pentru utilizarea de către administraţii, afaceri, reţele de informare, precum şi prezentarea documentelor specifice.

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b) Obligatiile declarative

Pentru desfasurarea activitatilor inregistrate in scopuri de TVA, trebuiesc avute în vedere următoarele:

- consilierea administraţiei fiscale privind începerea, schimbarea şi încetarea activităţii;

- depunerea periodica a declaratiilor de TVA; - păstrarea de suficiente detalii contabile pentru a fi examinate de

administraţia fiscală; - achitarea valoarii TVA-ului datorata pe fiecare declaraţie; - trimiterea declaraţiilor recapitulative pentru scutiri de taxe.

c) Modul de facturare a TVA-ului

c1) istoric; c2) legislaţia în vigoare şi punerea sa în aplicare în statele membre UE; c3) directiva privind modul de facturare a TVA; c4) facturarea electronica; c5) informaţii despre transpunerea în legislatia nationala;

c1) Istoric

Fiecare Stat Membru UE are reguli diferite privind informatiile obligatorii care sa fie incluse pe facturi si forma pe care facturile trebuie sa le aiba pentru ca autoritatile responsabile cu TVA sa le recunoasca validitatea. Prin infiintarea Pietei Interne UE, firmele desfasurau din ce in ce mai multe operatii taxabile in Statele Membre UE in care nu isi aveau sediul si in care descopereau ca aceste operatii sunt subiectul mai multor pachete legislative din domeniul TVA. In plus, multe firme operand la o scara larga de genul UE, au inceput sa centralizeze operatiile de facturare, imputernicind o singura filiala cu sarcina eliberarii facturilor in numele altor filiale cu sediul in diferite State Membre UE.

c2) Legislatia existenta si implementarea ei in statele member UE

Un studiu privind normele de facturarea TVA cuprinse în Directiva TVA (2006/112/CE) a fost efectuat pentru Comisia Europeană de PricewaterhouseCoopers. Studiul are drept scop să se uite la patru domenii principale ale facturării - cerinţa de a emite o factură, conţinutul unei facturi, facturarea electronică şi stocarea facturilor - cu scopul de a


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cartografia legislaţia existentă în toate statele membre, analizarea greutatile si nevoile intampinate de afacerile din statele membre, precum şi furnizarea de recomandări pentru un mai armonizat pachet/set de reguli de facturare.

c3) Directiva privind modul de facturare a TVA-lui

Piesa principală a legislaţiei UE privind facturarea TVA, este Directiva 2001/115/CE, care a modificat TVA Directiva a 6-a privind TVA si a trebuit să fie pusă în aplicare în legislaţia naţională înainte de 1 ianuarie 2004. Normele de facturare a TVA, sunt acum incluse în Directiva TVA (2006/112/CE).

Această măsură a fost de un folos practic semnificativ pentru firmele care operează pe piaţa internă, deoarece aceasta garantează că acestea au de-a face cu un singur set de norme simplificate privind facturarea valabilă pe întreg teritoriul UE, în loc de seturi diferite de legislaţia naţională. În acelaşi timp, directiva impune statelor membre să recunoască valabilitatea facturilor electronice şi să permită facturarea electronică transfrontaliera şi stocarea electronică. Rezultatul este o reducere semnificativă a costurilor administrative ale firmelor, în special pentru firmele mici si mijlocii şi un impuls important pentru comerţul electronic, îngreunat de regulile de facturare învechite. Normele simplificate au, de asemenea, scopul de a facilita eforturile autorităţilor fiscale de a lupta împotriva fraudei.

Directiva a fost adoptată de Consiliul UE la 20 decembrie 2001. Propunerea Comisiei a fost prezentata în noiembrie 2000, ca parte a noii strategii de TVA lansată de Comisie în iunie 2000, pentru a aduce îmbunătăţiri practice în funcţionarea sistemului de TVA. Strategia TVA-ul a fost actualizata în octombrie 2003.

Directiva privind facturarea TVA stabileşte urmatoarele: - o lista de zece articole obligatorii cu informatii care trebuie

incluse pe fiecare factura, plus patru articole aditionale, care pot fi solicitate in circumstante speciale;

- aranjamente simplificate pentru companiile mici si pentru facturile cu valoare mica;

- cerinta pentru autoritatile de taxare din Statele Membre de a recunoaste validitatea facturilor electronice fara niciun fel de notificare sau autorizare, cu conditia ca autenticitatea originii si

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a integrităţii datelor sa fie garantate prin folosirea semnăturilor electronice sau a Schimbului Electronic de Date (EDI). Semnăturile electronice permit celor care primesc date prin retelele electronice, sa determine originea datelor si sa verifice daca datele nu au fost modificate. EDI este un sistem de transmisie electronica a informatiilor folosit in afaceri;

- posibilitatea ca, in anumite circumstante, operatiile de facturare sa fie permise unor terte parti sau clientilor (de ex. auto-facturare);

- posibilitatea alegerii locului si a metodei de depozitare a facturilor si acceptarea stocarii electronice, inclusiv stocarea on-line intr-un alt alt stat UE decat cel in care se afla firma.

Comisia Europeana la 28 Ianuarie 2009 a adoptat o propunere de modificare a Directivei TVA(2006/112/CE) în ceea ce priveşte normele de facturare şi a publicat o comunicare cu privire la evoluţiile tehnologice în domeniul facturării electronice.

Scopul propunerii este de a spori utilizarea facturării electronice, reducerea greutatilor intampinate de afaceri, sprijinirea întreprinderilor mici şi mijlocii (IMM-uri) şi de a ajuta statele membre in combaterea fraudelor. Propunerea simplifică, modernizează şi armonizează normele de facturare cu TVA. În special, se elimina barierele actual la facturarea electronică, în Directiva TVA prin tratarea in mood egal a facturarii pe hârtie şi facturarii electronice. Propunerea este un element-cheie al Programului de Actiune a Comisiei de reducere a sarcinilor impuse afacerilor cu 25%, până in 2012 si este parte a strategiei Comisiei de combatere mai eficienta a fraudelor.

c4) Facturarea electronica

Facturarea electronica, care poate reduce semnificativ costurile de facturare, se dezvolta rapid si notabil, ca rezultat al cresterii comertului electronic. Dar in unele State Membre UE, facturarea electronica a fost initial interzisa sau trebuia sa fie insotita de expedierea in parallel a facturilor din hartie. In alte tari a fost permisa cu anumite conditii. Firmelor stabilite in mai multe State Membre UE li se cereau autorizatii speciale in unele tari, pentru facturarea peste granite si trebuiau sa foloseasca


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tehnologie specifica fiecarui Stat Membru UE pentru creerea, transmisia si stocarea facturilor electronice.

c5) Informatii despre transpunerea in legislatia nationala

Directiva TVA a fost implementata in Legea Nationala de catre Statele Membre UE inainte de 1 Ianuarie 2004 (ca si cele 10 tari candidate, inainate de intrarea in UE).Informatii despre transpunerea in regulile nationale sunt disponibile in documentul informatiiv al Comisiei, numit “TVA in Uniunea Europeana si in tarile candidate”.

In ţara noastră, este în curs de desfăşurare realizarea armonizării legislaţiei naţionale cu Directivele europene în vederea aderării la Uniunea Europeana, precum si asimilarea Standardelor de Contabilitate Internationale în masura în care acestea sunt compatibile cu reglementarile europene.

În cadrul acestui proces, un obiectiv prioritar îl reprezinta asigurarea acuratetei informatiei contabile, ceea ce presupune nu numai dezvoltarea reglementarilor contabile ci şi aplicarea corespunzătoare în practică a acestora, precum şi exercitarea unui audit financiar care sa dea semnalele necesare în sprijinirea si protejarea investitiei interne si internationale de capital.

d) Modul de verificare a TVA – ului

Sistemul informatic VIES privind plata TVA a devenit functional si in Romania, astfel valabilitatea datelor de identificare ale persoanelor platitoare de TVA din celelalte state membre UE poate fi verificata si de platitorii de TVA din Romania prin intermediul sistemului informatic VIES (VAT Information Exchange System), care a devenit operational la 1 ianuarie 2007 si in tara noastra.

Datele pot fi verificate prin accesarea paginii de internet a Comisiei Europene, la adresa de web: http://ec.europa.eu/taxation,customs/vies /en/vieshome.htm. si a Ministerului finantelor Publice: www.mfinate.ro. Sistemul informatic VIES asigura schimbul de informatii cu statele membre ale Uniunii Europene privind taxa pe valoare adaugata (TVA). VIES este sistemul care creeaza baza de date pentru determinarea contributiei statelor membre, deci si a Romaniei, dupa data aderarii, la bugetul comunitar.

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Sistemul informatic VIES(VAT Information Exchange System) este practic o bază de date on-line care îi include pe toţi plătitorii de TVA din statele membre U.E. şi asigură schimbul de informaţii cu statele membre ale Uniunii Europene privind taxa pe valoare adăugată(TVA). VIES este sistemul care creează baza de date pentru determinarea contribuţiei statelor membre, deci şi a României, după data aderării, la bugetul comunitar.

Bibliografie:

Codul fiscal al Romaniei, aprobat prin Legea nr. 571/2003, cu modificarile si completarile ulterioare, inclusiv modificările aduse de Legea nr. 343/2006 si Ordonanta nr. 106/2007;

Directiva 2006/112/CE a Consiliului Uniunii Europene din 28 noiembrie 2006 privind sistemul comun al taxei pe valoarea adaugata, publicata in Jurnalul Oficial al Comunitatilor Europene nr. L 347 din 11 decembrie 2006, respectiv republicarea Directivei a 6-a, (77/388/CE) a Consiliului din 17 mai 1977;

International Tax Glossary – Amsterdam: International Bureau of Fiscal Documentation, 2000;

Norme metodologice de aplicare a Codului fiscal – Hotărârea Guvernului României nr. 44/2004, cu modificarile şi completarile ulterioare;

Ordine ale Ministerului Economiei şi Finanţelor date în aplicarea Codului fiscal; Revista „Tribuna Economica” colectia 2007-2008;

Revista „Impozite si taxe” pe anii 2007-2008, editor „Tribuna Economica” S.A., Bucuresti;

Suporturi de curs privind T.V.A.;

K.P.M.G. - newsletters and publications, 2006 - 2007 ;

www.eur-lex.europa.eu – Baza de date legislativa a Uniunii Europene;

www.ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/taxation/ - Portalul Comisiei Europene pentru Uniunea fiscala si vamala, “ Taxation in Europe” Database, IP/07/662;

www.mfinante.ro – Regim TVA – Circulara privind ajustarea taxei pe valoarea adaugata aferente achizitiei, constructiei, transformarii sau modernizarii bunurilor imobile;

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The impact of the integration in the european union upon romanian agriculture

Anca Nan*, Georgiana Borza**, Maria Ulici***

Abstract The integration of Romania within the European Union determines Romanian

agriculture to be faced with great challenges, such as the alignment with the norms imposed by the Common Agricultural Policy, as well as the inclusion within an extremely dynamic competition market.

The present paper attempts at illustrating the position of Romanian agriculture among the member states of the European Union, the BIO market, the effects of Romania’s integration in the EU upon agriculture, upon the application of the Common Agricultural Policy and the financial crisis which also concerns this field, as well as the research for solutions directed towards reducing the effects of the crisis and to re-launching the rural econo.

Keywords: agriculture, common agricultural policy, financial crisis

1. Introduction

Romania became a member of the European Union on the 1st of January 2007, a date that marks a new beginning for the agricultural sector of our country. Romania is the country where more than a third of European Union farmers live, while Romanian agriculture represents approximately ten percent of the value of agricultural production in the EU. The contrast between these two figures illustrates both the huge potential of economic growth, together with an increase of the income level and workforce employment offered with the accession to the EU common market, as well

* Faculty of Economics and Business Administration. Adress: 58-60 Teodor Mihali Street, 400591 Cluj-Napoca, Romania. E-mail: [email protected] ** Faculty of Economics and Business Administration. Adress: 58-60 Teodor Mihali Street, 400591 Cluj-Napoca, Romania. E-mail: [email protected] *** Investing in people! PhD scholarship, Project co-financed by the European Social Fund, SECTORAL OPERATIONAL PROGRAMME HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 2007 – 2013, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Anca Nan, Georgiana Borza, Maria Ulici

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as the challenges that Romania has to face in order to take advantage of this potential. Romania’s integration in the European Union determines local agriculture to be faced with great challenges, such as the alignment with the norms imposed by the Common Agricultural Policy, as well as the inclusion within an extremely dynamic and competitive market as it is that on the European unique market. There are three main challenges to be noted in this respect: the first one is the accomplishment of the requirements imposed by the agricultural community acquis; the second is the decision concerning the way in which the key common agricultural policies should be introduced, including the need of increasing the department’s power of absorbing the financially significant support programmes of the European Union; the third challenge – and maybe the most significant of all – is assisting Romanian agriculture in the process of modernization, so that it may be able to benefit significantly from the opportunities offered by the integration in the EU common market.1

Romania has an enormous agricultural potential, but in order to render it profitable we have to take into account the significant growth of the competitiveness of products and the Romanian farmers, as well as the elimination of the gap between the level of development of Romania’s agriculture as compared to the other member states of the European Union.

2. The Application of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

The objective of the common agricultural policy (CAP) is that of offering a reasonable life standard to farmers, high quality food products at fair prices to consumers and that of protecting our rural patrimony. This policy has evolved in order to answer to the needs of our society. Thus, food safety, together with the protection of the environment, the rapport of good value for money and the cultivation of plants used for biological fuel have an ever-increasing importance. In this respect, CAP is oriented towards consumers and taxpayers, while also offering EU farmers the liberty of producing according to the demand on the market.

In the past, within CAP there were numerous systems and regulations which allowed farmers to produce enough food for the entire population.

1 Manole V, Stoian M, Tribuna Economică, No 22, (2008), pp 82.


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At present, as a consequence of the multiple changes within CAP, farmers are free to produce according to the market demands, without depending anymore on the systems of subsidies that influenced in the past the production options.

Expenses for agriculture at the EU level stabilized and even reduced, despite the accession to the European Union, starting with 2004, of twelve new member states. Moreover, the methods of using the CAP budget have significantly changed. The percentage of the budget allocated to support the farmers’ prices has reduced considerably, allowing a larger part to be allocated to some more specific objectives, like direct payments to farmers, the support given to sustainable economic activities in rural areas and incentives for the practice of a more ecological agriculture. Chart no 1: The trajectory of the CAP reform and the evolution of the CAP expenses

export subsidies market support direct aid decoupled payments rural development Percentages of

the EU’s GDP Source: The European Commission

CAP is at present a policy oriented towards the market. In an effort to

respond to the new challenges determined by the needs and expectations of society, farmers are exposed to some risks (besides the ones they are already confronting with because of the long cycles of production and the weather conditions). They have to cope more and more with the internal and world markets, which have become increasingly uncertain.

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The current CAP will have to support the setting up of some instruments of risk management to cover the production risks and to help farmers get over all the other difficulties.2

Upon considering this problem from the perspective of Romanian agriculture, we ask ourselves if the EU is promoting a certain ‘European pattern of agriculture’. According to the European views, European agriculture must be enduring, productive, competitive and spread all over Europe (including underpriviledged and mountaineous areas). The agricultural field should continue to ensure an equitable lifestyle, to contribute to the keeping of rural areas, to conserve nature and bring a considerable contribution to life vitality in the rural areas. It must be able to answer to the concerns expressed by the consumers and citizens in general regarding the availability, the price, the quality and safety of the products destined for consummation, the protection of the environment and the guarantee of animals’ welfare3.

For the Romanian producers, the Common Agricultural Policy means the initiation of a market of extensive agro-alimentary products, with a high potential of absorption, a high purchasing power, thus a market that guarantees the stability of prices. The Common Agricultural Policy will ensure a direct support in what concerns incomes and access to the measures of rural development and financing.

Commercially and financially, the access to the European Union market opens an important outlet for the Romanian producers. At the same time, the Common Agricultural Policy brings about the increase in competition. It is only those producers who will be in the position to deal with a fierce competition that will enter and maintain on the European market.

The Common Agricultural Policy applies in Romania in the same way it does in the EU-25. Some of the mechanisms of the Common Agricultural Policy will not be applied immediately, because it takes time for the establishment and adjustment of the necessary administrative procedures,

2 Agricultura Uniunii Europene, un răspuns la nevoile şi aşteptările societăţii, http://bookshop.europa.eu/eubookshop/download. 3 „Politica agricolă comună (PAC) şi agricultura în Europa-întrebări frecvente” ww.ec.europa.eu.


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and because of the difference of prices, structures, etc, the immediate application of the CAP could provoke much faster changes.

The new Common Agricultural Policy will have the following sector effects upon Romania:4

The intensification of production, which will be shaped by: the intensification and extension of the arable crop producing

regions; the increase in the production of pork and chicken, the competition

and modernization of sectors leading to a growth of productivity; the decrease in paddy fields, which will be replaced with those

cultivated with cereal crops, especially maize; the increase in the farmers’ incomes with up to 45% until 2013 as a

result of the increase in direct payments and in the support for rural development;

unfavourable consequences for the diary sector. Subsistence farms have an important role in this sector; the future of these small farms is uncertain and most probably will disappear because of the application of the new CAP;

Farm specialization

In the regions where it can be obtained an intensive production of cereals, a specialization is expected. For this reason, specialized farms will dominate these areas. Still, mixed and cereal crops will be maintained in small farms or marginal areas, as a result of the CAP payments.

The Agricultural Policy Reform in June 2003 introduced, as well, the necessity of the compliance with environmental requirements, the improvement of the operating conditions of animals and other norms. Member states have to define the standards resulted from this legislation.

As for the current situation of the Common Agricultural Policy, the following tendencies5 are being shaped:

the reduction and/or elimination of production subsidies; the drastic reduction of the stimulation of market measures; ever-increasing support for the elimination of CAP budget;

4 Manole V., Stoian Mirela, Revista Tribuna Economică, no 22, June 2008, pp 83. 5 Şoimu V., Lumea Satului, no.3, 1-15 February 2009.


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premature and unfounded euphoric state concerning both the stability, safety and security of food products and European solidarity;

the naivety, irresponsibility or even interest of the major European decision factors, who continue to keep European farmers away from the results of contemporary bio-technology.

3. The Position of Romanian Agriculture within the European Union

In the medium and long term the integration of Romanian agriculture will lead to: the growth of agricultural productivity (by adopting the acquis and especially by accessing the funds for agriculture and high technology), the stimulation of the development of medium (up to 50 ha) and large (over 100 ha) agricultural exploitation, the improvement of the access on the EU market, and the disappearance of all commercial barriers, the slowdown of workforce migration from agriculture towards the industrial sector.6

Agriculture has been awarded an increased degree of attention in the accession process due to the following reasons: agriculture is under the effect of the instruments used by the common agricultural policy, of veterinarian and phytosanitary commercial policies; over 30% of working population in Romania is involved in this field. Likewise, Romanian agriculture is characterized by a dual structure, consisting in the coexistence of two basic forms of agricultural production, one of subsistence and semi-subsistence and the other of production for the market.

At present, there is a significant difference between the performances of Romanian agriculture and those of the EU, the profitability of Romanian agriculture being inferior to that of the EU. The process of increasing the natural potential of agriculture depends upon the combined efforts of all the decision factors involved.

6 Coconea I. F., Care sunt avantajele aderării la Uniunea Europeană? http://www.mie.ro.


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Opinion Poll… Chart no 2: How many years will it take Romanian agriculture to reach the level of the Euroaverage?

According to the opinion poll realized by Sergiu Costache and published at the National Conference of Agricultural Insurance, March 2009, “In how many years will Romanian agriculture reach the level of the

European average?” most of the people who were questioned consider that it will be aligned to European standards in approximately 10 years. Source: Sergiu Costache, The National Conference of Agricultural Insurance, March 2009

The EU integration is probably the most powerful pressure factor for

the rapid reformation of Romanian rural agriculture and economy, given the necessity of a successful inclusion within the European rural economy. The Romanian rural economy, widely dominated by agriculture, is still weakly integrated within the market economy. In the current context of market economy, the welfare of the citizens living in both in the rural and urban areas, together with that of the producers, depends upon the understanding and application of marketing techniques.

Romania, with a territory of 238.391 km², almost equal to that of Great Britain (244.820 km²), occupies the ninth place among the 27 member states of the European Union, after France, Spain, Sweden, Germany, Finland, Poland, Italy and Great Britain.

Of the 23.8 million ha of Romania’s territory, 14.7 million ha (61.7%) consist in agricultural area, out of which 9.4 million ha represent tillable land. From the point of view of its agricultural area, Romania occupies the 7th place in Europe after Spain, France, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Poland, and from the point of view of its tillable land, it occupies the 5th place after Spain, France, Germany and Poland. These figures show the enormous agricultural potential of our country among the member states of the European Union. In this context, Romania can become a strong competitor on the unique market of the European Union if it uses

1‐3 years

8%

4‐7 years 18%

8‐10 years

40%

in 10

years34%


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adequately the resources it disposes of as well as the funds received from the European Union.

However, some Romanian producers have already decided to sell their land as a consequence of the low capacity to efficiently work the land. At the same time, the average amount of an agricultural exploitation in Romania leaves almost no space for the improvement of efficiency in exploitation. The government should implement a new taxation model in this sector to favour the unification of the agricultural land parcels in exploitations that reach values close to the EU average.7

Chart no. 3 Arable land surface per agricultural exploitation

Source: Eurostat, BCR Research

As it can be noticed in the chard above, Romania has the smallest surface of arable land per agricultural exploitation of the member states of the European Union, because the population in the rural areas hasn’t yet showed openness to the fusion of land parcels and to the potential benefits that could come up, out of which the most important is the growth of productivity. In addition, agricultural land uncultivated during a period of several years must first undergo an intense fertilization process that lasts for another several years and only after that there can be obtained good harvests. But this takes time and money, and small-scale producers obviously cannot afford this.

In what concerns the gross domestic product (GDP), we mention that the share of the agricultural sector within Romania’s GDP has decreased significantly in the last 4 years, from 12.6% in 2004, it dropped to only 7.1% in 2008.

7 Raport Agricultura-potenţial-oportunutăţi-supravieţuire, 2009, http://www.bcr.ro.


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According to a report of the European Commission, Romania and Bulgaria have the lowest agricultural production in the European Union, as compared to the other member states, and this situation will be maintained throughout the following years. The average production/output in Romania and Bulgaria is of approximately 3 tones/ha and might increase lightly during the following 6 years, while in other countries such as France or Germany, the average production per ha is double, that is 6 tones/ha. The average in the EU, including former communist states, is at present of about 4.7 tones/ha. According to the report which contains predictions for the markets and agricultural revenues in the EU, for the years 2007-2014, the production of grain in Romania might remain below its potential, despite the restructuring which is in full process. The draught seems to be the main reason for this situation, as it was in the case with the low production in 2007 as well. The unfavourable weather conditions have also affected countries in Western Europe, the agriculture in France and Germany having to suffer damages caused by flooding. In the course of the following 6 years, according to the report, the situation will be improved because of the favourable market conditions, the access to a unique market and implementation of the common agricultural policies8.

4. The BIO Market in Romania9

Ecological agriculture is a modern method of cultivating plants and raising animals, without using fertilizers, synthesis pesticides, hormones, antibiotics, growth stimulators and regulators and intensive systems of raising animals.

BIO presents certified products that contain minimum 97% ecological ingredients. BIO products (whether it is about food, cosmetics, care products, cleaning products or nutritional supplements) are those that have in their composition only organic ingredients, derived from genetically unmodified plants that were not added any chemical products like pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, genetically modified organisms or that were not applied ion radiations for the efficiency of conservation.

8“România nu va reuşi să devină un competitor important în agricultura UE până în 2013”, http:\\www.topbusiness.ro. 9 Despre piaţa BIO din România, http://www.infomina.ro(2008)


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The purpose of the ecological agriculture system is to produce healthy food, beneficial for the human metabolism, fully correlated with the preservation and development of the environment. Chart no 4:The evolution of areas ecologically cultivated (ha) in Romania

Source: About the BIO market in Romania, http://www.infomina.ro(2008)

The area ecologically cultivated worldwide raises at 31.4 million hectares, Romania being on the 16th position according to the cultivated area. The total area of ecological cultivation in Romania increased over 10 times from 2000 and up to the present, registering an increasing but not spectacular trend because the use of ecological products in Romania is less than 1% of the total food. This figure can be explained through the bigger price of these products (meant to compensate the production losses as compared to conventional agriculture). Chart no 5: Europe areas ecologically cultivated


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Source: About the BIO market in Romania, http://www.infomina.ro(2008)

At the EU level, organic agriculture represents 3.7% of the total agricultural area, although, between 1993 and 1998, there was registered a growth of 25%.

Italy has the biggest number of ecological farms, 31% of the EU’s total, followed by Austria, Spain and Germany.

As it can be noticed from the adjoining chart, Austria is the country with the largest ecologically cultivated area with 11%, and at the apposite end there is Malta with 0.1%. Romania is not good at this chapter, as well, the area ecologically cultivated representing only 1%.

The advantages of ecological products:

Absence of chemical substances, pollutant (pesticides, synthetic substances) which, after a long period of usage, are harmful to our body and equally to the environment.

Nutritional quality: bio food contains up to 40% more antioxidants, a higher quantity of essential minerals like iron and zinc as well as a higher quantity of nutrients than common food.

Ecological products are characterized by a high content of amino acids, vitamins and trace elements.

Animal protection: animal extracts and testing on animals are forbidden in BIO cosmetics. Only the ingredients that come from animals (BIO agriculture) are accepted (ingredients that do not affect animals’ health, for example: honey, eggs, milk, etc).


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Conservation of the environment: ecological agriculture is a mode of production that values biodiversity and natural equilibrium.

Ecological cosmetic product is very nourishing; it contains active ingredients very important for our body, with long-term effect.

Because certified organic products are not contaminated with pesticides and mycotoxins, they can prevent early aging, chronic diseases, and can increase the capacity of intellectual and physical effort. Pesticides used on a large scale in traditional agriculture affect the nervous system, and mycotoxins can provoke severe intoxications both in people and animals. Products that were obtained from the animals treated with growth hormones or antibiotics cannot be considered organic food. On the contrary, the consumption of such food presents numerous threats for our health, from the appearance of hormonal disorders to the increase in cancer risk.

Organic food are healthier than the conventional ones only if their conventional equivalent is healthy. If the reference nourishment is harmful, it stays the same regardless the system it is obtained in.

In what concerns aspect, there is no difference between an ecological and a classical product. However, there is accredited a false idea according to which vegetables obtained in this system are smaller, more stunted than the ones obtained in the conventional system.

The disadvantages of ecological products:

- The biggest problem of the Romanian market of ecological products is that there aren’t food processors. Romanian raw material is exported, products are made abroad and come back to our country four times more expensive.

- BIO food is more expensive than conventional food (all over the world).

- The beginning of production takes quite a lot of time, up to two years, from the perspective of the conversion period.

- The activity presupposes periodical inspections of the accredited inspection bodies and annual registration at the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD).


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- The harvest obtained is 20-50% smaller than in the case of traditional agriculture, but the export price can be two or three times bigger.

- Ecological food has a smaller shelf life than common food, because it does not contain food additives – preservatives, food dyes, taste additives and thickeners.

In the following years, the BIO market in Romania will have the biggest growth potential in the organic industry (European), European experts saying that it has the big opportunity to become the biggest eco-agricultural producer in Europe and this because in Romanian agriculture there haven’t been used too many chemical products during recent years, soils are clean, ready to receive European confirmation and to start the ecological production (around 15-20 % of Romania’s land, not chemically treated, could be used to obtain bio products).

In other words, the reason for which eco-agriculture would be relatively easy to apply in Romania is the farmers’ poverty itself, because they didn’t have enough resources to buy pesticides and chemical fertilizers.

5. The Impact of World Crisis upon the Romanian Agricultural Sector

Although it is placed far from the epicenter of the financial crisis and has reached a record dynamics this year, Romanian economy is not completely sheltered from the effects of the decline which has kneeled down the great international markets. The feeling of fear is widespread among farmers, in the context of the financial crisis and the pessimistic predictions concerning the economic results for next year. The market of agricultural products is the first victim of the recession10.

85% of Romanian economy depends upon external economic factors, being vulnerable to every economic shock produced on any international market. The Romanian agricultural sector is currently in a very vulnerable situation compared to the decline on the world market.

10 Mihaela Mocanu, „Agricultura românească vulnerabilă în faţa crizei”, www.gazetadebistrita.ro.


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The first natural question that arises is how we ended up in this situation in the conditions in which Romania has an important agricultural development potential. As it was expected, the reason is the acute lack of capital. The subsidy in Romania is 100 euros a hectare as compared to that in Europe which is 350 euros a hectare. Thus, with the help of the state three times less than the one offered in Europe we cannot be a competitive producer on the European market.

The Effects of the Financial Crisis upon Romanian Agriculture

Small subsistence and semi-subsistence farms will stand smaller shocks of the crisis, with effects upon efficiency and domestic consumption. Demographic pressure will accentuate as a consequence of the urban and rural unemployment and the transfer of exploitation will go to commercial farms which will suffer significant shocks because of the rise in the price of the commercial and bank credit, the decrease in the access to investments, the decrease in the prices of agricultural products and raw material. The taking over of the transfer of negative intersectoral economic effects, as well as the evolution of wheat and maize prices at the stock market will contribute significantly to this situation.

The effects of the economic crisis will be especially felt in the medium and long run, particularly in the sectors of rural development and investments in zootechnics, which will lead to an enhancement of the current differences between the Romanian and European agricultural sectors. The situation is quite vulnerable because of the weak capitalization of the economic operators on each branch, the lack of investments and the dependence upon imported goods. The most affected sectors are and will be that of providing credits for agriculture, of investing in it and that of capitalizing the production in the situation in which the production costs will be very high. The effects will also be felt when financing every production cycle, but also when lacking liquidities for the payment of current needs.

At present, considering the fact that there are no functional mechanisms meant to ensure a certain protection to farmers, it becomes unfavourable to be a farmer. However, if a unitary action strategy will be set, which also includes an infusion of capital in the development and functioning of these markets and in organizing farmers, then it will be a


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great advantage to activate on this market. Romania will not only produce for the purpose of covering internal demand, but also for the common market, and in this context, the possibility of new negotiations on the common market should be deeply analyzes, considering the current situation.

The Solutions for the Attenuation of the Crisis and the Relaunching of the Rural Economy

With a view to get out of the present financial crisis, the following solutions take shape11:

land rehabilitation - 1.5 million hectares until 2014, by means of investments in irrigation systems;

decrease in the price of electricity in the matter of irrigations; support of agriculture by the medium of the Rural Credit Guarantee

Fund; widening of the Rabla (vehicle stock renewal programme)

programme for tractors and other farm equipments. In this uncertain context, the solutions for diminishing the crisis and

relaunching rural economy are12: the stimulation of agricultural production; the optimization of the structures of agricultural technologies:

intensive, conservative. the reduction of the VAT with the following consequences: reduction of prices, increase in sales, stimulation of the agricultural

and food production; reduction of budgetary incomes – with an influence upon the

investment capacity; stimulation of investment in rural economy (small and medium

scale processing and service enterprises). A new element in what concerns the present financial crisis is that it is,

undoubtedly, the first crisis which can be named “global” and which spread rapidly all over the world. This global aspect of the crisis denotes that it will last more than it has been expected, as long as each problem that

11 Şuşman A., Agricultura, o soluţie pentru ieşirea in criză, noiembrie 2009, http://www.telegrafonline.ro. 12 Şoimu Valentina, Revista Lumea Satului, nr. 3, 1-15 februarie 2009.


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a country copes with has a retroactive effect upon another country and so on.

We have to invest in the most important resource Romania has today so that agriculturalists produce more than what it is necessary to keep their houses. Thus, the state has to intervene and to assure them the funds necessary for the transformation of Romanian agriculture into an engine of economic growth.

6. Conclusions

An advantageous integration of Romania within the EU must be done by taking into consideration at least two conditions which are: compatibility between Romanian and European structures and reaching the performances that would allow its stability on the common market. These performances cannot be obtained without the development and modernization of agricultural structures. But, Romania does not possess the resources of rich countries and neither a top managerial experience that would enable it to create, in a short period of time, the best agricultural structures. That is why it is necessary the usage with a maximum of efficiency of the existent resources.

Agriculture in Romania has a long way to go until it starts to be profitable. For example, exploitations in our country have, on average, 3 ha (a crop considered of subsistence in any other member state of the EU) as compared with 20 ha, the European average. If in the near future agriculture is not considered a national priority which has to be financed more than passive economy, we risk entering a very dangerous game, with extremely severe consequences economically and socially, consequences that could transform in revolts and dissatisfactions of the population.

Analysing the situation in the agrarian sector, we easily observe that Romania is characterized by a large number of individual producers which, in order to face the fierce competition coming from leading producers, will have to associate. At present, it is necessary to sustain the growth of agricultural production by stimulating the volunteer fusion of fields and their more efficient exploitation, as well as by the growth of the importance of zootechnics in agriculture. To increase production and its quality, it is


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presupposed, among others, the stimulation of ecological agriculture, but also sectors like pomology, olericulture, and viticulture.

In our country, agriculture is not exploited at its real potential, leaving it several times at the end of all priorities. If we want to be equal to our European partners, producers will undoubtedly have to leave subsistence agriculture behind and head towards the modern one. In our country, agriculture is not exploited to its full potential, being left on many occasions at the end of the priority list. If we wish to be equal to our European partners, definitely, the producers will have to leave behind subsistence agriculture and re-orient towards the modern one.

Bibliography

Manole V., Stoian Mirela, “Tribuna Economică” Magazine, no 22, June 2008.

Şoimu Valentina, “Lumea Satului” Magazine, no 3, 1-15 February 2009.

*** http://www.bcr.ro, Raport Agricultura-potenţial-oportunutăţi-supravieţuire, (2009).

*** http://bookshop.europa.eu/eubookshop/download.action, Agricultura Uniunii Europene, un răspuns la nevoile şi aşteptările societăţii.

*** http://www.ec.europa.eu, Politica agricolă comună (PAC) şi agricultura în Europa - întrebări frecvente.

*** http://www.gazetadebistrita.ro.Mocanu M., „Agricultura românească vulnerabilă în faţa crizei”.

*** http://www.infomina.ro(2008), Despre piaţa BIO din România.

*** http://www.madr.ro, Prezentare generală a agriculturii şi dezvoltării rurale din România.

*** http://www.mie.ro, Coconea I. F., Care sunt avantajele aderării la Uniunea Europeană?.

*** http://www.telegrafonline.ro, Şuşman A., Agricultura, o soluţie pentru ieşirea in criză, (2009).

Appendices


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Figure no 1: Agricultural income (indicator A) in the EU, % 2008/2007 Source: Agricultural statistics, Main results-2007-08, 2009 edition, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/product_details/publication?p_product_code=KS-ED-09-001 Figure no 2: Share og main crop production between Member States, 2007

Source: Agricultural statistics, Main results-2007-08, 2009 edition, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/product_details/publication?p_product_code=KS-ED-09-001.


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Table no1: Agricultural land use, 2008

Source: Eurostat-Crop production database, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/ product_details/publication?p_product_code=KS-ED-09-001

1 2003 data for UK; 2007 data for DK, IE, GR, IT 2 2003 data for UK; 2007 data for DK, IE, GR, ES, IT 3 2004 data for UK; 2007 data for DK, IE, GR, IT 4 2003 data for UK; 2007 data for DK, IE, GR, IT

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The management of business intelligence: reallity of enterprises activity

Claudia – Mihaela Nicolau*

Abstract. Organizarea tradiţională a firmei se baza, şi se bazează încă, pe trei principii

implicite, şi anume: taylorismul, structura ierarhică piramidală și structura organizatorică în reţea. Cel care va prelua firma, pentru a introduce un nou tip de management, trebuie să facă toate eforturile pentru a trece rapid de la o organizare ierarhică piramidală la una în reţea. Birocraţia din administraţia tayloriană a firmelor, organizarea ierarhică din ce în ce mai greu de suportat, ordinea ierarhică piramidală sunt numai câteva motive aflate la originea degradării structurilor ierarhice piramidale şi a înlocuirii lor cu alte tipuri de structuri. Dar oricât de performante ar fi noile firme, fie ele mici sau mari, realizează faptul că într-un mediu atât de turbulent şi nesigur, singure nu pot supravieţui. Multiplicarea alianţelor strategice a condus, în timp, la formele evoluate de federaţii create fie pe criteriul investiţional, fie pe criteriul abordării în comun a unei pieţe sau pentru a aborda împreună un domeniu de cercetare-dezvoltare. Aceste alianţe tacite sunt deja consacrate în diferite ţări, fiind cunoscute în toată lumea sub denumirea de reţele de firme sau de întreprinderi. Pentru a încerca să conturăm noile realități din practica și activitatea întreprinderilor, vom analiza anumite aspecte ale conceptului ”managementul Inteligenței Economice” ( conf. Dijmărescu, I., 1998 ): structurile organizatorice bazate pe Inteligența Economică, rețele de firma integrate în managementul Inteligenței Economice, niveluri de acțiune și riscuri în managementul Inteligenței Economice.

Clasificare JEL: M15, M21, O32 Cuvinte cheie: informaţie, structură în reţea, reţea de firme, risc, nivel.

1. Introducere

Inteligenţa Economică reprezintă o activitate organizaţională legală, o monitorizare a activităţii din mediul exterior organizaţiei, cu scopul de a culege informaţii relevante pentru procesul decizional. IE presupune

* Faculty of Economics and Business Administration & Faculty of Law. Adress: : B-dul Carol 1, no. 22, Iași, 700505, Romania. E-mail: [email protected]


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culegerea de informaţii publice (date publicate) şi informaţii semipublice (date adunate de pe teren, de la clienţi, parteneri, furnizori etc.), transformând informaţiile culese, prin intermediul unei analize atente, în cunoştinţe de mare valoare. În IE informaţia este colectată prin adresarea întrebărilor corespunzătoare surselor corespunzătoare, şi nicidecum prin forţarea persoanelor.

În prinicipiu, se consideră că implementarea proiectelor pentru IE reclamă acţiuni de previziune, organizare, conducere şi control, trăsăturile fundamentale ale managementului. Din toate acestea derivă, de exemplu, necesitatea introducerii acestei discipline în planul de învăţământ al şcolilor superioare de management.

Există multe motive pentru care Inteligenţa Economică este considerată una dintre cele mai tinere discipline cu caracter economic, acestea se conturează în următoarele elemente :

- vehiculează informaţii globale, complete, recente şi sigure; - lucrează cu mijloace materiale şi umane existente, solicitând rar şi în

măsură mică eforturi economice suplimentare; - utilizează sisteme de comunicare moderne de tip Intranet, Extranet

şi Internet; Aceste elemente constituie doar câteva motive pentru care se consideră

că această disciplină, în perspectivă, va contribui substanţial la creşterea performanţelor în economie.

Inteligenţa Economică constituie astăzi o disciplină importantă, care contribuie la dezvoltarea mijloacelor şi metodelor de exploatare a informaţiilor.

2. Structuri organizatorice bazate pe Inteligenţă Economică

Organizarea tradiţională a firmei se baza, şi se bazează încă, pe trei principii implicite, care însă nu mai răspund exigenţelor de schimbare ale unui mediu înconjurător în plină mutaţie, şi anume:

- Taylorismul, cu cei care ştiu şi decid, pe de o parte, şi cu cei cărora li se ordonă să execute, fără a gândi, pe de altă parte. În fapt, iniţiativa o pot avea numai top managerii.

- Structura ierarhică piramidală, inspirată mult din cea militară şi în care şeful ştie totul, cunoaşte totul şi cere o disciplină deosebită şi o execuţie strictă a ordinelor primite; dar fără să-şi dea seama, el se îndepărtează de

Claudia – Mihaela Nicolau

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locul acţiunii iar subordonaţii lui, pentru a nu avea nici o problemă cu ierarhia, nu iau nici o iniţiativă şi se mulţumesc să asculte fără să gândească. Importanţa deosebită acordată aspectelor financiare, tehnice şi comerciale, în detrimentul dimensiunii umane şi sociale a firmelor care nu intră în preocupările manageriale decât în ce priveşte costurile. Dacă există o pierdere sau scădere a rentabilităţii, prima reacţie este reducerea costurilor sociale. Acest model de management este indezirabil. Pentru a supravieţui, firmele trebuie să abandoneze aceste trei principii şi să adopte noile structuri apărute în lume.

Structura organizatorică în reţea

Firma cu structură în reţea reprezintă o organizaţie care se scindează în entităţi practic autonome. Pentru a stăpâni procesul, firma integrează aceste entităţi nu prin ierarhie, ci prin:

- sisteme operatorii: planificare, informare, raportare; - structuri specifice: grupe de lucru, comitet de reflecţie organizate pe

proiecte etc.; - sisteme de intervenţie bazate pe culturi, pe imaginea firmei, pe felul

ei de gestiune etc. Este o formă de firmă modernă, bazată pe interpenetraţia dintre piaţă şi

ierarhie, pe renunţarea, în mare măsură, la frontierele funcţionale şi operaţionale şi pe evidenţierea relaţiilor interactive. Firma se poziţionează. astfel, într-un ansamblu mai global de raporturi economice şi sociale, fie-care entitate a sa devenind un subsistem deschis.

Firma cu structură în reţea se defineşte ca un sistem dotat cu o mulţime de structuri şi de legături identificabile, în sânul cărora operează centre de autoritate sau de decizie, care cooperează între ele în vederea realizării obiectivelor comune sau individuale. Când o firmă cu structură în reţea este în dificultate reuşita acesteia depinde de remotivarea personalului, de satisfacţia clientului şi de dominarea constrângerilor funcţionale.

Structura organizatorică în reţea prezintă următoarele caracteristici: - se bazează pe relaţii interpersonale şi interactive foarte puternice

dincolo de relaţiile profesionale din interiorul firmei, încât, ele depăşesc logica instituţională simplă şi curată;

- aceste relaţii au un caracter nonformal. Nici o procedură nu este stabilită pentru a le organiza şi controla, deoarece ele se bazează, în primul


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rând, pe un climat de încredere. Cu toate acestea, regulile jocului sunt indispensabile, în aşa fel încât orice abatere de la aceste reguli antrenează pentru autorul ei excluderea din structura în reţea;

- creează, în primul rând, relaţii între persoane şi apoi între entităţile cărora le aparţin, aceste relaţii nu necesită o ierarhizare, pentru că, în caz contrar, reţeaua nu ar mai exista ca atare iar firma cu structură în reţea poate fi comparată cu numeroasele interconexiuni care se crează între neuronii creierului uman. De aceea, cel mai adesea, componentele unei structuri în reţea se suprapun pe cadrul ierarhic tradiţional al organigramei unei firme;

- dispune de un proces de autoreglare pentru a se evita, în lipsa ietarhiei, orice situaţie de dezordine;

- nu este închisă şi fixă, iar puterea sa rezidă în aptitudinea de a evolua şi de a federaliza deci de a aduna, într-un tot, noi entităţi fiecare dintre ele păstrâdu-şi autonomia. Entităţile aflate în dificultate pot determina anularea structurii în reţea, ceea ce provoacă o întoarcere la organizarea tayloriană şi ierarhică piramidală. S-ar putea spune că structura în reţea (reţeaua) este o reuniune de entităţi, formând un veritabil microcosmos dotat cu o capacitate de autoreglare. Ea antrenează dispariţia anumitor frontiere tradiţionale, dar face să apară noi forme de parteneriat, deci de cooperare şi de sinergie până atunci inexistente.

Firma cu structură în reţea, face posibile raporturi sociale noi între actori şi organizare: statute mai diversificate; alte tipuri de contracte de muncă, flexibilitatea resurselor umane; alegerea oamenilor cu o capacitate mare de iniţiativă şi cu o angajare personală importantă; revizia completă a normelor de lucru, ţinând seama de dorinţele clienţilor şi de nevoile firmei.

Precauţiunile tranziției către structura în retea: Pentru motivarea introducerii noilor structuri vor trebui să se respecte

anumite reguli : - Diagnosticarea organizării actuale împreună cu fiecare responsabil

ierarhic pentru a depista zonele puternice, resursele şi pentru a simplifica fluxurile de informaţii.

- Pe baza acestui diagnostic, managerii vor împărţi firma în entităţi. numind în fruntea lor lideri recunoscuţi pentru competenţele, carisma, priceperea şi educaţia lor (practicarea regulilor de comportament şi de politeţe în societate).


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- Dacă este nevoie, se vor recruta persoane capabile să îmbo-găţească şi să integreze noul sistem de valori şi, mai ales, să fie apte să se Însereze într-o firmă flexibilă.

- Incitarea şi favorizarea gândirii şi lucrului în grup pentru a se profita de interacţiunea şi transversalitatea tuturor funcţiunilor.

- Formarea cadrelor şi a responsabililor de entităţi, punând accentul pe deschiderea spre mediul înconjurător, parteneriatul cu factori externi, valorile care trebuie protejate, managementul resurselor umane, metodologia de analiză a noii organizări pentru a fi mai performantă, mijloacele de control pentru a măsura şi corecta repede abaterile.

- Instaurarea unui sistem de valori pentru a degaja comportamente adaptate situaţiei de redresare după o perioadă de greutăţi care a lovit firma şL implicit, toate echipele. Scopul este de a "cimenta" energiile, de a favoriza autonomia, de a privilegia delegarea, iniţiativa individuală, creativitatea.

- Luarea în considerare a factorului timp; timpul este un aliat, dar poate deveni şi duşman.

- Impunerea unui limbaj comun şi a unor reguli de joc ce să fie cunoscute şi acceptate de toţi în domeniile resurselor umane, juridic, fiscal, controlul gestiunii şi, mai ales, financiar.

- Respectarea codului unei deontologii proprii firmei şi a unei etici faţă de propria persoană, dar şi faţă de alţi actori interni şi externi.

- Imprimarea unui sens deciziilor care vor fi luate pentru a elimina legea celui mai tare, supunerea celor slabi, dispreţul faţă de om şi de munca prestată. Calitatea gestiunii relaţiilor umane trebuie să crească relaţiile, să se umanizeze, să se instaureze încrederea în locul neîncrederii latente, să-şi probeze fiecare buna credinţă şi sinceritatea.

Concurenţa şi Managementul Inteligenţei Economice:

După ce s-a identificat valoarea aşteptată de către client, alegerile şi orientările firmelor vor depinde de forţele interne proprii, dar şi de forţele şi slăbiciunile concurenţilor. Situaţia concurenţi lor va fi evaluată ţinând seama de:

- partea de piaţă pe care o deţin; - corespondenţa dintre oferta lor şi aşteptările clienţilor; - puterea şi slăbiciunea lor;


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- strategia lor actuală. Aflarea poziţiei concurentului permite să se evalueze forţele existente

în momentul analizei. Această fotografie instantanee trebuie să fie completată cu o proiecţie în timp a evoluţiilor şi reacţiilor posibile şi ale principalilor concurenţi, pentru că ei nu vor rămâne inerţi la acţiunile pe care firma le va angaja.

Reacţiile unui concurent dat vor depinde de: - obiectivele sale: cunoaşterea obiectivelor unui concurent este utilă

pentru a se şti dacă el este satisfăcut de situaţia sa şi pentru a evalua probabilităţile de schimbări;

- ipotezele pe cate el le formulează; - strategia urmărită; - sectorul său de piaţă; - rezultatele sale financiare. Influenţa forţelor şi slăbiciunilor sale îi modulează natura și intensitatea

reacţiilor, determinând capacitatea concurentului de a întreprinde manevre.

3. Reţele de firme integrate în Managementul Inteligenţei Economice

Reţeaua consfinţeşte un sistem de legături care s-au născut şi se dezvoltă formal sau nonformal în "conul de umbră" al moralităţii şi în spirit egalitar în amonte şi în aval, transversal nord-sud şi est-vest. Aceste legături funcţionează la nivel operaţional între firme sau entităţi ale acestora având, în primul rând, scopul de a asigura comunicarea în vederea creării minimului de securitate necesară supravieţuirii şi prosperităţii. Inmulţirea acestor reţele în ultimii ani a scos la iveală numeroase forme de cooperare între firmele federalizate, dar indiferent care vor fi acestea, federalizarea benevolă în reţea, păstrarea autonomiei şi respectarea codului genetic al reţelei sunt cele trei dimensiuni pe care se bazează încrederea în succesul reţelei.

Câmpul de acţiune al reţelelor este imens şi chiar nelimitat pentru că se întâlnesc firme cu structură în reţea, reţele de firme, reţele de parteneri complementari, reţele regionale, reţele orăşeneşti, reţele de sate, reţele de competenţe, reţele specializate, reţele mixte şi multe alte tipuri de reţele.


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Cea mai reuşită formulă este cea care cuprinde numărul maxim de combinatii ale alternativelor enuntate mai sus.

Performaţele acestora sunt de necontestat dar să nu se piardă din vedere faptul că cel mai mare adversar al reţelelor de firme este grupul firmelor de elită, care admite cu greu atât spiritul egalitarist, dominantă de bază a reţelei, cât şi ideea de a renunţa la privilegii.

În aceste firme se vor întâlni personae cu un spirit ierarhic pyramidal dezvoltat, monoculturale, monovizionare, constituite în elite cosanguine, care se decid cu mare greutate să-şi părăsească funcţiile ierarhi ce îngreunând noul joc al competenţelor, singurul care se poate menţine încadrat într-una dintre grupele de lucru ale operaţionalului.

Dar cu toate acestea, explozia mare a noului fenomen asociativ, de legare a întreprinderilor (firmelor) mici şi mijlocii, precum şi strategiile bazate pe bazine de locuri de muncă elaborate şi puse în aplicare de către specialişti autentici, stau mărturie pentru această remarcabilă formă creativă de organizare a proceselor sociale prin federalizarea înreţea.

Reţeaua de firme se impune din ce în ce mai mult iar acest cadru inovator vine cu câteva concepte noi:

- performanţa globală, ce poate servi la estimarea rezultatelor în reţea; printr-un sistem de indicatori globali rezultaţi dintr-o metodologie democratică în care dezbaterile se instaurează între ceea ce favorizează sinergia, între cetăţeni, meserii, grupuri sociale şi ceea ce blochează aceste sinergii, în final între partizanii ordinii vii şi cei ai ordinii mecaniciste;

- organizaţia cetăţean, organizaţie care prin propria misiune, cea care îi justifică existenţa, participă în cooperare cu alte tipuri de organizaţii la rezolvarea marilor probleme ale societăţii;

- economiile teritoriale ce vizează acordarea unor diferite regiuni a gradelor de libertate privind dezvoltarea economică, neaşteptând ca statul în mod centralizat, să le asigure liniile de dezvoltare.

Evoluţia conceptului de reţea:

Conceptul "reţea de firme" nu este nou, el existând de milenii. Diferitele alte forme de reţele, cum ar fi : reţelele de influenţă, grupurile de interese și reţelele mafiote cu toate implicaţiile şi legăturile subterane, grupurile de întrajutorare şi cele de solidaritate funcţionează pe baza unor relaţii


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informale şi ţin cont de apropierea entităţilor şi de convivialitatea schimburilor.

La fel sunt şi reţelele comerciale şi financiare care au asigurat dezvoltarea întreprinderilor după Evul Mediu. Reţele sunt peste tot, adesea invizibile, dar prezente în orice moment.

Reteaua de firme nu este nici "un centru", nici "o bază", nici "o adunare"; funcţionarea ei se bazează pe încredere care este liantul schimburilor în reţea şi care se transformă datorită codului genetic al reţelei în afaceri pentru parteneri.

În faţa actualelor conjuncturi, pentru a supravieţui, trebuie să existe organizări flexibile, deschise, rapide, de calitate, interactive, din ce în ce mai performante şi la costuri descrescătoare. Organizarea firmelor în reţea răspunde perfect acestor cerinţe, având multe şanse de a se adapta şi de a reuşi în raport cu alte structuri.

Organizarea în reţea ia amploare, în fiecare zi, în cursa pentru progres, deoarece societatea informaţională cere o schimbare pentru a revoluţiona inteligenţa şi aceasta nu se va putea produce fără reţea.

Odată constituită reţeaua de firme, ea funcţionează fără o structură organizatorică proprie. După un anumit timp ea se structurează sub formă de "ţesătură", cu o configuraţie deschisă compusă din noduri şi legături.

Reţelele de firme pot fi constituite pe zeci de judeţe, iar în jurul oraşelor pot fi grupate sute de entităţi (întreprinderi mici şi mijlocii), specializate într-o mulţime de domenii de activitate, cum ar fi fabrici de pâine, de îmbrăcăminte, de încălţăminte, de sticlă, de nutreţuri şi unităţi care au ca obiect de activitate irigaţiile, creşterea animalelor, diverse prestări de servicii ş.a. şi care, împreună, sunt capabile să reacţionze rapid la o ameninţare sau la o oportunitate de mediu.

Reţeaua de firme favorizează transversalitatea şi contribuie la fortificarea creativităţii umane prin faptul că în cadrul ei există mai multe schimburi şi mai multe activităţi comune în raport cu firmele izolate; ea permite cooperarea între entităţi complementare datorită responsabilităţii, încrederii, libertăţii, transparenţei şi autonomiei.

Reţeaua de firme trebuie să fie selectivă pentru a avea cât mai puţine legături care conduc la funcţionarea anarhică a unor entităţi, precum şi cât mai puţine legături care produc sisteme rigide incapabile să ,se adapteze la


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schimbare. Fiecare cuplare nouă în reţea a unui partener, amplifică inteligenţa globală a reţelei.

Firmele din reţea nu sunt legate numai în reţele interne (Intranet), ci pot avea legături normale şi cu reţeleexterne (Extranet).

Avantajele reţelei de firme:

Principalele avantaje ale reţelei de firme constau în aceea că: - gestionează toată informaţia; în vederea redistribuirii ei în regim de

liber acces; - gestionează resursele cu acces nediscriminatoriu; - permite interconectarea cu alte reţele; - scurtcircuitează orice ierarhie; - nu se formalizează în privinţa procedurilor; - încurajează iniţiativele şi tot ceea ce contribuie la creşterea eficacităţii; - în timp, pe măsură ce mediul schimbător impune, reţeaua se

restructurează pentru că, în general, ea se compune din entităţi care se dizolvă şi se formează în funcţie de cerinţele clienţilor;

- se adaptează uşor la complexitatea mediului pentru că se compune din entităţi autonome din diferite domenii de activitate şi care sunt repartizate pe teritorii foarte mari;

- forţa sa rezidă în faptul că dacă o entitate din cadrul reţelei manifestă slăbiciuni, ea poate să îşi reorienteze activitatea spre alte domenii sau să îşi înceteze activitatea deoarece entităţile din reţea sunt necesare doar atâta vreme cât servesc cerinţele unui client şi nici o entitate nu este indispensabilă;

- atât la intrarea, cât şi la ieşirea din reţea entităţile sunt egale între ele, neexistând entităţi de centru sau de la periferia reţelei;

- datorită sistemului informaţional decizional specific, comunicarea permite să aibă un mesaj care se transmite rară interferenţe;

- permite să se mobilizeze rapid toate energiile interne, externe sau de oriunde de pe glob;

- datorită faptului că toate entităţile din reţea sunt în legătură şi conlucrează permanent nu este necesară o structură greoaie şi complicată;

- toate contactele se fac direct, instantaneu şi simultan în reţea, cea ce face imposibilă întârzierea şi distorsiunea informaţională;


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- dezvoltarea relaţiilor informale şi a încrederii se face prin întâlniri directe între persoane;

- componenţii reţelei cooperează într-un climat de respect şi recunoştinţă, se cunosc bine între ei şi îşi petrec timpul împreună într-un climat de convieţuire;

- datorită posibilităţii de identificare a circuitelor hamiltoniene, se poate aplica principiul gestiunii compensării, evitându-se blocajele finan-CIare;

- datorită creării aşa numitelor "bazine de locuri de muncă" în reţea poate fi diminuat sau evitat complet şomajul;

- entităţile care compun reţeaua fiind deosebite unele de altele, îmbogăţesc reţeaua, cresc dinamismul şi capacitatea de inovaţie a reţelei precum şi aptitudinea sa de schimbare şi gustul pentru iniţiativa personală.

Comunicarea internă şi externă în reţea

Pentru a se asigura conducerea necesară sincronizării elementelor de decizie din reţea o deosebită importanţă o are comunicarea din cadrul reţelei. Fiind prezentă atât în interiorul, cât şi în exteriorul firmei este necesară stăpânirea limbajului şi culturii proprii firmei şi a mediului extern.

Pentru a fi recunoscută de către persoanele din structura în reţea, comunicarea trebuie să fie:

- omogenă; - coerentă; - globală; - conformă cu realitatea; - accesibilă tuturor categoriilor de public; - inseparabilă cea internă de cea externă; - greu de deviat; - în concordanţă cu memoria societăţii; - folositoare pentru aflarea adevărului despre firmă, cu nevrozele şi

traumatismele ascunse ale acesteia; - deschisă, pentru recenzarea valorilor sale şi reconstituirea

sistemului care le federalizează. Comunicarea nu este eficace decât dacă mesajul acesteia este înţeles,

are un sens şi un limbaj cunoscut de către toţi partenerii de comunicare. Pentru firmele cu structură în reţea comunicarea îmbracă două forme şi

anume: comunicarea formală şi comunicare informală. Adesea cele două forme


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se continuă, alteori sunt separate complet, prin canale distincte în funcţie de specificitatea firmelor şi de natura reţelei de comunicare utilizată pentru transmiterea mesajelor şi pentru coordonarea acti vităţilor.

Comunicarea leagă oamenii între ei şi permite viaţa colectivă, jucând rolul esenţial în schimbare. Majoritatea conflictelor apar datorită lipsei sau insuficienței informării şi, de aceea, trebuie să ne îndreptăm serios atenţia către comunicare. Aceasta nu este cuprinsă în standarde, de aceea pentru comunicarea într-o structură în reţea este nevoie de un nou mod de abordare care să permită interconectarea de firme, de echipe, de persoane pentru ca, în final, întregul univers să poată comunica. Nu există soluţii general valabile pentru o bună comunicare, totul depinzând de firmă şi de potenţialul de comunicare al personalului său.

Într-o structură în reţea comunicarea internă constituie cheia bunei funcţionări, ea fiind necesară în toate firmele indiferent de mărimea lor. Pentru trecerea la comunicarea în reţea este nevoie să se creeze, în primul rând, o stare de spirit care să antreneze toată lumea în această schimbare şi aceasta pentru că mesajele au un conţinut complex datorită nevoii de stabilire a unui proces creativ de comunicare între oameni.

Comunicarea externă se adresează unui public foarte larg, de aceea mesajele sale trebuie să fie foarte simple iar suportul acestora să fie adaptat la mass-media .

Programul comunicării externe formale este dimensionat după nevoile şi posibilităţile fiecărei firme iar cel pentru comunicarea externă informală este indefinit pentru că acesta cuprinde comunicarea firmei, a grupurilor, echipelor şi, mai ales, a persoanelor care au, adesea, o multime de relaţii informale. Într-o structură în reţea, oamenii trebuie să comunice direct, cu cei din alte firme sau chiar din alte reţele, pentru rezolvarea problemelor proprii.

Cea mai modernă formulă de comunicare interna şi externă într-o structură în reţea este comunicarea prin schimbul de date informatizat (S.D.I.).


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4. Niveluri de acţiune ale Managementului Inteligenţei Economice

Nivelul de bază

Acest nivel corespunde firmelor care îşi desfăşoară activitatea într-o anumită zonă geografică şi se caracterizează prin:

- apariţia noilor structuri matriceale, adhocratice şi în reţea, precum şi prin tendinţa de abandonare a structurilor ierarhice piramidale considerate deja arhaisme manageriale;

- înlocuirea principiilor descentralizării şi corporatizării cu cele ale diviziunii şi federalizării;

- crearea de entităţi autonome în jurul şirului creaţiei de valoare, autonomie menţinută şi după federalizare;

- aplicarea regulilor organizării procesuale (processus) atât pentru procesele şirului creaţiei de valoare, cât şi pentru organizarea procesuală funcţională, în ambele situaţii efectuându-se o analiză a proceselor pe etape tehnologice şi de muncă;

- asigurarea coerenţei activităţilor prin aplicarea structurilor în reţea (Intranet) cu soft tip PERT/CMP/GERT;

- racordarea la reţele (Extranet) sau direct la reţeaua globală (Internet); - utilizarea echipelor de lucru autonome constituîte pe bază de

competenţe care pot fi negociate şi utilizate după programe flexibile; - utilizarea de metode specifice Inteligenţei Economice pentru căutarea

şi alcătuirea modelelor de referinţă ca, de exemplu, metodele bazate pe sistemul de comunicare Internet, Benchmarking, Buget Bază Zero, Costului Asimptotic Instantaneu, Managementului Calităţii Totale sau Sistemele Comentropic Asimptote luate ca modele de referinţă;

- înlocuirea sistemului de comunicare pe verticală cu comunicarea transversală centrată pe client;

- utilizarea în Managementul Inteligenţei Economice la nivel operaţional a conceptelor sinteza, cataliza, inovaţia şi sinergia competen-ţelor, antrepriză, responsabilizarea şi implicarea fiecărui angajat pentru satisfacerea nevoilor clienţilor;

- utilizarea traiectoriei strategice proprii dacă nu este în reţea şi a strategiei indirecte dacă se află în reţea; utilizarea strategiilor în timp real


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prin demersul organizării procesuale virtuale oportimiste; folosirea avanta-jului concurenţial chiar şi când este în reţea;

- prezentarea, în raporturile cu piaţa, a unei oferte evolutive adaptată la cererea particulară a clientului (cerere personalizată), abordarea comerţului electronic "vinde şi după aceea produce" care asigură realizarea unui decalaj pozitiv în raport cu clientul prin faptul că se produce pentru clienţi reali, se distribuie prin telecumpărare şi prin poştă sau corespondenţă, firma aflându-se în plină eră a cibermarketului.

Nivelul intermediar

Este nivelul în care conceptul de Management al Inteligenţei Economice se aplică interprofesional sau pe domenii de activitate; acest nivel este de mai mică importanţă în etapa actuală datorită avantajelor mari oferite de reţele de firme din mai multe domenii de activitate.

Nivelul național

Este caracterizat de apariţia reţelelor de firme care cuprind aproape toate domeniile de activitate, vechile reţele specializate fiind depăşite de avantajele primei.

Expresia esenţială a Managementului Inteligenţei Economice la nivelul reţelelor de firme este dată de codul genetic al reţelei, strategia concertată a reţelei şipilotajul prin centre de decizie.

Nivelul transnaţional

La acest nivel conceptul de Management al Inteligenţei Economice se aplică în marile grupuri multinaţionale, ceea ce se va dezvolta în volumul 2 al Cărţii Albe privind Managementul Inteligenţei Economice.

Nivelul internaţional

Nivelul internaţional cuprinde strategiile de influenţă între state şi acţiunile de lobby.

5. Riscuri în Managementul Inteligenţei Economice

Peste 40% dintre conducătorii de firme consideră că în ultimii cinci ani competiţia pe pieţele mondiale s-a intensificat în măsură foarte mare, ceea


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ce atrage după sine şi o intensificare a riscurilor şi a ameni ţărilor care le provoacă.

În continuare se prezintă principalele tipuri de ameninţări sesizate şi avute în vedere de practica Inteligenţei Economice:

1. Ameninţările asupra echilibrului economic (regional, local sau al domeniului de activitate): disfuncţionalitatea şirului creaţiei de valoare; vulnerabilitatea tehnologică şi informatică; întreruperile în aprovizionarea cu energie sau cu bunuri ori

serviciu; delocalizarea sau sub utilizarea; inegalitatea nivelului de viaţă; renaşterea protecţionismului şi a corporatizării; dezordinea tranziţiei de la economia centralizată planificată la

economia de piaţă. 2. Ameninţările crizelor financiare:

dezordinea monetară; banii murdari; capitalismul pervertit; problematica economisirii şi a redistribuirii bogăţiilor.

3. Ameninţările de ordin public, social şi moral: terorismul şi mişcările sociale; economiile subterane; zonele cenuşii; tensiunile ideologice şi atentatele la valorile liberale,

democratice şi ale toleranţei; subversiunile culturale şi extremist-naţionaliste; dezintegrarea factorilor de coeziune socială într-o criză de

legitimităţi. 4. Ameninţările mişcărilor migratoare anarhice:

destabilizarea ţărilor evoluate; vulnerabilitatea ţărilor bogate.

5. Ameninţările ecologice şi biologice: catastrofele industriale şi degradarea mediului; epuizarea resurselor naturale;


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degradarea sănătăţii publice şi manipularea genetică. 6. Ameninţările la ordinea internaţională:

declinul superputerii şi lipsa de reglementări internaţionale; multipolaritatea şi conflictele în lanţ; dorinţa de accedere la putere a potentaţilor secundari dar

posesori de arme. 7. Ameninţările datorită crizei de identitate culturală:

comunicarea distorsionată; apartenenţa la un grup foarte restrâns sau foarte vast; dezagregarea sau degradarea proiectelor colective; noile condiţii pentru solicitarea unui nivel optim de bunăvoinţă; sofisticarea mediului instituţional.

6. Concluzii

Ultimele decenii ale secolului nostru au fost marcate de schimbări de o amploare nemaiântâlnită până în prezent. Revoluţia informaţională, depăşind cu mult revoluţia industrială, a mijlocit trecerea de la societatea bazată pe producţia de bunuri materiale la societatea bazată pe producţia de bunuri imateriale.

Această mutaţie a fost posibilă numai datorită performanţelor informaţionale. În perioada recentă informaţia, modul de difuzare al acesteia şi instrumentele ultraperfecţionate de culegere, prelucrare şi transmitere au cunoscut o creştere exponenţială, cu o largă aplicabilitate în toate domeniile de activitate, implicit în economie.

Economia a devenit o economie a informaţiei, iar decizia depinde total de aceasta, croind astfel premisele societăţii dematerializate bazată pe concepţia modernă de Inteligenţă Economică, ce depăşeşte cu mult cadrul strict al informării, devenind un element motor al economiei societăţilor. IE, în esenţă, sde bazează pe informaţia care permite diminuarea caracterului aleatoriu al deciziilor.

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Starea actuală a business intelligence-ului la nivel internațional – literature review

Claudia – Mihaela Nicolau*

Abstract. Business Intelligence (fie eronat integrat în Managementul Competițional sau

în Managementul Strategic, sau considerat disciplină de sine stătătoare) contribuie, în prezent, la dezvoltarea mijloacelor și metodelor de exploatare a informațiilor în întreprinderi. Apărut în limbajul specialiştilor încă din cele mai vechi timpuri, Business Intelligence s-a conturat și oficializat ca și concept și disciplină numai după ce a fost definită oficial de către Comisariatul General pentru Plan (Raportul al – XI – lea) în lucrarea "Inteligenţa Economică şi strategia întreprinderilor", apărută în Franţa în februarie 1994. Analistul Howard Dresner de la Gartner Group, a fost cel care a propus utilizarea termenului BI în 1989, însă, rădăcinile acestui concept se găsesc în anii 1970 în sistemele de raportare ale mainframeurilor. Deși Business Intelligence-ul este un domeniu și o disciplină fundamentată relativ recent (dacă ținem cont de faptul că prima oară când s – a utilizat conecptul a fost în 1994, iar până în prezent nu există încă un cod deontologic unanim acceptat), sunt câteva țări care au fost deja preocupate de implementarea lui în întreprindere (Germania, Japonia, Suedia, etc.), preocupare care s- a concretizat și în unele cercetări întreprinse în domeniu.

Clasificare JEL: M15, M21, O32 Cuvinte cheie:

1. Introducere

Business Intelligence este un concept vag şi poate reprezenta folosirea de software de mare clasă pentru aplicaţiile de afacere (Bernstein). Într-o altă opinie, business intelligence reprezintă colecţia de tehnologii dintre cele mai noi care ajută sistemele de a deveni mult mai „inteligente”. Conform IBM (1999) Business Intelligence înseamnă folosirea valorilor de tip date pentru a lua decizii mai bune. Este vorba despre acces, analiză şi

* Faculty of Economics and Business Administration & Faculty of Law. Adress: : B-dul Carol 1, no. 22, Iași, 700505, Romania. E-mail: [email protected]


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descoperirea de noi oportunităţi. Conform Asociaţiei Române de Inteligenţă Economică, Business Intelligence este ansamblul acţiunilor de cercetare, colectare, tratare şi difuzare a informaţiei utile agenţilor economici, în scopul de a obţine avantaje concurenţiale, prin exploatarea ei în manieră defensivă sau/şi ofensivă. Lucrarea „Business Intelligence Roadmap” (Moss, 2003), prezintă Business Intelligence drept o arhitectură şi o colecţie de aplicaţii şi baze de date operaţionale integrate, precum şi de sisteme de asistenţă a deciziilor, care furnizează comunităţii de afaceri un acces mai uşor la datele despre afacere. Aplicaţiile BI de asistare a deciziilor facilitează multe activităţi, incluzând şi analiză multidimesională (ex. OLAP), data mining, capacitatea de previziune, analiza afacerii, facilităţi de interogare, raportare şi realizare a graficelor, analiză geospaţială, managementul cunoştinţelor etc.

Business Intelligence este un proces iterativ: se porneşte de la mediul operaţional; datele sunt extrase din acest mediu şi depozitate în depozite de date (acest depozit de date se prezintă sub forma unui container central de date, separat de datele operaţionale); decidentul foloseşte sistemele de asistare a deciziilor pentru a extrage datele din depozitul de date; deţinând aceste informaţii, un decident poate să creeze planuri de acţiune; această schimbare la nivelul informaţiilor operaţionale duce la o nouă iteraţie a ciclului Business Intelligence.

Aminteam de natura inteligenţei şi de ciclul producerii informaţiilor inteligente, subliniind faptul că acumularea de astfel de informaţii reprezintă esenţa avantajului competiţional. Însă acumularea de informaţii presupune, printre altele, supraveghere. Supravegherea, conform Silaşi (2000), se materializează în patru tipuri: supraveghere tehnologică (cu atenţie pe realizările ştiinţifice şi tehnice), supravegherea competiţiei (cu atenţie pe competiţia prezentă şi viitoare), supraveghere comercială (cu atenţie pe client, piaţă, furnizori), supravegherea mediului (cu atenţie pe restul mediului companiei).

2. Principiile călăuzitoare ale Business Intelligence-ului

O selecție a câtorva dintre principiile călăuzitoare ale Business Intelligence-ului cuprinde următoarele:

Principiul mondializării este caracterizat prin următoarele aspecte:


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- racordarea la reţele informatice globale, urmărind regulile existenţei "satului planetar".

Principiul rupturilor tehnologice este caracterizat prin următoarele aspecte: - folosirea noilor tehnologii informaţionale şi abandonarea celor

tradiţionale; - acceptarea regulilor dezorganizării ; - materializarea firmei virtuale.

Principiul ameninţării invizibile este caracterizat prin următoarele aspecte : - dematerializarea activităţilor atrage după sine şi

dematerializarea ameninţărilor ; - lumea materială cedează locul celei imateriale.

Principiul exploatării reţelelor este caracterizat prin următoarele aspecte : - folosirea serviciilor oferite gratuit firmelor cuprinse în reţele ; - folosirea mijloacelor publice ori de câte ori există această

posibilitate. Principiul influenţei este caracterizat prin următoarele aspecte :

- pregătirea şi lansarea deciziilor să vizeze realizarea unui demers prealabil de influenţare a comportamentului agenţilor economici.

Principiul echilibrului personal este caracterizat prin următoarele aspecte : - opţiunea pentru o viaţă personală echilibrată, pentru a se păstra

condiţia umană, pentru a se regenera energia vitală şi pentru a păstra o distanţă în raport cu evenimentele.

Principiul fundamentalismului este caracterizat prin următoarele aspecte : - asociază procesului de BI o transformare care atrage după sine

modificarea structurilor, relaţiilor, competenţelor şi chiar a naturii elementelor sistemului, cu consecinţele favorabile privind calitatea vieţii.


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3. Arhitectura şi componentele unui sistem al Business Intelligence-ului

În esență, BI este o combinaţie de arhitecturi şi tehnologii software. Arhitectura specifică BI reuneşte următoarele instrumente (vide figura 1): depozite şi magazii de date (data warwhouse, data mart), ETL (extract transfer load), instrumente de interogare şi raportare (reporting and query), instrumente de vizualizare (data visualization), tablou de bord (dashboard), OLAP (OnLine Analytical Processing), minerit de date (data mining), sisteme de alertare şi notificare (alerting and notification systems), care vor fi tratate succint în continuare.

Figura 1. Vedere arhitecturală asupra sistemelor BI

Explorare

Cunoaştere Sisteme sursă (baze de date operaţionale) Tablou de bord

Depozitele de date : diversele surse de date (OLTP, ERP, CRM, SCM, alte aplicaţii de întreprindere, surse externe) reprezintă realmente baze de date diferite cu formate şi structuri de date specifice. Reuniunea acestora este deosebit de importantă, de aceea depozitul de date, care asigură captarea şi unificarea datelor, este considerat jucătorul numărul 1 în sistemul BI, cel mai însemnat şi mai

ET

L

BSC

CPM

CRM

ETL ET

LInstrumente Data mining

BDO

DD


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costisitor. “Păstrătorul” tuturor datelor sprijină procesul de luare a deciziilor pentru conducerea operațională şi tactic, cărora le oferă variante multiple de vizualizare şi analiză a datelor, dar se mulează şi pe cerinţele informaţionale ale top-managerilor. Datele extrase din depozit la nivel departamental sunt adunate în aşa-numitul magazin de date (data mart), ce asigură accesul mai rapid şi mai simplu (exemple: date marketing, date producţie, date vânzări etc.).

Uneori se confundă Depozitul de Date cu funcţiile BI. Diferenţa este că DD poate funcţiona în exteriorul sistemului BI. În plus, BI valorifică la maxim potenţialul DD – infrastructura BI este completă, oferind pe de o parte flexibilitatea de a alege între diferite instrumente, iar pe de altă parte realizează asigurarea finalităţii, prin valorificarea informaţiilor obţinute.

Instrumentele ETL : procesul de populare a DD se realizează prin activităţile ETL: extragere, transformare, încărcare, care constituie de fapt trei funcţii distincte. Extragerea, citeşte datele dintr-o sursă şi extrage serul de date dorit. Apoi, funcţiunea de transformare lucrează cu datele extrase – utilizând reguli ori tabele de căutare şi creând combinaţii cu alte date – converteştind datele în forma dorită. Iar încărcarea scrie datele obţinute în baza de date, asigurând conversia între bazele de date şi migraţia de pe o platformă pe alta.

Instrumentele de raportare şi vizualizare: una din funcţiile principale ale BI - raportarea desemnează procesul de accesare a datelor,

formatarea acestora şi livrarea lor sub formă de informaţii. Rapoartele şi cererile sunt obţinute cu ajutorul limbajului de interogare SQL.

Instrumentele de vizualizare îi ajută pe utilizatori să “vadă” mai clar datele. Forma preferată o constituie reprezentările grafice. Cu ajutorul acestor instrumente sunt interpretate informaţiile şi relaţiile dintre date. Pot fi combinate reprezentări diferite de seturi de date multiple, și se pot obţine diferite fațete ale unui singur set de date.

Balanced Scorecards (BSC): Instrumentele BSC sunt menite să-l ajute pe utilizator să implementeze strategia în practică. În principiu, BSC este un sistem de măsurare a performanţelor, derivate din obiectivele şi strategia organizaţiei, care reflectă cele mai


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importante aspecte ale unei afaceri. BSC poate fi văzut ca o listă centrală de numere predefinite, fiecare corespunzătoare unei componente care asigură succesul unei afacerii. BSC se concentrează asupra nivelului strategic al obiectivelor managementului; prin intermediul acestui instrument managerii de la toate nivelurile monitorizează rezultatele în zonele cheie ale respectivei afaceri.

Tabloul de bord : se concretizează într-o interfaţă utilizator care grupează şi prezintă informaţiile într-o manieră simplă şi intuitivă. Practic, desktop-ul este organizat astfel încât să ofere informaţiile necesare, în forma cea mai potrivită şi să asigure interactivitatea, un dialog eficient cu utilizatorul manager.

OLAP: componenta OLAP ( Online Analytical Processing) permite utilizatorului extragerea şi prezentarea facilă şi selectivă a datelor, din diferite puncte de vedere. Această analiză este posibilă doar în baze de date multidimensionale. Elementul principal este situat între client şi SGBD. Instrumentele OLAP permit analiza pe diferite dimensiuni a datelor multimensionale şi se utilizează frecvent în mineritul de date (data mining).

Minerit de date (MD): denumirea acestor instrumente indică clar scopul lor, iar comparaţia este reuşită: de multe ori este necesar să sapi destul de mult pentru a ajunge la informaţiile utile. Instrumentele MD extrag informaţiile ascunse în bazele de date şi pot căuta după diferite şabloane în bazele de date tranzacţionale. Diferenţa faţă de OLAP constă în faptul că: dacă OLAP răspunde întrebărilor care i se pun, MD răspunde şi întrebărilor care nu i se pun.

Sistemele de alertare şi notificare: funcţionează proactive, oferind utilizatorilor informaţii pe baza unor criterie prestabilite, odată ce se produc evenimentele. Utilizatorii sunt continuu la curent cu producerea evenimentelor importante – mesajele le parvin la birou, acasă sau pe drum prin e-mail sau alte tehnologii wireless.


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4. Etica Business Intelligence-ului

Acţiunile Business Intelligence-ului trebuie conduse legal, cu toate garanţiile necesare protecţiei patrimoniale a firmelor şi în cele mai bune condiţii de calitate, termene şi de costuri. Prin aceste cerinţe este necesar să se înţeleagă apelul clar pentru manifestarea voinţei de înlăturare a tuturor ambiguităţilor în ce priveşte practica Business Intelligence-ului .

În unele ţări Business Intelligence-ul este încă umbrită de spionajul industrial sau de spionajul propriu-zis.

Alte ţări promovează însă în funcţii legate de BI chiar foşti membri ai serviciilor secrete, aceştia bucurându-se de încredere tocmai datorită vechilor activităţi.

Imaginea neclară a activităţilor BI nu corespunde realităţii, chiar dacă există câteva excepţii care încalcă legea.

BI se bazează pe observarea şi supravegherea activă a mediului firmei prin citirea documentelor, ascultarea interlocutorului sau privind cu atenţie în jur pentru formarea unei păreri.

Deşi această disciplină tânără se află doar la primele stadii ale dezvoltării sale, necesitatea existenţei unei deontologii apare astăzi cu atât mai importantă, cu cât ea constituie un factor decisiv de recunoaştere şi de integrare a BI în firmă.

Încă nu există până la această dată un cod deontologic unic pentru toţi profesioniştii din lume.

Diferitele organizaţii existente în lume care promovează BI şi inteligenţa concurenţială sugerează necesitatea stabilirii unui cod deontologic comun.

În S.U.A. există o astfel de încercare şi în 1994 a apărut un cod etic al BI, având ca prevederi printre altele:

- -să se facă eforturi continue pentru creşterea prestigiului şi recunoaşterea profesiunii pe plan local, regional şi naţional;

- -să se îndeplinească obligaţiile cu zel şi cu străduinţă, menţinând un nivel ridicat de profesionalism şi evitând practicile neetice;

- -să se adere în mod loial şi să se respecte politica, obiectivele şi directivele firmei;

- -să se supună tuturor legilor locale, regionale sau naţionale, îndeplinindu-şi obligaţiile;


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- -să se afle cu precizie orice informaţie pertinentă, inclusiv identitatea profesionistului şi a organizaţiei sale, înaintea oricărei intervenţii;

- -să se respecte în totalitate cererile de confidenţialitate; - -să se promoveze şi să se încurajeze respectul total faţă de aceste

standarde de etică în firme şi în cadrul profesiei specifice Business Intelligence-ului.

Având ca origine supravegherea strategică, BI apare ca un instrument strategic forte la dispoziţia firmelor,în special, în ceea ce priveşte supravegherea concurenţială şi a mediului.

Colectarea,tratarea şi difuzarea informaţiilor utile firmei este cea mai importantă vocaţie a BI, dar pe lângă aceasta mai există şi un alt demers activ care nu este prea mult luat în seamă, şi anume, stabilirea şi întreprinderea unor acţiuni de influenţă; acestea cuprind nu numai ansamblul acţiunilor de difuzare şi utilizare a informaţiilor în cadrul firmelor, dar şi acţiunile firmelor prin care se influenţează mediul, lobbyingul fiind una dintre cele mai cunoscute.

5. Influenţă şi lobby în Bussiness Intelligence

Intenţia puterilor publice poate îmbrăca nenumărate forme; rezolvarea unor probleme financiare, acordarea de spijin sau promovarea unor mari proiecte sunt tot atâtea prerogative, tot atâtea obiecte ale influenţei pentru realizarea cărora, în majoritatea cazurilor, este nevoie de lobby.

Prin lobby locul deciziei s-a deplasat din minister în "piaţa publică". Desigur, decidenţii nu văd întotdeauna cu ochi buni această evoluţie fiindcă "secretul" reprezintă o parte a deciziilor sale. În S.U.A., de exemplu, se legiferează faptul că parlamentarii sunt supravegheaţi.

În forum fiecare îşi joacă rolul. Pentru toţi cei care îşi ştiu interesele în

cauză, sfera publică poate fi percepută ca: - un loc de putere; - o instituţie care împarte bugete; - un ansamblu de nenumăraţi funcţionari care întocmesc

documentaţii (dosare) pentru problemele în discuţie. În 1991, Comunitatea Europeană, pe baza unei iniţiative a lobbyurilor

ecologiste, şi-a propus să încerce limitarea poluării atmosferei. Metoda


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aleasă a fost taxarea carburanţilor responsabili de efectul de seră. În mediile industriale aceasta a provocat un strigăt colectiv de indignare, căci iniţiativa a surprins chiar prin principiul ei, cu toate că, începând din vara lui 1989 un grup de experţi, subliniind creşterea transporturilor, avertiza asupra pericolelor poluării şi propunea atunci, ca principal mijloc de luptă, taxarea carburanţilor. În paralel, comisarul competent inclusese acest proiect în declaraţia sa de politică generală în faţa Parlamentului nou ales.

Puţin timp după redactare raportul, destinat să rămână secret, devine obiectul unei manevre pentru a-i face ireversibile concluziile care nu conveneau, fiind transferat în domeniul public. Doi ani mai târziu proiectul a fost făcut public, dar este de nerecunoscut. El prevede taxarea energiilor fosile, dar şi energia nucleară, deoarece lobbyurile antinucleare nu ar fi admis să vadă că le scapă "obiectul acesta neplăcut". În schimb, proiectul va scuti marile industrii consumatoare de energie care au cerut şi obţinut o exonerare.

Grupurile de interese sunt atente, pândind deciziile care le privesc şi intervin pe lângă puterile politice pentru ca să fie avertizate cât mai curând posibil despre intenţiile lor. Invers, ele furnizează instituţiilor informaţiile de care au nevoie.

Informaţia circulă deci în ambele sensuri fiindcă este necesară, dar nici unul nu va furniza o informatie dacă nu i se dă alta; în acest mod, informaţia devine monedă de schimb.

Definirea lobbyului :

În procesul de legitimizare a activităţii de către puterile politice "lobbyingul constă în a furniza sau a obţine informaţia potrivită la mo-mentul potrivit pentru a orienta o decizie într-un sens favorabil economiei noastre" (Edith Creson).

Prin lobby trebuie să se provoace evoluţia unei situaţii care nu se va modifica decât în faţa unor elemente noi. El este un mijloc de a-ţi face cunoscut punctul de vedere, de a te convinge că merită să te bazezi pe bunul simţ al fiecăruia, dorind ca decizia colectivă să ţină cont de gândirea ta. Comunicarea constă în prezentarea problemei împreună cu importanţa sa economică şi socială şi cu dificultăţile sale, pentru ca decidenţii să înţeleagă mizele şi să le susţină.


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Câmpul de forţe care se exercită asupra deciziei publice este deschis pentru că în forum, cine vrea să intervină o face, dar trebuie să o facă cu iscusinţă şi cu calitatea de a se face ascultat; şi nu trebuie luate în seamă prejudecăţile potrivit cărora numai puterea financiară contează. Înainte de toate importanţa grupului de presiune depinde de cel care îi exprimă punctul de vedere. Cu cât baza lui de ascultare este mai largă şi mai diversificată, cu atât reţine mai mult atenţia, iar căutarea de aliaţi se uşurează mult.

Concluzia practică: actiunea lobbyistului trebuie să fie multiplă, amplă şi diversificată.

Lobbyingul, adică acţiunea de influenţare, este complex deoarece se află la încrucişarea culturilor şi specializărilor oamenilor de afaceri, ale aleşilor politici, ale tehnostructurii şi ale mediilor asociative.

Lobbyul este o specialitate pluridisciplinară şi poate fi reprezentată, în ecuaţie, astfel: 20% drept + 20% politică + 20% economie + 20% diplomaţie + 20% comunicare. Chiar dacă este discutabilă ponderea disciplinelor de mai sus, există un acord general asupra faptului că lobbyingul este un mix. Pentru rezolvarea fiecărui dosar întocmit pentru o problemă pentru care se face lobby se vor asocia tehnici de lobby alese dintr-un set de tehnici deja experimentate.

Concluzia practică: trebuie să se studieze fiecare dosar întocmit pentru o problemă, sub toate aspectele şi să se facă complementaritatea necesară

Investiţia în lobby pentru BI : Orice acţiune de lobby costă pentru că sunt necesare mijloace financiare

pentru analiza juridică, pentru comunicare, relaţii publice; dar mai ales, cel ce face lobby trebuie să fie cât mai aproape de locurile (instituţiile) unde se poate informa, unde poate informa şi unde se iau deciziile. În Comunitatea Europeană majoritatea grupurilor de presiune au ales antena permanentă de la Bruxelles.

Rentabilitatea lobbyului pentru Inteligenta Economică :

Rezultatele acţiunilor de influenţare, în general, nu sunt cuantificabile. Când obiectivele sunt atinse, nu se mai ştie dacă este rezultatul calităţii acţiunii de lobby şi a argumentărilor sau dacă în câmpul de forţe au intervenit, pur şi simplu, împrejurări favorabile


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Pentru a i se asigura cele mai bune şanse de reuşită, înaintea lansării unei acţiuni de lobby trebuie avute în vedere următoarele elemente:

- Starea de decizie dorită: mai mult sau mai puţin avansată; mai mult sau mai puţin influenţabilă; răspunde, mai mult sau mai puţin, unei aşteptări din. partea

opiniei; mai mult sau mai puţin oneroasă pentru finanţele publice.

- Câmpurile de forţă: grupuri de presiune favorabile proiectului; posibilitatea unor alianţe; grupuri defavorabile proiectului; conformitatea deciziei aşteptate cu doctrina generală a

administraţiei din domeniu; riscuri de contencios (în caz de succes alte grupuri pot să

meargă până depunerea unei plângeri?). - Repercursiuni la termen:

în funcţie de imagine, poziţia luată de grup (oricare ar fi rezultatul deciziei) va fi ea valorizantă sau devalorizantă?

în funcţie de reţele, acţiune a va oferi ocazia unor noi contacte utile? De alianţe noi? ş.a.

Obiectivele lobbyingului pot fi diferite, putându-se face chiar şi numai pentru schimbarea unei imagini sau a unei denumiri.

Instrumente necesare lobbyingului pentru Inteligenţa Economică :

Alegerea instrumentelor pentru lobbying depinde de contextul situaţiei, de caracterul dosarului problemei respective şi ţinând cont de criterii ca: urgenţa, confidenţialitatea, costurile dar, mai ales, de posibilităţile de:

- înţelegere: pe ce cale va fi mesajul mai bine înţeles? - deformare: care sunt riscurile de parazitaj? - memorizare: ce cale va da mesajului un efect durabil? Înainte de toate, alegerea lor este o problemă de intuiţie şi nimic nu

împiedică pe cineva să se gândească la mai multe acţiuni în paralel. Acesta este demersul obişnuit al grupurilor de presiune experimentate

care, prin tradiţie, şi-au elaborat propriul sistem de metode de abordare.


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Printre instrumentele necesare unui lobbying se mai numără: - captivarea auditoriului ; - transpunerea în locul interlocutorilor ; - aprecierea şi punerea în evidenţă a interlocutorilor ; - diferenţierea atitudinilor ; - reţinerea atenţiei ; - evitarea discutării aspectelor negative ale dosarului ; - comportamentul adecvat ; - și comunicarea eficientă.

6. Business Intelligence-ul în Statele Unite şi Europa

Există la nivelul oricărei regiuni trei tipuri de surse de informaţii: sursele deschise, cum ar fi date din publicaţii statistice, media, publicaţii economice, apoi rapoarte ale ambasadelor şi consulatelor, iar a treia sursă este cea a informaţiilor clandestine, obţinute în necunoştinţă de cauză sau acord al guvernelor străine. Aceste date pot fi furnizate de sateliţi, comunicări interceptate, secrete furate de reprezentanţi ai altor ţări.

Importanţa BI a fost pentru prima oară în Statele Unite subliniată în 1776, când s-a discutat formarea agenţiei US de inteligenţă şi când a fost trimis un reprezentant în Europa pentru a studia elementele economice cruciale cum ari fi competiţia ţărilor europene pe piaţa de tutun din Ucraina.

Pe perioada primului Război Mondial, sectorul de BI, inclus în operaţiunile de inteligenţă militară, era condus spre aceleaşi elemente de studiere a dinamicii pieţelor externe. În cel de-al doilea Război Mondial s-a pus accentul pe economia japonezăîn timp ce Biroul Serviciilor Strategice - Office of Strategic Services (OSS) colecta informaţii asupra produselor de bază; divizia din Rusia, coordonată de Abram Bergson evalua stadiul economic al Uniunii Sovietice post – război.

După război, OSS a fost transformat în Central Intelligence Group (CIG). Rapoartele asupra dezvoltării industriale străine precum şi asupra extracţiilor petroliere au format un element de bază în formarea unui studiu aplicat geografic. În 1947 când Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) a fost formată, rolul de monitorizare a inteligenţei naţionale a fost majorat


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printr-o recomandare din 1949 care prevedea apariţia Biroului de Rapoarte de Cercetare care să colecteze şi examineze informaţia economică.

De atunci şi până astăzi, birourile îndreptăţite să se ocupe de aceste aspecte au primit formulări şi coordonări diferite. Cu toate acestea, rolul exact al inteligenţei economice rămâne o problemă larg dezbătută. Astfel, Specialistul în US Foreign Policy, Dr. Mark Lowenthal consideră “competitivitatea economiei americane nu a demonstrat că necesită o influenţă atât de largă a comunităţii informaţionale”.

În prezent, CIA asistat de agenţiile guvernamentale, oferă inteligenţă economică pentru strategia de stat, având experţi ce monitorizează tranzacţiile internaţionale (inclusiv implementarea sancţiunilor şi finanţările ilicite), problemele de mediu şi economice internaţionale, comerţ şi logistică, resurse geografice, date demografice şi produse de bază, tehnologie civilă, tehnologii, resurse de energie. Critica acestor servicii este susţinută de cei ce consideră că în SUA, companiile nu au nevoie de informaţii din partea serviciului de stat. Se consideră că avalanşa de informaţii disponibile pe Internet sau obţinute din baze de date oferă îndeajunse detalii pentru companii.

Tratatul de la Maastricht a blocat oportunitatea din 1991 de a cataliza împărţirea informaţiei în momentul fundamentării Politicii Comune de Securitate, incluzând eventuala matrice pentru apărare comună. În 1995, s-a ajuns de comun acord asupra cooperării asupra dezvoltării inteligenţei pentru crearea de capacităţi operaţionale, iar ulterior asupra faptului că informaţiile sunt fundamentale succesului Uniunii Europene, oferindu-se suport ideii de structură care să analizeze situaţiile, sursele de inteligenţă, capacităţile pentru planificare strategică relevantă fără duplicare. Această idee a fost reîntărită de Tratatul de la Amsterdam din 1997 în ideea creării unei unităţi.

Analiştii consideră chiar că există colaborare în informaţii între ţările membre Uniunii Europene, oferind exemple precum adunarea informală Berne din Elveţia. Cea mai grea provocare însă pentru Uniunea Europeană rămâne colaborarea în informaţiile de mare securitate. În 1 ianuarie 2008, Uniunea Europeană a decis ca orice informaţie disponibilă într-o ţară membră să fie împărtăşită şi celorlalte ţări din Uniune.

O lipsă de inteligenţă la nivelul unor potenţiale conflicte ale continentului european poate fi însă mult mai costisitoare decât menţinerea


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unei structuri de informaţii viabile a Uniunii Europene. Zonele de est şi sud-est ale Europei prezintă o mai mare instabilitate în acest sens, în timp ce crizele din balcani şi golful Persic au majorat ideea comună a statelor membre de a avea o politică de informaţii comună. În democraţiile emergente, evaluarea reformei în structurile de informaţii devine greoaie deoarece ele încă se confruntă cu paradigme de securitate în contexte de reformă, diferiţi evaluatori.

Ceea ce harta NATO a dovedit în ultimii ani se extinde şi asupra dinamicii informaţiilor economice şi anume că susţinerea externă când este necesară este critică pentru reforma inteligenţei. Este imperativ astfel pentru ca să fie identificate practici comune ţărilor membre, indiferent dacă sunt adoptate din estul sau vestul Europei. Odată acceptate, acestea să fie formate drept parte a agendei oficiale de reformă a structurilor de informaţii.

7. Concluzii

Odată cu sfârşitul Războiului Rece, comunitatea securităţii naţionale a SUA şi-a reexaminat viitorul. Robert Gates, fostul director al CIA declara că “prin analizarea securităţii naţionale demonstrăm importanţa crescută a inteligenţei afacerilor economice internaţionale. Aproximativ 40% din noile cerinţe sunt de natură economică”. În interviurile din 1992, acesta declara că CIA nu va face spionaj comercial, ci doar va fi un ajutor de inteligenţă economică prin identificarea guvernelor străine implicate în practici incorecte, incluzând însă în această categorie afacerile ţărilor respective care dezavantajează Statele Unite.

Gates nu a fost singurul care a pledat pentru ideea de business intelligence drept misiune majoră a CIA. Comisia Senatului specializată pe tema Inteligenţei a propus corporaţiilor americane să fie ajutate în obţinerea unui avantaj competitiv sporit pe piaţa mondială. Să fie oare competiţia economică internaţională o ameninţare la securitatea naţională? Este o optică care poate să deterioreze relaţiile cu ţările democratice.

În 1996, Statele Unite au aprobat Actul privind Spionajul Economic, document ce defineşte drept crimă federală furtul sau utilizarea neaprobată de informaţii comerciale cu caracter secret. Această lege prevede două tipuri de activităţi “criminale”, ilegale:


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- Înstrăinarea secretelor de marcă în cunoştinţă de cauză sau intenţia ca de aceste secrete să beneficieze o putere străină. Pedeapsa pentru astfel de cazuri poate fi bănească (500.000$) sau închisoare până la 15 ani, sau 10 milioane dolari americani pentru organizaţii;

- Al doilea tip de activitate este cel care încriminează înstrăinarea secretelor comerciale legate de sau incluse într-un produs care este fie realizat, fie poziţionat în comerţul inter-state.

Actul are jurisdicţie extrateritorială când acuzatul este ceţăţean american, rezident permanent, organizaţie ce funcţionează sub legislaţie americană sau dacă actul în sine a fost făcut în Statele Unite.

Documentul a iscat discuţii aprinse datorită elementelor de etică şi legalitate surprinse, forma actului nespecificând clar o delimitare a avantajelor competitive sub aspecte de strategie, marketing, cercetare de piaţă. De multe ori sursele de informare nu sunt cele publice în inteligenţa competitivă, ci mai degrabă sunt utilizate tehnici directe sau indirecte. Utilizarea acestor tehnici face subiectul unor discuţii asupra legalităţii şi eticii lor.

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Human capital - investment and performance

Florentina Pantazi*

Abstract: Conduct business in good conditions is achieved by the decisive contribution

of the human factor, to be paid for the work submitted. Investing in human capital, namely education, training and health concerns on the one hand and scientific training of human resources, and on the other hand, adapting human resources to economic structural changes imposed by scientific and technical progress, the criteria efficiency. KEYWORDS: human capital, human resources, performance, productivity

Human capital is the abilities of those individuals that are characteristic of them and remain the same in any social environment, can be recovered in the labor market in exchange for economic resources of any kind. Basically, human capital consists of educational capital (skills acquired by individuals in the training school but also outside it) and biological capital (physical abilities of individuals, often summarized by the state of health). Human capital developed as a concept in economics, where it is regarded principally as "estimate of a person's ability to produce income through work" (Di Bartolo, 1999).

Human capital is the most important factor that depends on the performance, had the presence and future generations, for which human capital formation should receive highest priority and the more so as the capital cash will not be able to produce only very least, becoming an input counterproductive.

Profit realized from the investment in human capital is defined as the net amount of revenue realized during the time of sale of skilled labor as opposed to the unskilled, but concerns intellectual wealth, confidence, social recognition.

* Drd.Ec., Institution. I. University "George Baritiu" brain - Department Ifr , Study centers Ploiesti, Prahova, Mun. Ploiesti Str B-dul Republicii NR.291 A, Phone: .0740/802845, e-mail [email protected]

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In the current economy (focusing on money), capital is a tool to stimulate human actions and efforts so that economic performance is inferior compared to its potential.

An acute problem faced by almost all countries is a young unemployed substantially raising unemployment rates (unemployment rate among young people aged up to 25 years is much higher than among adults.). This alarming development may result in lack of perspective for the younger generation and hence its withdrawal from the labor market, resulting in loss of human capital.

Education, especially formal education - basis of creating human capital-is a "Condition" of the future economic development consequences of past economic development so that social and economic environment are increasing the demand for adequate human capital. It requires that people must also be better prepared to meet the needs of a future comprehensive as possible.

Human capital is an extremely valuable resource for the organization representing the most important factor that supports the creation of organizational value.

With the changes that characterize the production process, staff must be motivated to seek and find a way to meet identified needs of clients perfectly.

Investing in human capital, namely education, training and health concerns on the one hand and scientific training of human resources, and on the other hand, adapting human resources to economic structural changes imposed by scientific and technical progress, the criteria efficiency. Human capital development strategies focus on size of human capital resources according to strategic and operational needs of national economy and ensuring efficient use of these resources. These will help in formulating strategies for economic development through the establishment of future human capital requirements, by identifying ways to use top of the capital, where human capital available to support implementation of plans for economic development. But we have shown that there are stringent limits on the use of human capital, such as: shortage of qualified personnel, difficulties in recruiting labor, low labor productivity, flexibility and adaptability insufficient or climate that discourages cooperation and commit staff.

Human capital - investment and performance

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Microeconomic competitiveness based insurance and career management, which refers to:

rigorous assessment of the ability of each employee and his skills to promote;

shift staff to other posts with the competences and results of the revaluation;

optimization of all previous proceedings with a sound estimate of the number of staff.

Investing in lifelong learning is priority for managers and is an assurance to the risks of unemployment and poverty. Such companies can get a higher return than investing in the education of its employees in increasing the economic capital stock.

Effects in terms of labor productivity can be seen immediately, employees become more creative and have high decisional independence. Some research demonstrates that there is a direct relationship between human capital and firm productivity.

Thus, employees with high level of training is characterized by a better health status and are the basis of competitiveness.

Human factor in the economic development occurs by increasing the amount of work performed, its quality expressed by labor productivity.

Investment in human capital formation is a part of national wealth. A company has three opportunities where it can influence the

performance of its employees: - The selection is done by removing the inappropriate; - Additional training for employees less prepared; - Motivating employees through incentives and motivation.

Performance can be defined as competitive, successful, ongoing effort by optimizing the present and future protection.

Collection performance in terms of human capital is achieved by: - Productivity; - Quality of work; - Initiative to work; - Teamwork; - Solving problems; - Response to stress and conflict; - Motivation in the pursuit;

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- Motivational energy.

Conclusion:

The totality of processes and human capital policies are closely linked with performance and financial objectives of human resources a a facerii.Percepţia that always tends to consume resources to generate competitive advantages of company valoare.Crearea be achieved by raising the responsibility of staff. The most important investment in human capital are considered to be education, professional training, information search.

References:

Nadia Albu, Albu Catalin - Tools for performance management, Economic Publishing House, Bucharest, 2003;

Done John - Salary and work motivation, Expert Publishing House, Bucharest, 2000;

Elvira Nica - Strategies and policies for employment jobs in Romania, EdituraEconomică, Bucharest, 2007;

Diana Preda - Employment and Sustainable Development, Economic Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002

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Financing investment projects in agriculture

Aurelia Oana Pârvulescu,* Viorica Ioan,**, Alexandra Nicoleta Nicoară***

Summary The common characteristics of the investment efforts, the high complexity and generated impact, have determined significant mutations in the approach to the concept of investment in agriculture, from a simple expense undergone with a direct purpose (the accomplishment of unique objectives, or the reparation of a status quo) to complex projects (deviating the flow of rivers, leveled terraces, irrigation works, etc.), characterized by specific phases, activities and instruments. Initially defined as an ensemble of activities with a specific beginning and end, with a time, resource and budget limit, completed with the purpose of reaching a defined objective, projects have practically become the main operational tool at the level of organizations, in the investment field. Key words: project, investment, agriculture, financing, feasibility study

1. Introduction

Any investment project materializes into an objective which, in the end, contributes to the production or service process as fixed capital. The rigorous foundation of investment projects, as well as the evaluation of the status quo and potential of any organization, to bring to fruition a project, within economic efficiency parameters, at a given point, implies the feasibility study of the project [4]. Therefore, within the specific literature, most often we find reference to opportunity, pre-feasibility, feasibility and eligibility studies as well as the business plan.

* Manager, S.C. Agrirom S.A., Arad, [email protected] ** Lecturer, PhD Student, Economist, „Dunărea de Jos” University of Galati, [email protected] *** Manager, Economist, Nisab-Cons S.R.L., [email protected]

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2. Opportunity and pre-feasibility studies

The development of a project through stages and consulting different relevant documentation, facilitates the promotion of investment, gives a better base for decision making regarding the project and its implementation, assuring transparency on all levels.

While the purpose of an opportunity study is easily established, it is not as easy to differentiate between the terms of “feasibility study” and “pre-feasibility study”, considering the lack of precision with which these terms are used. The literature notes the fact that the opportunity study has as its main objective the identification of investment opportunities and the promoting of investment projects, in a specific field of activity or area [5].

The main instrument used to quantify parameters, information and data necessary to develop an idea from a project into a business proposal is the opportunity study which analyzes the following aspects:

the natural resources available in a given region which may be processed;

current and potential demand for certain consumption goods or services, the potential of which has evolved following the increase in population or buying power;

import and export relations at the level of a given activity field or region;

impact on the environment; production sectors which are successful in other regions with

similar economic bases, level of development, capital, workforce and natural resources;

the possibilities and alternatives for expanding the existent production lines or their diversification;

general investment climate and industrial policies; Availability and production factor cost. Figure no.1 covers the structure of the relation between the main

documents specific to an investment project.


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The usefulness of the opportunity study in the design of an investment

project is made clear also by the relatively high percentage of projects which stop at this phase, as the consequence of identifying major nonconformities, an impossibility of development of certain projects or resource insufficiency. If it were not for this study, these projects may be run, but most importantly, may consume considerable resources, only to find in the end that the result given by a pre-feasibility or feasibility study also show nonconformity with the established objectives.

The idea presented in the initial project, must be analyzed in a more detailed study, however the carrying through of a feasibility study, which would make possible the taking of a definitive decision regarding the

Sector studies Regional studies Market studies Individual projects

DATA SOURCES

DISCOVERING OPPORTUNITY. FORMULATING THE PROJECT IDEA, PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF DATA AND INFORMATION

OPPORTUNITY STUDY

Database of necessary and useful information

Data verification and gathering of new

information

Individual project A Feasibility study

Business plan

Individual project B Feasibility study

Business plan

Individual project C Feasibility study

Business plan

PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDY

Figure no. 1. The position of opportunity studies in the entirety of the documentation specific for a project


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respective project, requires a great deal of time and financial resources. Therefore, before allocating larger funds to such a study, a superior project evaluation is necessary, through a pre-feasibility study, the main objective of which is preliminary selection in order to establish whether or not:

all possible alternatives of the project have been examined; the design of the project justifies a detail analysis given by a

feasibility study; the existence of certain negative aspects of the project which

may seriously affect its feasibility and validity; the initial project, based on available information, may be

considered attractive for a particular investor, group of investors or financial institution;

The running of a pre-feasibility study may be undergone by the initiator of the project idea, or an external specialist, the central element being the general concept of the project from a technical standpoint and the sketchy evaluation of the application means. On this basis, the way in which the project fits into a sector program may be defined, and the identification of possible financing sources may be initiated.

The significant differences between a pre-feasibility study and a feasibility study are related to the degree of detail in the information and the intensity with which the available alternatives are taken into account.

Pre-feasibility studies may have as a final result, a decision regarding the continuation of the project and the running of the rest of the documentation (feasibility studies, business plans) or a decision regarding the re-analysis of the project opportunity, in a sector or regional context, respectively the most dreaded decision, that of ceasing any action due to major causes, which implies that the project may be unsuccessful.

Defining feasibility studies

The feasibility study is defined as an instrument which may offer a technical, economic and financial base in the taking of the decision to finance an investment project.

The concept of a feasibility study implies the running of analysis and evaluations of a complex nature at the level of the future investment objective, in a given time span, while taking into account uncertainty and risk factors.


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The result of the analysis, for the time span taken into account, must illustrate the availability of financial resources in the covering of the functional necessities of the given system, with a purpose to ensure the production of goods and/or services and the satisfaction of all financial obligations (e.g.: duty service).

The purpose of the feasibility study results from its quality as a technical-economic instrument, on the basis of which the viability of the firm is attested. From a wider angle, the purpose is constituted by facilitating the functioning of the firm, on the basis of the principles and mechanisms specific to competition economy [4].

The sphere of reference of the feasibility study depends on its nature. Thus, one identifies feasibility studies for projects and for firms. In the first case, the investments undergone, the static and dynamic financial analysis, the technical-economic forecasts have as a purpose the promotion, within certain identified risk margins, of certain investment projects. In the second case, on the same intercession (through investigations, analysis and forecasts), through the feasibility study, the technical-economic coordinates within which the unit of reference will be entered, as a consequence of the envisioned strategy (development, restriction, division, sell, etc.) are shaped [9].

Amongst the most frequently identified objectives within feasibility studies, we may recount: the development of an organization in a certain activity sector, attracting external financing, rectifying and improving quality and competition performances, defining a long or medium term strategy, etc.

Based on these complex objectives and multiple destinations, several types of feasibility studies have been identified, of which we recount: studies for new objectives; studies for the development of existing firms, with a well defined profile, without profit or with low profit, studies for the analysis of the economic viability of operations of privatization, dissolution, separation or unification of two or more separate entities;

The specific functions of the feasibility study reside mainly in the practical modes for which it is undergone. Thus we may identify the following functions:

1. The testing function of the organization through which the analysis of economic and technical systems is ensured, through the


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spectrum of the exiting, available and potential factors which may be attracted in current activity, the way in which resources are capitalized on and prior economic results through specific financial and economic efficiency indicators.

2. The identification function of the place of the firm in the competition economic environment, the market position which it occupies, the long and medium term current and potential influence factors.

3. The forecast function regarding the firm’s future strategic orientation, the formulation of alternative and probable coordinates within which this might evolve.

4. the function of a static and dynamic analysis tool reflected by its very content, which constitutes the base of forecasts, viability or risk analysis, etc. [1]

The elaboration of the feasibility study on a national level, regardless of whether or not it is done for a public or private investment project, for a reimbursable or non-reimbursable, it must be according to Order no. 913/2005, which details the content frame of the study, the main elements and evaluation criteria [8].

With regards to the content frame of a feasibility study, the legal document presented, refers to all chapters and information necessary regarding the identification of the organization, the analysis of its current state and of the activity field, the presentation of alternatives, the establishment of selection criteria, the analysis of efficiency and risk for the future project, as well as the existence of a technical part in which proposed solutions which consequences stemming from adopting one decision or another, are detailed from a technical and technological standpoint.

Current practice has shown that, often, a feasibility study is necessary, in which the aspects given above are thinly analyzed in order to give a first image of the future development in alternatives and variants [9]. Something that must be stated is the fact that the results of a feasibility study are limited in time, by the dynamics of the economic environment, by the changes in the activity sector, by the results of research and development activities, etc.


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3. The relationship between the feasibility study and the business plan

The feasibility study precedes the business plan, representing a less complex and faster means of analysis of a business opportunity from the point of view of its viability, establishing whether or not it is worth it to continue the efforts for its capitalization. The usefulness of the feasibility study is linked to the significant decrease of the risks taken by the one who undertakes them, when attempting to capitalize on identified economic opportunities.

The main elements which differentiate a feasibility study from a business plan are linked to:

the pursuit of a single goal, the feasibility of the business venture;

the reduced complexity; the narrowed investigative focus; tighter timeframe; more complex technical detailing;

The succession of studies is represented in figure no. 2.

The feasibility study, when it comes to the conclusions that the economic opportunity [7] may become a feasible business, is recommended to be followed by a business plan. The information and analysis within the feasibility study are incorporated into the business plan, facilitating, in most part, its implementation.

The business plan constitutes an irreplaceable tool for business undertakers who are creating a firm or looking for partners, for managers

OPPORTUNITY STUDY

FEASIBILITY STUDY

BUSINESS PLAN

Figure no. 2. The relationship between the main instruments useful in the preparation and implementation of an investment

THE STUDIES OF AN INVESTMENT PROJECT


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who propose new projects for other persons or institutions, for firms which want to launch new products or services or just to better manage their activities, for institutions which manage funds for new investment projects.

What must be noted is that the role of a business plan is not just to prove that the business venture is worth financing, but, first of all, to guide the business undertaker through all of its operational phases.

A business plan must have a sketch of the philosophy of an organization as well as the main directions on which it runs its activity, which forces the undertaker to research all long term plans and perspectives of the company [3]. After the initiation of a business, the business plan keeps the attention of the managers focused on the major objectives, not allowing day to day operations to distract their attention from them.

An investment specialist estimated that, in countries with a developed market economy, potential investors refuse 60% of investment proposals in the first half an hour, take into consideration 15%, reaching negotiation phase only with 5% of the proposals.

Based on the followed objective, the business plan serves the following functions: a) The function of crystallization and development of ideas regarding the

way in which the entire business should be elaborated, led and analyzed. The major benefits of making a business plan are linked to the fact that

it clearly defines the goals and objectives of the business, establishes the methods for their achievement; it identifies the implicated risks and the specific methods for quantification and elimination of risks. In this manner, the business is examined from all points of view (marketing, production, financial support), the allocation of resources following the maximization of efficiency, and the implemented strategies will take into account reality, having concrete chances of success.

This function is specific particularly to start-up business plans or expansion plans, when the undertaker must form a clear image about the future evolution of the project. b) The function of evaluating a new business idea, by means of which new

start-up or expansion investment projects are evaluated, compared and classified.


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c) The function of running a retrospective evaluation of the real performances of a business in time; through its use being made possible a retrospective analysis of the real performances of a business along a given time span, while identifying the causes and modes of action of the company in the future.

d) The function of obtaining financing. Most often, the creditors finance a project only after a detailed study of

the business plan, through which they become convinced of the ability of the business to generate revenue necessary for daily operations, payment of debts and generating profit. By analyzing the business plan, the financers will be able to gauge the capacity of the leadership to diagnose the situation presented, to outline future objectives and to select the optimum strategy for their achievement. This function is fundamental in the case of a start-up or expansion business plan (when financing is sought to be obtained).

A business plan must have reference points and other elements to aid orientation in the economic environment, preparing at the same time the economic agent for the more or less predictable modifications in the “track”. Nobody expects that the business goes exactly according to plan, but knowing and understanding the process of planning the business will prepare it for change and optimize reaction time [2].

Retrospective evaluation

Causes of recorded deviations

Di i f i

Prospective evaluation Implies the analysis, evaluation, comparing and classification of

business projects

Crystallization and development of ideas Identifying and establishing the purposes, objectives a,

actions, and associated risks

Obtaining financing Solutions regarding the obtaining of credit, non-

reimbursable financing, grants, etc

BUSINESS PLAN

Figure no.3. The specific functions of the business plan


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Also, both within the frame of the feasibility study as well as the one of the business study, there must be a detailed presentation of institutional and administrative aspects which may significantly affect the implementation and running of the future project. It is taken into account the way in which the new activities will be managed and intenerated in the functional and hierarchical structure of the organization.

Also, within these studies, it is necessary to include relevant social aspects of the effect of the project on the local collectivities: workforce employment, the increase of population revenue as a result of the allocation of project capital, quality of life. Just as important are the ecologic conclusions, referring to the impact on the landscape environment of the area, on the quality of environmental factors.

On the basis of the conclusions derived from the feasibility study, the decision factors pronounce themselves on the project: abandoning, continuing or reevaluating it, through the taking into consideration of project other hypotheses or variants.

Conclusions

The evaluation of projects, in most cases, is a standardized procedure of treating the technical, economic and financial information referring to the project, following which, on the basis of a system of criteria established beforehand, the selection, modification or abandonment of the project is recommended.

The process of document evaluation has a continuous character, being necessary to run it in different stages of the life cycle of the project, as follows:

at the end of each lifecycle phase, in order to decide if the continuation of the project is worthwhile;

after each significant step, within the phases, in order to allow for the taking of tactical or corrective decisions, during the running of the project;

after the design is finalized but before the execution of the project investment (ex-ante evaluation);

at the end of the execution/implementation of the project (mid-term evaluation);


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in the operation phase to observe the way in which the previsions are achieved (ongoing evaluation) [6].

The evaluations which are run in the first phases have a high degree of risk, since they are based on hypotheses or future information, while during the evaluation of the final results (ex-post evaluation), the risk is reduced, since it is based on historical fact. In order for the results of different evaluations to be coherent and allow comparison, it is necessary that a common system o indicators and values are used, and that the methodology implemented have the same benchmark, regardless of the point at which the evaluation is run.

In the running of the evaluation it is important to keep in mind the quantitative and qualitative side of the project, as well as the establishment of comparison dimensions between different evaluated aspects (effects and efforts). Most often their expression in monetary units is practiced, which may raise difficulties from the point of view of assimilations or uncertainties with regards to respective quantities and costs.

Regardless of the point in time at which the evaluation is run or the methods used, the establishment of pertinent conclusions that allow the deciders to formulate conclusions vis-à-vis the pursued objectives, is important.

If the evaluation is run by entities specialized in this type of procedure, this ensures a higher credibility, transparency and most of all, safety, for the rest of the phases. Within the frames of non-reimbursable financed investment projects, external evaluation is obligatory, must be done periodically, based on the recommendations of the financers and includes at least an economic analysis, a financial analysis and a risk analysis.

Evaluation, from a national economy standpoint (economic analysis) takes into account the necessary correction imposed at price level, the benefits and efforts indirectly generated, on the basis of which such a decision may be made. The main element of this type of evaluation is reflected through the contribution of the producer to macroeconomic development.

From a financial perspective, the impact of the project at the level of the promoting organization is taken into account, through the quantification of all necessary effects and efforts, put against the sources of funding and the


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recipients of the benefits, respectively. The risk analysis specific to investment projects will be detailed in the following subchapter.

Regardless of the criteria used in their evaluation, the projects must be judged from a multiple perspectives, so as to always ensure that an adequate multi-criteria evaluation is run. The project beneficiary, the sponsor or financer, will be the ones who establish the hierarchy of priorities, focusing on one another of the following: financial, economic, social, environmental – based on the objective or objectives followed.

In case the quantitative finalizing is not possible, other more sophisticated qualitative comparison statistic means may be used (multi-variable analysis, qualifying and grouping techniques).

The results of the evaluation are centralized in an evaluation report, a document which fundaments the continuation or cessation of the following phases of the project.

Bibliography

Arkebaurer J., - The McGraw Hill Guide to Writing a High – Impact Bussines Plan. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995

Bişa G. – Elaborarea studiilor de fezabilitate şi a planurilor de afaceri. Editura BMT Publishing House, 2005.

Blackwell E. – How to prepare a business plan. Londra, Kogan Page, 2002.

Cistelcan L. -“Economia, eficienţa şi finanţarea investiţiilor”, Editura Economică, 2002

Frohlich A., Hawaranek P.M., Lettmayer C.F., Pichler J.H. - “ Manual for small industrial business”, ONU, Viena, 1994

Luther E. – The start-up Business Plan, A prentice Hall Small Business Guide. Prentice Hall Press, New York, 1991.

Nicolescu O. - Managementul întreprinderilor mici şi mijlocii, Editura Economică, 2003

Ordinul 913/2005 al Ministerului Transporturilor, Construcţiilor şi Turismului privind “Conţinutul-cadru al Studiului de Fezabilitate”

Topală E. - Fezabilitate şi restructurare, Editura SEMNE, Bucureşti, 1997.

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The Integration of Albania in the European Union

Donila Pipa, Edfana Tiri*

Faculty of Economy and Business Administration, West University of Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania

Abstract: The target of this study is to analyze the relationships between Albania and

the European Union. Through the medium of a questionnaire it also seeks to gain information on what people think about specific issues regarding the general question of Albania’s integration in the European Union.

Key words: European Union, Albania, Integration

Introduction

The history of the relationships between Albania and the European Union is long and involves several stages of development. It has been characterized by ups and downs stages of progress, stagnation and even regress. This is a difficult and completely process, which requires the necessary time and willingness in order to fulfill the standards of Copenhagen; to pass beyond the transition phase so as to achieve a different economic and political level as well as a new mind set necessary to attain a rapprochement with Europe after the artificial schism of the past. Today adherence to the European Union remains a great opportunity and a historic chance for the countries of the Eastern Europe.

The European Union and its relations with Albania

The establishment of official relationships between the European Union and Albania dates back to December 1st.1992 with the Trade and Cooperation Agreement Albania being the first country in south-eastern Europe to sign this agreement. The 1996 elections crisis and the general turmoil that fallowed it blocked Albania’s European agenda. In 1999 the

* Faculty of Economy and Business Administration, West University of Timisoara, Romania

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European Union signed the initiative of the process of Stabilization and Association. After the crisis in Kosovo in November 1999, the European Commission presented the feasibility report on Albania related to the opening of the ASA agreement with Albania. The conclusion was that Albania hadn’t yet met the requirements. The deficiencies were related to:

The lack of order and security Weak government and low enforcement Destabilized economy and the slow rhythm of reforms

The Summit of Zagreb on November 24th. 2000 gave the message that the road was opened for the countries of the Western Balkans to enter the European Union. The Summit approved the Community Assistance for Reconstruction Development and Stabilization. The packet included a sum of 4.6 million Euro for 2000-2006.

The Summit of Salonika in 2003 was seen as a great hope for the countries of the Western Balkans. It was a step ahead in the history of the Western Balkans, the map of Europe would not be considered complete without the integration of the Western Balkans in the European Union. The Summit indicated the Strategy of Stabilization and Association as the most important strategy for the progress of these countries.

In 2003 a period of calm was inaugurated in the Western Balkans, the war in Bosnia ended with the Dayton Agreement. In Kosovo it was the intervention of NATO forces that ended the armed struggle. The Ohrid agreement resolved the conflict concerning the rights of the Albanian population in Macedonia, it’s to be applauded that all the countries of the Western Balkans have one main objective the European Union and NATO.

Rehn, the Commissioner for the Western Balkans says that the integration of each country depends on its own individual achievements in relation to the standards required by the European Union.

The opening of the official negotiations for MSA was signed by Romano Prodi, President of the European Commission on January 31.2003. The ratification of the Stabilization and Association Agreement was signed in 2006 while April 1st 2009 saw the signing of Albania’s economic and political progress.

“Albania is changing” is a slogan indicating Albania’s steps forward as a free democratic country which respects the rights of its citizens and those of its minorities. Some of the requirements Albania has to meet as


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conditions for membership in the European Union are modernization of the address system biometric passports and of the identity cards.

1. What is the European Union?

According to a questionnaire I have carried out, in the town Korca, Albania, involving 100 persons from all social strata and levels of life (students, retired teachers, workers, unemployed people etc) it is evident that they are enthusiastic about Albania’s progress towards the European Union.

Out a sample of 100 persons: Fig.nr.1: What is the European Union?

Persons Considerate 70% It a union of states with common interests common

currency economic development, financial stability based on the principle of solidarity

13% An international organization 5% Called it a political union 2% Called it a political union

Source: Performed by the author

As we see from Fig.nr.1, it is estimated that 70% of the people have the opinion that the Union is an assembly of countries, cultures with common interests, common currency, stable economic, financial and monetary development, in which decisions are taken on the principle of solidarity in the interest of the citizens, as an important step to the country’s development, the unique opportunity for Albania to join the EU.

- 13% of the people believe that the European Union is an international organization,

- 5%of the people think that EU represents a political union - 2% of the people compared EU with a more modern Ottoman

empire Today, the EU, is a voluntary corporation, with his own structure, with

its federal elements, his own currency, institutional system, taking decisions by the majority votes ,the elections made by the community of its own citizens, and at the same time has Confederate elements: its own foreign policy, defense, differs by a federal state, because it has his roots in documentations and not a Constitution, and as Mr. Grigore Silaşi, my

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head professor , says "The EU is still being what it used to be, what it is, but what is going to come you never know``!

2. Do you believe that Albanian people will join EU? Chart.no.2. Do you believe that Albanian people will join to European Union?

As we observe from chart. No.2 , 77% of people interrogated believe in the European Union, the Albanian people is considered to be an optimistic people, with a progressive vision to the union with EU and the return into it after 50 years of isolation.

Conclusions

In the Western Balkans, including Albania, in Mirela Bogdani's opinion, there aren’t " the first poor countries with great national problems helped by the European Union, but there have been other countries like Spain, Portugal, Greece who received a lot of help from the European Union to reach to a state of economic success.

The accession in 2004 of ten Eastern countries after the fulfillment of the Copenhagen requirements represented an example to be followed but also an adventure for the poor countries in the Balkans.


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The acceptance of Romania and Bulgaria in the EU in 2007 represented another challenge and an opportunity for the enlargement and the accession of the poor Post-Communist countries in the EU.

Taking a look at Albania, its future is the European Union; the returning back to Europe road has only one way, the integration-a phased process- depending mostly on the Albanian government, on the reforms performed by its politicians.

If the expression “We wish Albania to be as the World” was repeatedly heard between the Albanians, these days it was replaced by “We want Albania to become an EU Member State”. The Albanian people hopes that the accession in the EU will bring economic development, free visa liberalization, free individuals circulation, financial power by the introduction of the Euro, equal rights and obligations as the other EU Members but the globalization as a complete process cannot be whole if the Western Balkans countries are excluded. Today these countries need to become a part of the European Union.

References

Bogdani M., Loughlin J., Shqiperia dhe Bashkimi Europian, Shtypshkronja”Dajti 2000”, Tirane

Meksi, E,. Partneritetet e para Europiane për Ballkanin Perëndimor, Revista Periodike e Ministrise se Integrimit, Europian., nr.3. Prill-Maj,2004

***.www.integration.ministry.com,(mie.gov.al), The Stabilization and Association Agreement Report, access date, 02.08.2009

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Romanian linguistic integration into Europe

Ciprian-Viorel Pop*, Adriana-Diana Polgar**

Abstract. The paper tackles the topic of the linguistic integration of Romanians, as

speakers, and that of Romanian, as a language, into the allegedly multicultural and multilingual environment of the European Union.

The study establishes whether European policies have had any impact upon the Romanian national language policy, especially in the formulation of the language curricula. In this section, there is special focus on the translatability of European policies into the language policy at university level, with a careful examination of the case of Babeş-Bolyai University.

The core of the study dwells upon what a multicultural and multilingual environment should be, that is, its defining features. It also focuses on the main linguistic trends within the European Union which value one language over another and on the groups of people that have arisen around these trends, with the arguments that account for their position. Furthermore, it aims to establish the degree of multiculturalism and multilingualism in Europe and Romania and to decide whether any hierarchy in the importance of studying one language over another, which is the case in most E.U. countries including Romania, is not a threat to multilingualism.

Instead of conclusions, a series of alternatives are presented that could enrich the multilingual environment in Romania. These options are considered not only to secure equal rights to European languages within Romania, but also to contribute to a better multicultural living experience in so multilingual a background as Transylvania, for instance.

JEL Classification: I21, Z11; Keywords: multilingualism, linguistic policies, linguistic integration.

This paper proceeds from a concrete situation, the multilingual framework of the University of Babeş-Bolyai, towards the more general linguistic trends within the European Union, tackling the actual inter-state

*Preparing a PhD on advertising discourse, Babeş-Bolyai University of Cluj Napoca, Romania Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, e-mail: [email protected] ** Preparing a PhD on English linguistics, Faculty of Letters, e-mail: [email protected]


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linguistic practices and the viewpoints of the several groups that have stemmed from these trends. The generic outlook onto the Union is then followed by a closer perspective on the situation of languages in Transylvania, in close connection with that of minorities. The presentation of the Transylvanian linguistic situation occasions a deeper reflection into the solutions that might enable Transylvania to become the harmoniously developed multilingual society that it claims to being.

1. The Case Of Babeş-Bolyai University (BBU)

If one had to name one single feature that BBU is recognised for, that would undoubtedly be its multicultural character and hereby its multilingual identity. As its name suggests, the blend of languages and cultures is the very brand that BBU promotes among higher education establishments. The multilingual character of the university is reflected both in its strategy, as stipulated in the document For A European Language Policy at Babeş-Bolyai University (published in the university’s Information Bulletin no. 21 in 2001), and in the actual measures that are being implemented within the university on a daily basis (general foreign language courses, specialised foreign language courses for business students under the LSP banner – language for specialised purposes –, foreign language study lines, international exchange programmes etc.).

BBU’s language policy envisages the study of languages according to the formula 1+2 (one mother tongue A + at least two modern languages B and C). A distinction is made among the modern languages, which are organised into two categories. The first category of modern languages (B languages) refers to widespread international languages, including English, French, German, Italian, Spanish and Russian. As for the second category of modern languages (C languages), it refers to any modern foreign language besides those listed before, including non-European languages. However, this classification also presupposes a ranking: the widespread modern languages come first before such languages as Portuguese or Finnish. This ranking is established by the requirements of foreign language competences set out by the several faculties that are part of UBB: all of them require a certificate of competence in a widespread modern language, but only a few do require a certificate in a second modern

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language. More precisely, all faculties require students, prior to passing the BA exam, to produce a certificate in a B language that attests at least to a post-intermediate level in language mastery. However, only a few faculties actually provide classes in a C language and even fewer require a certificate in that language at BA level (attesting to an intermediate level in language mastery). C languages are no longer optional at MA level, where graduation is dependent on the successful obtaining of two certificates of competency: one in a B language and another one in a C language.

The competences required by the UBB policy are secured by several measures implemented within each faculty. These measures include three traditional mainstream study lines (in Romanian, Hungarian and German), to which are added study programmes in widespread modern languages (in English, French and German) and in other modern languages (Italian, Spanish, Norwegian, Swedish, Polish, Finnish, Japanese, Korean, Chinese etc.). The traditional mainstream study lines have been conceived in response to the mother tongue requirements of the policy (language A) and are in line with the traditional multilingual and multicultural orientations of the Transylvanian region that reunite Romanian, Hungarian and German elements. As for the other two types of study programmes, they observe the requirements for languages B and C, which comprise widespread international languages and, respectively, languages with a less wide range of spreading.

As a result, a multilingual learning context is provided by several measures, including foreign language classes (taught at BA and MA levels), foreign language classes for specialised purposes (the so-called CLIL- content and language integrated learning) and official state language classes (for foreign students). It is first and foremost concerned with the study of foreign languages at BA and MA levels. Furthermore, an essential tool in making people aware of multilingualism is their immersion into a different cultural environment as part of a student exchange. European student exchange programmes such as Erasmus and Leonardo have made it possible for thousands of Romanian students to spend one or two semesters of their studies abroad, which enabled them to get an insight not only into a different culture, but also into a different language. Living in a different culture, they could in exchange experience the power relation between the dominant culture and theirs, as they were set in a minority


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position, which in its turn enabled them, upon return to homeland, to become more open to minority cultures and languages.

These things being said about BBU policies and measures for a multilingual learning environment, it should be noted that the realities witnessed within the university may sometimes differ from how they are expected to be. All faculties provide B language classes, indeed, and require a B language certificate in whose absence students cannot graduate their BA programme, but the situation is much less felicitous as to C languages. These rather rare languages are in most cases optional and very little attended. Moreover, there have been taken decisions subsequent to the elaboration of the BBU language policy which allow for some exceptions, so that MA graduates are now exempted from passing a C language certificate. As a matter of fact, a C language certificate is no longer compulsory not even for PhD admission, which only requires a B language certificate. What is more, this B language certificate for PhD admission can most often be the same as the one for BA graduation, with the same language level competence. In other words, if there is sought an evolution along BA studies from an intermediate level upon entrance to at least a post-intermediate one before graduation, no subsequent evolution is aimed at during MA and PhD studies, or at least it would seem so due to language certificate requirements.

2. Linguistic Trends In The E.U.

In opposition with the EU’s multilingual policy, for practical purposes the Union uses only one working language, that is, English, although translations are made available in the other official languages as well. This has split Europeans into two opposing groups. One group favours the ascent of English as lingua franca, arguing that above cultural misunderstandings concerning which language takes hegemony, there is the need to ensure efficient communication in a short time span, and this can only be done making use of one single language, without any mediators. The Anglophone group also asserts that translation only renders the verbalised part of the communication, which is less than 50% of the message that the sender wants to pass on especially non-verbally. Not only does the use of one single language, namely English, preserve an essential


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part of the communicated message, but it is also rather economical, as translating and interpreting into all the official European languages costs the Union a great deal.

On the other hand, the members of the opposing group argue that choosing one language, as useful as it might be for economical purposes, is an infringement of the multilingual principle, because there is no more equality and pluralism among European languages. Choosing one single language as lingua franca in the Union would trigger a loss of interest in the other languages and cultures: people would be content in mastering English and English alone, so that no other foreign language learning would be encouraged whatsoever. This egalitarian group considers that adopting English, already the vehicle of the ideology of globalisation, would result in undermining the diversity of languages within the European Union. They argue this on the grounds that English is not an external language representing a culture that was adopted from outside the Union, but is a language within the Union, representing a culture within the Union, and as such it could not enjoy more privileges that the other equally important official European languages, as stipulated by European law. No language from within the Union can be “more equal” than the others, there can be no degree of comparison here, unless the law were no longer observed. Given the prominence of English as a working language within the Union, the egalitarian group calls for urgent measures to preserve Europe’s linguistic and cultural diversity.

Another poignant argument of egalitarians is the association between language and identity. Identity is an unconscious question underlying any debate over languages; the feeling of identity and the membership relation are closely connected to language. According to Claude Piron (Piron, 1994), not conforming to the official language spoken in a certain place can be perceived as an act of disdain and might be punished by the others, which stems from the conception that whoever speaks a different language is different: speaking Arabic among the French, Yiddish among the Russians, Flemish in the francophone part of Belgium, all these can create a feeling of fear among the speakers of the most widespread language. Furthermore, Piron also explains why people belonging to the most widespread language relegate speakers of other languages to the position of a minority and why the nouns denoting these minorities have been used as curse words.


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Nonetheless, out of the Anglophone and egalitarian groups have stemmed other viewpoints shared by less numerous groups, among which there will be mention of some. These new groups are combinations at different proportions between the two main views, so that one is dominant over the other. There is, for instance, a group that one could call the purists, who are driven both by the need to preserve the multilingual heritage of Europe and to secure an easy working environment without translation. These purists embrace the solution of using Esperanto as working language inside the EU, as it is an external language to the Union and therefore it does not place any European language at a superior level as compared to its equal languages. Their solution does not mean not to promote the other languages in the Union, as one might believe at first sight, but to ease the burden of international communication within Europe. In other words, according to their view, people would go on speaking their mother tongue among themselves and would only resort to Esperanto when communication with their European partner.

Now one might ask why is it that Esperanto was chosen over other external languages, among which Chinese is the most widely spoken. The answer that they give is as simple as their language itself: Esperanto is an easy language, easier to learn and master than any other language in the world, simply because it was created for the mere purpose of facilitating language learning, use and understanding. Esperanto is an artificial language that was invented to substitute for the present-day Babel. However, purists do not offer the solution of a language just like the others, but the solution of a language that was contrived to facilitate communication to the maximum. Claude Piron, a renowned translator and interpreter with the European Union, argues that Esperanto is at least 20 times, or even 50 times, easier than any other language, except for the Indonesian language (Piron, 1994). Furthermore, Piron goes on explaining why Chinese was not the chosen one. Like Chinese, Esperanto is a language composed exclusively of invariable elements that combine themselves endlessly. In Esperanto, on the contrary, the relation between the elements is marked in a clear and straightforward way. For instance, a pupil who reads a page of 125 words composed according to the diagram "root + o" and who, every time, notes thanks to the context that those words are used as nouns won't have any hesitation to formulate an idea in


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noun form. The reflex will be so powerful that the correct expression will be automatic. This is because Esperanto boasts a language which undermines frustration in language use: there is no exception, no arbitrary association and no irregular grammatical constraint.

Therefore, one of the joint Anglophone and egalitarian groups are the purists, sharing their views especially with the Anglophones as they are adepts of a single language, without conflicting with the egalitarians’ claims to place all European languages on an equal footing. Furthermore, there is another group that adopts some of the views of the two fundamental groups in different proportions. Under the banner of egalitarianism, which they display as their affiliation, they condemn the Anglophone position to the point of resenting the hegemony of English. However, contrary to egalitarians, they do not conceive English as a threat to all official European languages, in an effort to place them on an even footing, but they first and foremost see English as a danger to their own national language, without actually caring about the other official European languages. They do not disapprove of English because it does not allow for equality among languages, as egalitarians do, but they condemn English because it does not allow for their own national language to gain hegemony over the others. However, such selfish and dominating intentions are clad in invocations of the violation of the equality principle, which are actually used as invectives towards English. The holders of such a view, the radical nationalists, as one might call them, hide within their plea against English an actual plea for their own language as the dominant one and use a moving tone in their discourse against what they call the “tyranny” of English, although what they condemn, contrary to egalitarians, is not the tyranny itself, but English.

3. Linguistic Trends In Transylvania

Issues of language hegemony also represent a major drawback to establishing a harmonious multilingual society in Transylvania, where the several linguistic groups are unable to foster successful intercultural communication. Here, no egalitarian claims are supported. Several linguistic groups are unable to communicate with one another because they all have hegemonist claims. They are unable to make concessions as to the


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existence of the other group, because they consider that publicly acknowledging the existence of the other’s language would be a threat for the domination of their language and, hereby, would eventually undermine their identity.

However, there are a few smaller groups which have gone past this stage and have reached a form of conviviality, which should be considered as a model for future action to be taken for ensuring multilingualism in Transylvania. These groups have managed to go beyond their nationalistic views and have understood differences not as starting points for conflict and disagreement, but as sources of enrichment. They have unconsciously embraced the idea that learning and also speaking the other group’s language next to their mother tongue was far more a source of gain than of loss. They disregarded the commonly held view according to which they would lose their mother tongue and ethnic identity, only to discover that it was unfounded and that their endeavour did not lead to sapping one language or another. Contrary to the commonly held opinion, several languages and ethnic cultures acting can survive in the same community without threatening one another with extinction.

Reaching a stage of harmonious understanding between different ethnic groups, or what is indeed called an interethnic community, requires several steps to be taken. First of all, all the ethnic groups need to go through a stage in which they make allowances for the legitimacy of the other groups. This is because facilitating interethnic communication is similar to a negotiation which, if conducted in the best interests of the community, will lead to a win-win situation. Of course, this first step, just like any other first endeavour, is the most difficult to perceive by who is supposed to take it. Some say that, in order to make people act differently, one first needs to change their beliefs and perceptions, which are the psychological motivation of behaviours. However, this is most difficult to achieve, as the elements to be changed, namely beliefs and perceptions, are deeply rooted in each culture. Therefore, a different changing pattern is to be favoured, one which does not proceed from altering beliefs and perceptions to achieve changes in action and behaviour, but a pattern which should offer some models of behaviour to be followed by the communities. By repetition of the behaviours presented as model, the ethnic groups would embrace the new behaviour, which would eventually


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trigger changes in beliefs and perceptions as well. Therefore, the communities in Transylvania would significantly benefit from the example of the few ones who have managed to established successful intercultural communication, provided that the latter would be set as an example to follow. However, when trying to solve the secessionist problems of interethnic environments, one most often emphasizes the differences that lead to undermining unity rather than setting aside a successful integration model of a particular interethnic community. This is what mostly lacks in the present-day Romania, and on a larger scale in most communities facing minority integration problems, namely the promotion of a living model of a community that has successfully implemented intercultural communication between the different ethnic groups.

After the acknowledgement of the existence of the model and its wide-spread promotion, special attention should be paid to imitating those characteristics that are essential to the creation of a harmonious intercultural community. Just as very few communities in Transylvania have noticed, an openness and a readiness for interethnic communication should already be shaped within the community members from an early age. That is to say, it should be made part of education, especially at kindergarten and school. These communities have understood that bringing together into minority language schools the former minority classes from interethnic schools would not be a positive step neither for minorities, nor for the majority, as it would undoubtedly hinder communication between the ethnic groups. Therefore, these communities opposed to the creation of the newly-regulated ethnically separated schools and returned to the former educational system where different ethnic classes would co-exist in the same school, which combined allow both for group identification (as the members of the different ethnic groups are split into classes according to their ethnic identity) and for inter-group communication (as the different ethnic classes run within the same physical space, thus offering them the possibility to interact beyond ethnic boundaries).

Another important step, after bringing together children of different ethnic membership in the same physical space, is setting up a correct language-teaching system. This does not mean teaching only the dominant language to everyone, but also the minorities’ idioms. Moreover, this does


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not mean a purposeless uninterested study of the grammar of the other language that is done just because it is required by the authorities, but a practical learning of the language aimed at ensuring the effective communication between the ethnic groups. Only by offering all the ethnic groups the opportunity to learn each other’s languages, and not only the dominant language, will minority groups develop a readiness to learn other languages. By saying so, I mean that, in the particular case of Transylvania, not only Romanian should be taught to minorities, but also Hungarian, German, Romani and other languages belonging to important ethnic groups should be taught both to Romanians and minorities. Of course, this does not entail the fact that there is no dominant language, Romanian, but it is only dominant in that it boasts most speakers and nothing more. Romanian is indeed the most widely-spoken language is Transylvania, which is an objective truth that should be acknowledged, but it is not the only important language from the point of view of the number of speakers.

Therefore, the other languages should also be allotted hours in the school curricula, and this not only for the groups speaking those minority languages, but more significantly for the groups that do not use that language to communicate between themselves. This is because, although the latter do not use a certain idiom as the intra-group communicative language, they do have to cope with understanding that very language almost on a daily basis at inter-group level, as they encounter members of the other groups speaking that language between themselves. Consequently, the other languages spoken in the communities should be made available as optional subject matters at school, because this would facilitate inter-group communication.

What is more, one should learn the other’s language or languages at an early age, as it is stated in the European Commission’s Action Plan “Promoting Language Learning And Linguistic Diversity 2004-2006”. The Commission’s set targets include the teaching of “a mother tongue plus two other languages” from an early age, more precisely starting at preschool and early school. It is argued in the Action Plan that starting foreign language learning at an early age ensures an openness to other cultures and that the languages in question should not be only one (English), but a wide range of languages. We would add that starting


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language learning at an early age is also beneficial because it is the time when languages are acquired and not learnt. In other words, the languages that one is actively exposed to in childhood will be learnt with an ease comparable with the process of mother-tongue learning, because it is the time when one acquires languages even unconsciously, with very little effort, unlike the effortful language learning experiences later on in life.

Therefore, for the Transylvanian community, we suggest choosing two languages among Hungarian, Romani, German and Ukrainian, according to the major linguistic minorities in the region, and teaching them to children as early as the age of four. The children would most benefit from this knowledge as they would have the opportunity to practise their languages almost on a daily basis with members of the other linguistic communities. This would not make it more difficult for them to learn other languages later on, as some would argue, because they could learn English and other international languages without any problem starting from primary education. This is the time when they could abandon the school study of the languages of the other communities and substitute it for the study of other international languages like English. Meanwhile, they could enrich their command of the previously acquired languages in a practical way, by practising it with the members of those communities.

Bibliography

Arzoz Xabier, Respecting Linguistic Diversity In The European Union, John Benjamins

Publishing Company, 2008.

Branchadell Albert, West Lowell Margaret, Less Translated Languages, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2005, p 39-48 chapter Multilingualism In Europe: Blessing Or Curse? by Sosonis Vilelmini

O’Reilly Camille, Language, Ethnicity And The State: Minority Languages In The European Union, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.

Phillipson Robert, English-Only Europe?: Challenging Language Policy, p 129-193

Piron Claude, Le défi des langues - Du gâchis au bon sens, Paris, L’Harmattan, 1994.

Skutnabb-Kangas Tove, Phillipson Robert, Mohanty Ajit K., Social Justice Through Multilingual Education, Multilingual Matters, 2009.

Thije Jan D. ten, Zeevaert Ludger, Receptive Multilingualism: Linguistic Analyses, Language Policies, And Didactic Concepts, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2007.


Tosi Arturo, Crossing Barriers And Bridging Cultures: The Challenges Of Multilingual Translation For The European Union, Multilingual Matters, 2003.

*** Promoting Language Learning And Linguistic Diversity 2004-2006, The European Commission, 2003. Available on-line at

*** http://ec.europa.eu/education/doc/official/keydoc/actlang/act_lang_en.pdf

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Achiving the human capital report, why and how

Cristina Liliana Popa*

Abstract. In a period of rapid evolution in the autumn of 2008, economic recession and social

convulsions of society as a whole feels the constant requirement to have an increased baggage information.

The decision to invest in human capital has a significant impact on the overall socio-economic development. It therefore must be addressed not only an individual decision but as a strategic decision at the enterprise. Governments must choose those whose importance requires publication, providing data that require optimal decisions needed to reduce the impact of the crisis we are going through. With passage of the Romanian economy from a deep restructuring and cost-efficiency criteria, a role of utmost importance is the human factor. Financial information, financial reporting statements final as lead managers and investors are turning misinterprets human capital. JEL Classification: D92, M41, M51 Keywords: Human capital, final financial reporting situations, intangible assets and economic recession.

The decision to invest in human capital has a significant impact over the general level of social-economic development. Consequently, this must be approached not only as an individual decision but also as a strategic decision in the enterprise. The governments must choose those whose importance requires publishing, providing data that require optimal decisions needed to reduce the impact of the crisis we are going through.

The Romanian economy in terms of transition to a profound restructuring based on efficiency and profitability, a role of the utmost importance is the human factor. Financial information, final financial reporting situations that lead managers and investors misinterpret the valorizations of the human capital.

Obliged to obey the same logics of legal, economic and financial nature, accounting presents a distorted picture of the economic life of the company, neglecting or ignoring for too long the appropriate methods of recognition and reporting of intangible immaterial assets investments. As a *Agentia Judeteana pentru Ocuparea Fortei de Munca Mehedinti. Adress : 3 Carol I Street, Drobeta Turnu-Severin, Romania. E-mail: [email protected]


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consequence, the practice hasn’t evolved beyond the traditional rules of historical cost.

Officials often compare human capital with the ecological balance. In the past, environmental field lacked strategic information and the decisions were not in accordance with the reality. The situation changed with the publication of detailed reports and putting into operation the necessary control mechanisms. Decisions have been improved, the environment - internally and externally - has changed for the better. The industry has accepted evolution, as the measures shall apply to all without discrimination.

Relevant to present, the differences between ecological balance and that of human capital. At the company there are not yet standards for human capital, definitions and common rules that can serve as the basis of a mandatory system. Companies that include training costs in the annual financial statements disagree with the items contained in the budget or cost. The main impediment derives from the fact that no quantifiable data are presented. Moreover, the majority of information required are not available. Reports of human capital does not meet the previous examples that companies include in their reports.

From our point of view the human capital report should cover two directions: at the enterprise level the experience and best practices relating to investment in this capital, and at national level, the emphasis should be placed on the interest and position of the government and its social partners.

Human capital report at enterprise level should answer the following questions: which is the reason of filling in these reports? Which are the elements that form it? Is it necessary or optional? Which are its benefits and how does its preparation help us?

The objectives of Human capital report are improving information systems for different stakeholders: employees, unions, shareholders and not only, comparison of data in time, observing trends / trends, planning the accounting of the human resource, management, human capital, fostering the dialogue, etc..

Social policy at the firm level should be based on: the relationship with employees, terms and conditions of work, training of employees and

Cristina Liliana Popa

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annual costs for each category of employees in part, as the development strategy.

Human capital report, social and financial reporting tool offers a variety and a wealth of data, allowing identification of malfunctions while analyzing the evolution in time indicators from year to year. It is known that not all the elements of social policy can be measured in company balance sheet, but some may be subject to knowledge and cataloging process. (Scheme no.1)

Tool for:

Scheme no.1 The objectives of human capital report.

The concept “to acquire and keep an work place” is being proved in vital present at political and social standards. The reduction of unemployment can be realized only if the social partners concentrate to the growth of individual competition in direct relationship with the developed economies.

It’s by it self understood that there is some kind of correlation between the national competition and the population’s will to invest in new companies and work places. In Norway, numerous studies and researches have identified the necessary conditions for rising the rhythm of setting up new companies, and the government was directly interested in this direction, particularly in the period of the unemployment rise.


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The studies have shown that in crisis situations, like those we are going through at present the administrative restrictions must be reduced the and also the issue of the documents (bureaucracy) that takes up time. The efforts are being made to reduce the burden imposed on IMM’s but they haven’t had the desired results. If we examine the relation between the government and industries, we notice that the large number of companies newly created offer a good terrain for forming and developing the human capital, which are essential, national competition. Thanks to them the nation is preparing the necessary human resources for creating new work places. Collecting the data required by IMM, those that the government is using at a central level for identifying and leading the developing process is understood like the main prevention from creating a dynamic environment, a friendly acquisition of knowledge.

The companies are not familiar with the relationship between the investments in competence and productivity. In the latest years, the management is interested more and more, investments in intangible assets. But the parts reported outside the company-shareholders, financial institutions and the society’s overall – are not obtained through a report of human capital. It has to be put in connection with in-depth and complete data about the intangible assets for obtaining the missing information and those that target the society’s resources. That doesn’t mean that we have to abandon preparing the report to human capital, but to correlate this subject with all the intangible assets.

A unique report to the human capital can clarify a fragmentation of information that stop an government or a society to solve the difficulties. For years, since the accounting of human resources is just partially put in practice, although it represents concepts that cannot satisfy the demand for information how it was stated at some conferences from Agora of Cedefop. We continue to approach the theme of reports of human resources according to some concepts and outdated ideas, insufficiently accounted for.

The macro economy admits the correlation between the investments in education and the national competition, which they consider facts, although it is hard to measure, directly, the consequences of the process of increasing the educational budgets.


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This demonstrates, among others, that the relation between competition and training at the society level is more complex than we thought when we quantify the positive effects of the growing investments in preparation. The report of human capital of a society will never contain the fundamental report between training and factors like leadership or environment enabling the learning mechanism. The research in domain demonstrate that the bond between competence and business figures appear in the domain of automobilist industry. There are a few production systems that know so many competitive pressures like the ones in this industry, that knows directly, the effect of industry in competence. It had been revealed that productivity is increased at the plants that associate the most advanced theoretical competence with a training on field, through solving the problems in the production process, approach that became permanent, especially in the last period when the world crisis has struck fully in this industry, see the example of United States of America.

If the interested public bodies are willing to include the relation between the investments in human capital and competition in the process of creating wealth in different sectors, it should start from the underlined indicators in the automobile industry.

It would be useful, to test a series of indicators that mark the training/education in different countries. Any balance system of intangible assets must rely on the indicators whose validity will be of real interest for Cedefop as there doesn’t exist educational international, specialized institutions, the terrain being subordinated to accounting – experts.

The discussion around the human report takes the form of an abstract character and a theoretical one, a stage necessary for the newly developed sciences.

At present there is a tendency of voluntarily publishing the information on human capital. Many companies especially from UE, with notable results in domain, are making public experiments to be recognized and appreciated.

About the possibility and importance of conceiving an international norm for report to human capital has lectured and Riel Miller1 at the

1 Cf. Miller, Riel, Measuring What People Know: Humain Capital Accouting for the Knowledge Economy, OCDE, 1996 şi Miller, Riel, Agora 5 – Pourquoi mesurer le capital humain? Disponibil


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reunion of OCDE from June 1999, in the study “Future international projects”. We can remark in the case in question, the fact that the term of human capital is limited to what workers can do. Its influence is much wider, including other factors in connection to the capacity, as health, social and economical conditions.

In this stage of research, the clear answers have marked the societies that have introduced and used this type of balance to a world wide level. These norms, already implemented in some European countries, which we have enumerated and analyzed previously, would be desirable to be applied to Romania likewise, for improving the quality of information and taking the decisions.

Elaborating a new conceptual framework will permit ensuring the transparency of the human capital both in society and in other domains, so as we can evaluate correctly the progresses in preparing the norms. The domain analyzed will permit us to notice that OCDE is performing works that will be useful in the final faze of drawing up the international norms of the human capital report at the society level.

Any system of measurement and establishing the balance sheet are based on common definitions and rules which permit evaluation and communication. As regards to the human capital there have been different methods to determine and explain what a person is able to achieve. Levels of training, school diplomas and social designations – for example, doctor, all lead to the profile definition of a person. Diagram #1 presents the components of a conceptual framework containing: source of training, decisions affecting the way we use and accumulate knowledge and how to validate human capital and to ensure transparency.

Any system of measurement and establishing the balance sheet is based on common definitions and rules which permit evaluation and communication. Concerning the human capital there have been different methods to determine and explain what a person is able to achieve. Levels of training, school diplomas and social designations – for example, doctor, all lead to defining the profile of a person. Diagram #1 presents the components of a conceptual framework containing: source of training,

pe Internet: http://www2.trainingvillage.gr/download/agora/themes /agora05/A5 Miller FR.pdf (consultat la data de 21.11.2001).


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decisions affecting the way we use and accumulate knowledge and how to validate human capital and to ensure transparency2. Stock – allocation decisions on

the “baggage” of skills Flow – decisions for allocating investments in training

Non formal – fragmented information

At work – learning at workplace Job market (example-wage, level,titles)

Social – learning home or local Culture and Values(social Status,studies)

Oficial - information universally acknowledged and established rules

Official Recognition (from scientific community and prices Scientific acquisition of knowledge in research and development

Certification (diplomas) Education – The power to prepare others and form them

Diagram #1 Conceptual framework - acquisition of knowledge and transparency on existing skills

This graphic emphasizes the fact that the main areas of interest in using human capital are situated in the central circle comprising a series of mechanisms, institutions and trainings which serve to validate and ensure the transparency of individuals skills. We are far from having convergent rules converging or unanimously accepted to validate or quantify what a person can do. The conceptual framework shown helps viewing a number of converging fields.

The efforts undertaken to increase transparency are sustained by contemporary world realities as well as changes, sometimes dramatic, through which pass most of the economies and social systems. Rapid transformations we are witnessing make the old methods of assessment to be insufficient, confusing the official measurement systems ,as like scholar diplomas or training stages. As a result it is absolutely necessary to improve information quality available regarding to human capital. Knowledge economy focuses on people's ability to learn, to take initiative, 2 Cf. Miller, Riel, Measurin What People Know : Humain Capital Accounting for the Knowledge Economy, OCDE, 1996 si Miller, Riel, Agora 5 – Pourquoi mesuer le capital humain? Available on web http://www2.trainingvillage.gr/download/agora/themes /agora05/A5 Miller FR.pdf


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to take responsibility, to innovate and knowledge accumulation becomes a permanent activity, difficult to quantify, very different from the situation in the period when it was validated by official diplomas obtained in an educational institution. Nowadays we rely progressively to measurements based on results regardless the place or the way in which qualifications have been acquired, in this context let’s decrypt the signs which serve at taking decisions on progressive investments(FLOW)and using existing knowledge (stock).

Current research going on in different countries seek to find the best solutions and methods suitable to be adopted, given the diversity of models of learning and multiple uses of knowledge. Whether we are in an economy in transition or peak, it is vital to properly use existing knowledge and the limited resources available for purchase. Pressed by time and the recession following the crisis, companies are aware of this challenge and seek the most effective management of knowledge in the interest of customers, employees and investors.

OECD works in the field of human capital balance and other intangible assets currently focuses on indirect measures taken in social and economic context given the established choice for practical reasons the methods of accounting for human capital and companies are evolving constantly changing the criteria for profitability and competitiveness. We actually note, that methods of production in the series are replaced by new processes that encourage innovation, initiative and responsibility to tailor products for each consumer. Production is no longer based on physical work quickly following the instructions of the engineer, but a close relationship between conception and execution. As knowledge workers and consumers contribute directly to the final result.

It is clear that as human capital that exists in any society, that knowledge held by employees, become essential in the complex processes of competitiveness and profitability. In fact it is noted that efforts towards improving transparency in human capital accumulated and the adjacent stream, thanks to data dissemination and modern techniques, play a significant role in organizing production. Without this transparency it becomes almost impossible to mobilize the staff for using and developing their own capital. It is not surprising that many companies engage in the difficult research of the means for improvement the information quality of


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this type of capital. We need to take into account the fact that each company and field of activity has its characteristics and an universal standard to obtain transparency of the human capital in the company.

This is in fact and the present and future objectives proposed by OCDE interested in the recent experiences and evolutions from different countries, as appropriate, trustful coherent ant correct indicators are searched for. New criteria, which guarantee the solidity of the human capital report, must help to fix the norms and ensure the quality in the field. This allows us to include the intangible assets which support the performance in the knowledge economy. For managers, investors, employees and customers, this kind of transparency shall facilitate a better allotting of the time, efforts and money, which is also the aim of this report.

From the analysis we can also understand the multitude of functions and the importance of the report of human capital, which materializes in an instrument for research, information, control which allows to provide the qualitative and quantitative information by recording the realizations made and measure the changes which occurred in the last year, concerning the constant administration of human resources. These data are indicators which emphasize the results of the politics adopted by each company, the present evolutions which help establishing new directions.

Bibliografie

Jeffrey A.Cohen, Intangible assets – Evaluation and economical benefits, Editura IRECSON, Bucureşti, 2008

Jianu Iulia, Evaluation, presentation and plant performance analysis – An approach from the point of view of International Standards of Financial Reports – Editura CEECAR, Bucureşti, 2007

Riel Miller, Measuring What People Know: Humain Capital Accouting for the Knowledge Economy, OCDE, 1996 şi Miller, Riel, Agora 5 – Pourquoi mesurer le capital humain?

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Imf’s and governments’ support to financial system in the european countries during the crisis

Magdalena Rădulescu*

Abstract: The analysis in this paper shows that fiscal policy can make a significant

contribution to reducing the duration and effects of recessions associated with financial crises. This presupposes that public stimulus can be delivered quickly. Moreover, the sustainability of the eventual debt burden constrains the scope of expansionary fiscal policy, and it will not be possible to support demand for an extended period in economies that have entered recession with weak fiscal balances and large levels of public debt. But, in the event of severe and prolonged recessions, fiscal and monetary policies should be tightly coordinated to contain downward demand pressures.

JEL: E58, E61, G01, G12, G21, O23. Key words: financial crisis, fiscal policy, international and governmental support, financial system, European emerging countries.

1. Introduction

Restoring the health of the financial sector is an essential component of any policy package. A number of major banks in the United States and Europe were provided with public support in the form of new capital and guarantees against losses from holdings of problem assets. More broadly, authorities have followed multifaceted strategies involving continued provision of liquidity and extended guarantees of bank liabilities to alleviate funding pressures, making available public funds for bank recapitalization, and announcing programs to deal with distressed assets. However, policy announcements have often been short on detail and have

* Ph.D. Associate Professor, Faculty of Economic Studies, University of Pitesti, Interests area: Banking Management, Currency and Credit, Financial Markets, Inter-banking Payment Operations, Financial Policies. Contact details: Republicii Bdv., no.71, Pitesti, Arges, Romania, Tel: 0740093011, E-mail: [email protected]

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not convinced markets; cross-border coordination of initiatives has been lacking, resulting in undesirable spillovers; and progress in alleviating uncertainty related to distressed assets has been limited (Jickling, 2009).

As concerns about the extent of the downturn and the limits to monetary policy have mounted, governments have turned to fiscal policy to support demand. Beyond letting fiscal automatic stabilizers work, large discretionary stimulus packages have been introduced in most advanced economies, notably Germany, Japan, Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States and this example was followed also by the emerging European countries.

Section 2 shows the risk of external financing of the banking sector in the European emerging countries; Section 3 underline the fiscal burden of the financial support for the banking sector; Section 4 presents the IMF response to crisis and Romanian’s anti-crisis program and Section 5 concludes the paper.

2. The risk of external financing of the banking sector in the European emerging countries

Since the beginning of this decade, external factors (a prolonged period of low nominal and real interest rates driven by a global savings glut) and domestic factors (capital account liberalization, financial sector reforms and EU accession) combined to spur large capital inflows into the EU10 countries. This high integration of EU10 financial markets with the global economy has been matched, in general, by equivalent integration of production and great success at exporting (Figure 1).

This has brought major benefits to the countries in the region, including convergence in incomes, improvements in living standards and a sharp decline in poverty rates. At the same time, however, it has resulted in a build-up of external liabilities across the region. Especially the Baltic countries, Croatia, Hungary, and the Czech Republic display high ratios of foreign liabilities to GDP. Moreover, the composition of capital inflows has changed over time. While foreign direct investment initially made up the bulk of the inflows, debt liabilities have gained importance in recent years. For a large part, this reflected intra-bank lending between banks from EU

Imf’s and governments’ support to financial system in the european countries...

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15 countries and their branches in the EU 10 countries (Cihák and Fonteyne, 2009).

Figure 1. Level of Foreign Trade and Financial Integration in the Countries of the Region, 2008

Sources: BIS, EUROSTAT, World Bank.

The banking sector’s access to foreign capital has facilitated lending in foreign currency. In some countries, like Romania, this has been encouraged by restrictive monetary policies trying to compensate for pro-cyclical fiscal stances. Financial instruments denominated in or indexed to foreign currencies, in particular the euro, are widely used in the region, in particular in the Baltics, Hungary, Romania and Croatia. Foreign financing has enabled banks to expand lending more rapidly than the expansion of the domestic deposit base would have allowed (Figure 2). Also, the cost of funding in domestic markets for branches and subsidiaries is usually higher than the cost from their foreign parent banks.

Currencies with flexible rates, on the other hand, seemed bound to appreciate. But also in countries with more volatile exchange rates, such as Hungary, foreign currency borrowing by the private sector has been popular, perhaps because of the considerable savings expected on interest payments as well as expectations of appreciating local currencies.

Difficult liquidity and financing conditions have characterized the financial sector both globally and in EU10 countries since the second half of 2008. A lack of confidence in the banking sector led to soaring financing costs. In this environment, banks in the EU10 with large deposit deficits are


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particularly exposed. These deficits are especially high in the Baltic countries but also in Romania and Hungary.

Figure 2. Loan to Deposit Ratio (in %)

Sources: ECB, Central Banks of EU10 and Croatia.

In the EU10, many countries are exposed to the same external lenders via cross-border loans to banks from their international parent banks (Figure 3).

Figure 3.Geographic Breakdown of Foreign Claims in the Banking Sector

Notes: EU7 refers to EU10 without the Baltics. Sources: BIS, World Bank.

From a creditor perspective, bank claims are concentrated in few countries—Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Greece and Sweden—which account for three-quarters of total claims on


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the region. In principle, foreign ownership can be a source of stability for emerging market banking systems, but the reliance on cross-border funding also exposes these banks to the potential balance sheet pressures of their parent banks in mature markets. Lenders may also view the EU10 as a ‘cluster’ and may withdraw their funds if the outlook about the ‘cluster’ turns negative.

Home country regulators may create further tensions by forcing parent banks to build liquidity and, via asymmetries in the scope of regulation and supervision which are conducted largely nationally, the business practice of integrated cross-border financial institutions. Thus, it may create a mismatch in regulatory attention.

Finally, as most EU10 countries are highly open economies, the deteriorating global economic outlook has also prompted many banks to reassess their business outlook. This concerns especially highly trade-dependent economies such as Hungary, the Slovak Republic, the Czech Republic and Estonia. Such reassessment is also being associated with tightening lending conditions, with likely negative effects on the real economy.

3. Fiscal costs of the crisis - financial sector support

Government support to the financial sector has taken various forms, with different implications for debt and fiscal balances. Almost all advanced European economies have provided capital injections and guarantees for financial sector liabilities. Some have purchased illiquid assets from financial institutions or extended direct loans. Altogether, the immediate impact of these measures to support government financing has reached 6.3 percent of 2008 GDP on average, ranging widely from 1.1 percent of GDP in Switzerland to 20.2 percent of GDP in the United Kingdom.

Explicit guarantees provided so far are quite large, especially in Ireland. Nevertheless, the ultimate costs are likely to be lower. Indicative estimates based on financial derivative pricing models suggest that outlays from contingent liabilities could be on average around 1–3 percent of GDP, cumulative for 2009–13 for the advanced European economies (IMF, 2009b and 2009c). However, governments may need to extend additional support


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to the financial sector if the crisis persists. De facto, governments are also providing implicit guarantees to financial institutions that could potentially entail significant additional fiscal costs.

With limited scope for further stimulus through monetary policy, fiscal policy remains the main option available for policymakers to preempt such a downward spiral. It is crucial, though, for governments to try to maximize the effectiveness of fiscal support, while limiting the impact of such support on sustainability (IMF, 2009c).

That said, under the present tight credit conditions and low collateral values, tax cuts and transfer increases can be more effective than in the pre-crisis period in fueling aggregate demand, as the share of credit-constrained agents—whose consumption pattern is highly sensitive to current disposable income—is rising.

If fiscal sustainability is perceived to be in jeopardy, market interest rate increases could partly offset the expansionary effects of stimulus packages. Therefore, support measures should be accompanied by a clear and credible strategy to ensure fiscal sustainability, including a plan to withdraw the stimulus as the crisis abates.

Policy responses in the emerging and developing economies to weakening activity and rising external pressures have varied considerably, depending on circumstances. Many countries, especially in Asia and Latin America, have been able to use policy buffers to alleviate pressures, letting exchange rates adjust downward but also applying reserves to counter disorderly market conditions and to augment private credit, including in particular to sustain trade finance. Dollar swap facilities offered by the Federal Reserve to a number of systemically important countries as well as the introduction of a more flexible credit instrument by the IMF provided some assurance to markets that countries with sound management would have access to needed external funding and not be faced with a capital account crisis. Moreover, many central banks changed course to lower policy interest rates to ease domestic conditions, as earlier inflation concerns moderated. Governments have also provided fiscal support through automatic stabilizers and discretionary measures.

Elsewhere, however, especially in emerging Europe and the CIS, greater internal vulnerabilities, and in some cases less flexible exchange rate regimes, have complicated the policy response. A number of countries


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that face severe external financing shortages, fragile banking systems, currency mismatches on borrower balance sheets, and rising questions about public finances have acted to tighten macroeconomic policies and received external financial support from the IMF and other official sources. However, stabilization has been elusive as the external environment has continued to deteriorate.

4. IMF’s response to crisis

In response to the widespread nature of the crisis, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) overhauled its lending framework and the Group of Twenty industrial and emerging market countries supported a large expansion of the Fund’s resources—from $250 billion to $750 billion. The changes in the IMF’s lending framework include more emphasis on crisis prevention, facilitating larger and more frontloaded financing, and further streamlining conditions attached to IMF loans.

In some cases, partial, or even total, government ownership will be required to assure adequate capitalization and an effective restructuring plan. A government should aim to ensure that banks can return to private ownership as expeditiously as possible. Banks that are not viable should be resolved promptly.

Financial policies must work constructively with other macroeconomic policies—both are needed to short-circuit the adverse feedback loop between the financial system and the economy through which deteriorating financial conditions lower economic activity, which in turn makes it harder for companies and individuals to repay borrowings, with an adverse impact on financial conditions. It is essential to stabilize the financial system—without which a robust and sustained economic recovery will be difficult to attain.

Emerging market and developing countries are facing increasing difficulties around the world because of the spreading global economic crisis. Large-scale financing from the IMF can cushion the economic and social costs of these global shocks and even help avert full-blown crises if assistance is requested early on.

The IMF is fighting at the front lines of the financial crisis. In recent months, it has provided loans to emerging market countries hit by faltering


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demand for their exports, the drying up of capital in financial markets, overextended banks, and wary consumers.

In Romania, banks commitment for maintaining and increasing their exposure and for rising capital according to their needs represents a key element for improving the financial stability and the monetary conditions. If monetary conditions develop favorably, NBR will be ready to gradually relax its conditions regarding the minimum reserves and this will promote the banking stability. A preferential temporary regime will be set during the IMF program for the banks that commit to maintain their exposure to Romania for the whole program period and to increase the equity of their Romanian branches according to their potential needs evaluated during stress tests. For these banks, any new subordinated debt subscribed even by owners or by international financial institution will be exonerated by the obligation of making minimum reserves al NBR. This subordinated debt and some similar instruments will be classified as prime equity and the rules regarding the capital adequacy ration will be maintain. According to the EU principles, it will be available for all the resident banks, no matter the owners’ nationality.

For increasing the trust in the authorities’ ability of facing any potential difficulties in the banking sector, the program includes plans for improving the banking law and the clearing law for responding rapidly and efficiently when a bank faces some difficulties. A main objective of such law changes will be to increase the power of the special bank administrator for facing a fragile financial position *as a structural reference point). The NBR’s power will also rise by regulations that will grant it the right to request the major share-holders to increase the capital and to grant financial support to the banks and to forbid or limit the profit allocation (as a structural reference point). The authorities are also aware of the need to simplify and perfect the legal procedure for banks clearing and intend to make further efforts in this area.

Some measures for ensuring trust in the deposits guarantee system should also be adopted. Romania, as many other countries in Europe acted for strengthening its deposits guarantee system by rising the insured level to 50.000 euro in 2008. For a further improvement of this system, the authorities will complete the actual system financing with system access, if needed, to the privatization incomes (currently they represent 11,6 billions


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RON) kept into the Treasury’s account opened at NBR. In the same time, Romania will have to make some legal improvements to enlarge the activation basis of deposits guarantee and for payments acceleration (also a structural reference point) (Isărescu, 2008).

NBR will continue to improve the banking regulation and supervising frame. This will cover a more detailed reporting requirements regarding the liquidities and, when the time is right, the rise of the minimum level of the capital adequacy ratio from 8% to 10%. Authorities also commit to harmonize the Romanian financial accounting standards to the international practice as it is reflected in the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). Adopting IFRS will reduce the regulation burden for the trans-national corporation and banks and will ensure a more transparent frame for FDI.

5. Conclusions

For the first time, after a long period, investments and “supply side” reforms become priorities and this means an increase of the purchasing power by diminishing the taxes and interest rates, especially for the mortgage credits. In the same time, the governments consensus for granting fiscal incentives and for governmental spending reduction imply a comeback to the Keynes’s anti-crisis policies.

Although the traditional model of universal banks resisted much better to crisis, it is under the change pressure. European universal banks offer the whole range of financial services under the same “roof”. These “financial supermarkets” are, their own, seeking for some specific competences and real talents for facing well the competition, and this will lead to a better choose of personnel, to a reshape of subsidiaries and to implementation of new technologies. Consolidation still remains an actual matter, although German, Ostrich and Swiss banks have already took important parts of their Italian, French and Belgian “sisters” (Gaftoniuc, 2009).

Crisis lessons were hard and the recovery proves to be difficult. The first lesson that can be underlined from here is that, in a globalize economy, an economic crisis can’t be isolated to a single country or to a single region, and the recovery has to be concerted.


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Secondly, the ride for high profits and the greed of the banks leaders contributed not only to some high risks and to an irresponsible financial or managerial behavior, but also to the set up of a global imbalance. The trends toward inequality must be reversed now, by solutions on a long-term and by avoiding the short-term ones. Now, there is a consensus regarding the increase of the governments role, but we can’t say for the moment how important this will be in the future. Anyhow, the banking crisis would have been more severe without a strong public backup.

Another matter is re-enhancing the trust, because this is hard to get and easy to loose. The lost of trust in the global financial system lead the international economy to recession. Banks are suffering the most now because of loosing their reciprocal trust and this determined also artificially the lack of liquidities.

Bibliografy

Cihák, M., Fonteyne W. (2009) Five Years After: European Union Membership and Macro-Financial Stability in the New Member States, IMF Working Paper 68.

Gaftoniuc, S. (2009) Reinventarea bancilor. Expansiunea creditului si "economia în trei timpi", The Romanian Economic Journal, nr.31, vol. 1, pp. 31-43.

IMF (2009a) Regional Economic Outlook – Europe addressing the crisis, May, pp. 15-49.

IMF (2009b) World Economic Outlook – Crisis and recovery, April, pp. 21-53.

IMF (2009c) Initial Lessons of the Crisis, Prepared by the Research, Monetary and Capital Markets, and Strategy, Policy, and Review Departments, February, pp. 61-85.

Isarescu, M. (2008) Romania in the Context of the Global Financial Crisis – An Overview, Studies and Analysis, National Bank of Romania, December.

Jickling, M. (2009) Causes of the Financial Crisis, Congressional Research Service, January, pp. 34-36.

Pauwels, St. (2009) Romania: unwinding imbalances – need for fiscal consolidation, Ecofin Country Focus, Volume 6, Issue 1, pp. 11-14.

World Bank (2008) The Unfolding Crisis Implications for Financial Systems and Their Oversight, Financial Systems, Development Economics departments and the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management department, October, pp. 28-41.

* * * Romania - Stand-by Arrangement with IMF, April 2009, pp. 12-22.

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Modul de sesizare a neregulilor apărute în implementarea proiectelor de mediu finanţate din

fonduri europene

Marilena Rozenberg*

Abstract: This paper presents the most important European Funds, which are available

for Romania in 2007-2013 and their allocation to various areas and is composed of an overview of all operational programs, including priority axes, managing authorities and intermediate bodies. Further detail is presented types of irregularities, the detection of irregularities and irregularities how instituting environmental projects identified by individuals (contractors, citizens, media, etc) project beneficiaries and institutions dealing with managing these funds.

Key word: operational programs, priority axes, managing authorities, intermediate bodies, types of irregularities, detection of irregularities.

Fondurile europene alocate României pentru 2007-2013

Bugetul Uniunii Europene se proiectează de către Comisia Europeană pentru o perioadă de 7 ani, denumită şi ”perspectivă financiară“, actuala perioadă fiind 2007-2013. Bugetul s-a alocat pentru finanţarea unor politici europene, cele mai mari sume mergând la politica agricolă comună şi politica de coeziune (politica europeană regională).

Politica de coeziune (PC) are alocat aproximativ o treime din bugetul Uniunii Europene (308 miliarde Euro) pentru perioada 2007-2013 şi are la dispoziţie mai multe instrumente numite şi instrumente structurale. Instrumentele structurale denumesc fondurile structurale şi fondul de coeziune luate în ansamblu.

*Ministerul Mediului - Organism Intermediar POS Mediu Regiunea Nord Vest, Str. Minerilor nr. 47, 400409, Cluj-Napoca, Tel/Fax : 0264 418714, România, [email protected]; www.posmediucj.ro

Marilena Rozenberg

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Alocarea Fondurilor Europene se face de către Comisia Europeană pentru a-şi finanţa politicile interne şi externe. Fondurile europene care se alocă României în perioada 2007-2013 sunt de peste 30 miliarde Euro.

În tabelul de mai jos este prezentată o clasificare a fondurilor europene şi modul lor de alocare.

Tabel 1 Clasificarea şi valoarea fondurilor europene

Cadrul Strategic Naţional de Referinţă se implementează prin Programele Operaţionale (PO), elaborate prin obiectivele “Convergenţă” şi “Cooperare Teritorială Europeană”.

Obiectivul “Cooperare Teritorială Europeană” cuprinde: cooperarea transfrontalieră, transnaţională şi interregională şi îi sunt alocate 0,394 miliarde euro. În cadrul obiectivului “Cooperare Teritorială Europeană” există 7 Programe Operaţionale.

Obiectivul “Convergenţă” se derulează în România prin 7 Programe Operaţionale cărora le vor fi alocate aproximativ 16,8 miliarde Euro (tabelul 2).

Fiecare Program Operaţional este împărţit în mai multe Axe Prioritare (ilustrând obiectivele Programului Operaţional respectiv), fiecare axă având unul sau mai multe Domenii majore de intervenţie, care la rândul lor pot cuprinde una sau mai multe operaţiuni ce urmează a beneficia de finanţare din fondurile structurale.

Nr crt

Denumirea Fondurilor Europene

Valoarea fondurilor (miliarde

euro) FEDR- Fondul European pentru

Dezvoltare Regională 9,6

Fonduri structurale

FSE – Fondul Social European 3 1 Instrumente structurale

Fondul de coeziune 6,5

2 FEADR - Fondul European Agricol pentru Dezvoltare Rurală 7 3 FEGA – Fondul European pentru Garantare Agricolă 5 4 FEP – Fondul European pentru Pescuit 0,2 Total : 30

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Tabel 2 Programele Operaţionale din cadrul obiectivului de Convergenţă

Nr. crt.

Programul Operaţional Suma alocată şi fondul care finanţează PO

(miliarde Euro şi %)

1. Programul Operaţional Sectorial - Creşterea Competitivităţii Economice (POS-CCE)

Axa Prioritară 1: Un sistem inovativ de producţie Axa Prioritară 2: Cercetare, dezvoltarea tehnologică

şi inovarea pentru competitivitate Axa Prioritară 3: Tehnologia informaţiei si comunicaţiilor pentru sectoarele privat şi public

Axa Prioritară 4: Creşterea eficienţei energetice şi dezvoltarea durabilă a sistemului energetic

Axa Prioritară 5: România, destinaţie atractivă pentru turism şi afaceri

Axa Prioritară 6: Asistenţă tehnică Autoritatea de Management : Ministerul

întreprinderilor mici şi mijlocii, comerţului şi Profesiei şi mediului de afaceri

Organism Intermediar : Ministerul întreprinderilor mici şi

mijlocii, comerţului şi Profesiei şi mediului de afaceri, Ministerul educaţiei, cercetării şi inovării (Autoritatea

Naţională pentru Cercetare Ştiinţifică), Ministerul comunicaţiilor şi societăţii informaţionale, Ministerul

economiei (Direcţia Generală Politică Energetică).

2,24 -FEDR 19,4 %

2. Programul Operaţional Sectorial - Transport (POST) Axa Prioritară 1 - Modernizarea şi dezvoltarea axelor

prioritare TEN-T Axa Prioritară 2 - Modernizarea şi dezvoltarea

infrastructurii naţionale de transport în afara Axelor prioritare TEN-T

Axa Prioritară 3 - Modernizarea materialului rulant de cale ferată dedicat călătorilor pentru reţelele de

cale ferată naţională Axa Prioritară 4 - Dezvoltarea durabilă a sectorului

Transporturi

1,13 -FEDR 2,878 FC 23,8 %

Marilena Rozenberg

322

Axa Prioritară 5 - Asistenţă tehnică pentru POST Autoritatea de Management: Ministerul transporturilor

şi infrastructurii Organism Intermediar: Nu există

3. Programul Operaţional Sectorial de Mediu (POS Mediu) Axa Prioritară 1: Extinderea şi modernizarea

infrastructurii de apă şi apă uzată Axa Prioritară 2: Dezvoltarea sistemelor de management integrat al deşeurilor şi reabilitarea

siturilor contaminate Axa Prioritară 3: Îmbunătăţirea sistemelor municipale de termoficare în localităţile cele mai

afectate de poluare Axa Prioritară 4: Implementarea sistemelor adecvate

de management pentru protecţia naturii Axa Prioritară 5: Implementarea infrastructurii adecvate de prevenire a riscurilor naturale în zonele

cele mai expuse la risc Axa Prioritară 6: Asistenţă Tehnică

Autoritatea de Management: Ministerul Mediului Organism Intermediar: 8 Organisme Intermediare

Regionale

1,08 -FEDR 2,877 -FC

23,5 %

4. Programul Operaţional Regional - POR Axa Prioritară 1: Îmbunătăţirea infrastructurii

regionale şi locale Axa Prioritară 2: Consolidarea mediului de afaceri

regional şi local Axa Prioritară 3: Dezvoltarea turismului regional şi

local Axa Prioritară 4: Dezvoltare urbană durabilă

Axa Prioritară 5: Asistenţă Tehnică Autoritatea de Management: Ministerul dezvoltării

regionale şi locuinţei Organism Intermediar: Agenţiile pentru dezvoltare

Regională (ADR), Ministerul întreprinderilor mici şi mijlocii, comerţului şi

Profesiei şi mediului de afaceri

3,27 -FEDR 19,4 %

5. Programul Operaţional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane (POS DRU)

3,05- FSE 18,1 %


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Axa Prioritară 1: Educaţia şi formarea profesională în sprijinul creşterii economice şi dezvoltării societăţii

bazate pe cunoaştere Axa Prioritară 2: Conectarea învăţării pe tot

parcursul vieţii cu piaţa muncii Axa Prioritară 3: Creşterea adaptabilităţii forţei de

munca şi a întreprinderilor Axa Prioritară 4: Modernizarea Serviciului Public de

Ocupare Axa Prioritară 5: Promovarea măsurilor active de

ocupare Axa Prioritară 6: Promovarea incluziunii sociale

Axa Prioritară 7: Asistenţă Tehnică Autoritatea de Management: Ministerul muncii, familiei

şi protecţiei sociale Organism Intermediar: Agenţia Naţională de Ocupare a Forţei de Muncă , 8 Organisme Intermediare Regionale,

Ministerul educaţiei, cercetării şi inovării , Centrul National de Dezvoltare a

Învăţământului Profesional şi Tehnic 6. Programul Operaţional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Capacităţii

Administrative (PO DCA) Axa Prioritară 1: Întărirea intervenţiilor de politici

publice în administraţia centrală Axa Prioritară 2: Dezvoltarea capacităţii de

îmbunătăţire a performanţei serviciilor în administraţia locală

Axa Prioritară 3: Asistenţa tehnică pentru sprijinirea implementării PO

Autoritatea de Management: Ministerul administraţiei şi internelor

Organism Intermediar: Nu există

0,185 -FSE 1,0 %

7. Programul Operaţional de Asistenţă Tehnică (PO AT) Axa Prioritară 1: Sprijin pentru implementarea

instrumentelor structurale şi coordonarea programelor

Axa Prioritară 2: Dezvoltări viitoare şi sprijin pentru funcţionarea Sistemului Informatic Unic de

Management

0,15 -FEDR 0,9 %

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2. Prevenirea, identificarea şi investigarea neregulilor la proiectele de mediu cu finanţări europene

Baza legală privind neregulile depistate pe proiectele de mediu cu finanţări europene este reprezentată de Regulamentul Comisiei 1828/2006 care stabileşte regulile pentru implementarea Regulamentului Consiliului nr. 1083/2006 şi a Regulamentului nr. 1080/2006, Regulamentul Consiliului nr. 2988/95 privind protejarea intereselor financiare ale Comunităţilor Europene şi Ordonanţa Guvernului României nr. 79/2003, cu modificările şi completările ulterioare, care stabileşte modalităţile de control şi de recuperare a sumelor din asistenţa financiară nerambursabilă a Uniunii Europene.

Conform regulamentelor, statele membre sunt responsabile pentru prevenirea, detectarea şi corectarea neregulilor şi pentru recuperarea sumelor plătite nejustificat împreună cu dobânda pentru plata întârziată, dacă este cazul. Statele membre vor notifica neregulile la Comisie şi vor informa Comisia asupra stadiului procedurilor administrative şi juridice.

De asemenea, statele membre au responsabilitatea de a investiga neregulile, acţionând în baza unor dovezi privind orice schimbare majoră care afectează natura sau condiţiile de implementare sau de a controla operaţiunile sau programele operaţionale precum şi de a face corecţiile financiare necesare.

Corecţiile financiare sunt realizate în relaţie cu neregulile individuale sau sistematice detectate în cadrul operaţiunilor sau programelor operaţionale.

Neregula este orice încălcare a unei dispoziţii a dreptului comunitar care rezultă dintr-un act sau dintr-o omisiune a unui operator economic care are sau ar putea avea ca efect un prejudiciu la adresa bugetului general al UE prin imputarea unei cheltuieli necorespunzătoare a bugetului general (Regulamentul Consiliului nr. 1083/2006).

Axa Prioritară 3: Diseminarea informaţiei şi promovarea instrumentelor structurale

Autoritatea de Management: Ministerul finanţelor publice

Organism Intermediar: Nu există


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Suspiciunea de fraudă este neregula ce determină iniţierea unor proceduri administrative sau juridice la nivel naţional în vederea stabilirii existenţei unui comportament intenţionat, în special a unei fraude, aşa cum se face referire la punctul (a) Articolul 1(1) al Convenţiei pentru protejarea intereselor financiare ale CE (Regulamentul Comisiei nr. 1828/2006).

Eroarea reprezintă neregula fără impact financiar, adică identificată înainte să se fi făcut vreo plată către beneficiarul contribuţiei publice şi înainte de includerea cheltuielii respective într-o declaraţie de cheltuieli înaintată Comisiei.

Diferenţa între neregulă şi fraudă este că neregula este comisă neintenţionat iar frauda este o neregulă comisă intenţionat.

Fig.1 Legătura dintre neregulă, suspiciune de fraudă şi fraudă

Diferenţa între suspiciunea de fraudă şi fraudă: suspiciunea de fraudă conţine un element subiectiv de la început. Ca să fie suspiciune de fraudă trebuie să exisate o referire de aducere la cunoştinţă la parchet sau să existe un proces în instanţă pe rol. Frauda este legată de domeniul penal: nu poţi să ai o fraudă prin sancţiune administrativă. Suspiciunea de fraudă devine fraudă numai după ce curtea de justiţie dă sentinţa (de exemplu: că facturile au fost falsificate ).Legătura dintre neregulă, suspiciune de fraudă şi fraudă este prezentată în figura 1.

Principiile de tratare a neregulilor identificate în cadrul POS Mediu sunt:

Detectarea neregulilor este o sarcină pentru toate nivelele procesului de implementare (Beneficiari, Organisme

Suspiciune de fraudă

Fraudă

Neregulă

Marilena Rozenberg

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Intermediare, Autoritate de Management, Autoritate de Certificare şi Plată, etc.);

Autoritatea de Management (AM) este responsabilă pentru prevenirea şi corectarea neregulilor şi recuperarea sumelor plătite nejustificat în cadrul POS Mediu;

Prevenirea neregulilor este asigurată prin adoptarea Manualelor de Proceduri pentru toate activităţile procesului de implementare, prin aplicarea procedurilor elaborate, prin controlul exercitat de către nivelul de management şi prin furnizarea de ghiduri metodologice pentru tratarea neregulilor;

Suspiciunile de nereguli identificate la nivelul Beneficiarilor, Organismelor Intermediare(OI) şi Autorităţii de Management sunt imediat raportate Autorităţii de Management. Autoritatea de Management a înfiinţat un compartiment special dedicat investigării neregulilor;

Autoritatea de Management investighează neregulile suspectate, de regula în colaborare cu organismul care a detectat anterior neregula şi va fi folosit sprijin extern daca va fi nevoie;

Când o neregulă se confirmă, AM urmează paşii necesari pentru a recupera sumele plătite nejustificat sau pentru a proceda la o corecţie financiară corespunzătoare;

AM este responsabilă pentru notificarea neregulilor detectate (suspectate) în conformitate cu cerinţele noilor regulamente (notificare trimestrială, situaţii urgente, raportarea urmăririi sau a nerecuperării).

Pentru a permite existenţa unui proces corespunzător de prevenire, detectare şi raportare a neregulilor la nivelul AM şi al OI - urilor sunt numiţi responsabili de nereguli. Responsabilii de nereguli numiţi la nivelul OI - urilor transmit la AM Formularele de Alertă sau Notificările privind suspiciunile de neregulă. Responsabilul Compartimentului de Nereguli numit la nivelul AM pregăteşte rapoarte trimestriale şi ad-hoc şi le transmite la Autoritatea de Certificare şi Plată (ACP).

Rapoartele sunt centralizate şi verificate de Autoritatea de Certificare şi Plată şi apoi înaintate la Departamentul de Luptă Anti - Fraudă (DLAF) pentru transmiterea trimestrială la Oficiul European de Luptă Anti -


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Fraudă (OLAF). ACP primeşte rapoartele de la Autorităţile de Management şi trebuie să includă şi rapoartele cu privire la neregulile din interiorul său.

Tipurile cele mai frecvente de nereguli sunt : - nereguli de ordin tehnic: diverse şi neprevăzute, lucrări

neexecutate, lucrări neconforme cu cerinţele de calitate, cheltuieli solicitate de 2 ori, echipamente durabile (înstrăinare), nerespectarea măsurilor de informare şi publicitate.

- nereguli de ordin financiar: nerespectarea cadrului legal şi a condiţiilor contractuale de plată, depăşiri de linii bugetare, cheltuieli neeligibile (TVA, comisioane bancare, diferenţe de curs valutar), lipsa/necorelări documente justificative (fişe de pontaj lunar/zilnice), etc.

Neregulile care au ca efect un prejudiciu al fondurilor UE de mai puţin de 10.000 Euro, nu trebuie raportate la Comisia Europeană (CE), conform Regulamentului Comisiei 1828 / 2006, cu excepţia situaţiei în care CE solicita în mod expres acest lucru. Prin urmare, neregulile de peste 10.000 Euro şi toate neregulile comise intenţionat trebuie raportate la Comisia Europeană.

Din raportul DLAF de pe anul 2008, rezultă că principalele tipuri de fraude/nereguli identificate cu ocazia controalelor efectuate de DLAF au fost:

- utilizarea de documente, declaraţii, certificate fiscale false sau falsificate(50%);

- folosirea de documente incorecte şi incomplete (29%); - încălcarea condiţiilor de eligibilitate (21%).

O metodă de fraudare frecvent întâlnită în 2008 a reprezentat-o simularea procedurilor de licitaţie de către beneficiari, în scopul achiziţionării propriilor utilaje/echipamente.

De asemenea, s-au constatat şi cazuri de complicitate între solicitanţii finanţărilor europene şi reprezentanţii administraţiilor locale/fiscale, materializată prin emiterea de către aceştia din urmă a unor certificate de atestare fiscală false, utilizate în dovedirea eligibilităţii.

Metodele de detectare a neregulilor sunt foarte diverse: control financiar şi administrativ, controlul documentelor, controlul conturilor, control la sediul firmei, control la fata locului a realizării proiectului sau a acţiunii, confesiuni spontane, plângerea, rutina, noroc, îndoieli existente,

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refuzul de a acepta controale , conduită suspectă, informaţii publicate în mass-media, nereguli detectate şi raportate de organismele UE, verificări aleatoare, analiză de risc, etc

Neregulile pot fi identificate de reprezentanţi de la Comisia Europeană, Oficiul European de Luptă Antifraudă , Curtea de Conturi a Comisiei Europene, Directia Naţională Anticorupţie, Departamentul de Luptă Antifraudă, Consiliul Naţional de Soluţionare a Contestaţiilor, Curtea de Conturi a României, Autoritatea de Audit, Autoritatea de Certificare şi Plată, Autoritatea de Management, Organismul Intermediar, Beneficiarul precum şi de orice persoană fizică.

De asemenea orice persoană implicată în implementarea unui Program Operaţional poate raporta orice caz de fraudă suspectă responsabililor de nereguli ai Autorităţii de Certificare şi Plată, AM sau OI sau Unităţilor de Audit Intern ale acestora, fie formal fie anonim. Persoana care raportează cazul suspectat nu va avea nici o implicare ulterioară în procesul de investigare a neregulii din motive de securitate personală.

Modul de sesizare a neregulilor se face prin completarea unui Formular de alertă sau a unui formular de Notificare privind suspiciunea de neregulă, aceste două documente fiind considerate acte de constatare primară administrativă.

Neregulile suspectate vor fi analizate şi investigate de către serviciile competente şi rezolvate conform procedurilor interne privind neregulile pentru POS Mediu şi cadrul legal naţional în vigoare.

Concluzii

Evoluţia descrescătoare a numărului de nereguli înregistrate şi raportate în 2009 faţă de 2007 este rezultatul, pe de o parte, a intensificării activităţii de control a Departamentului de Luptă Antifraudă, a Direcţiei Naţionale Anticorupţie care au înştiinţat instituţiile care efectuează plăţile asupra neregulilor descoperite şi pentru care s-au demarat procedurile de recuperare, conform legii. Pe de altă parte, acesta descreştere a numărului de nereguli se datorează şi apariţiei manualelor interne de proceduri care se referă atât la modul de raportare a neregulilor cât şi la recuperarea debitelor, constatarea creanţelor bugetare şi verificarea contabilităţii beneficiarilor de fonduri europene.


Prevenirea fraudării fondurilor comunitare se poate face prin acţiuni de comunicare şi relaţii publice: prin diseminarea datelor cu privire la POS Mediu, prin creşterea gradului de informare a opiniei publice în vederea prevenirii fraudei, prin creşterea gradului de transparenţă în alocarea fondurilor europene nerambursabile precum şi prin prezentarea cazurilor curente de nereguli/fraude.

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Considerations upon the role of the emotional intelligence in the human resources management in

tourism

Andreea Măriuca Rus*, Ing. Daiana Curtean**

Abstract. The economic globalization and the internet have completely revolutionized

business context. The variety of products and specilized services available is exploding. The standard customer is now more educated and demanding, more experienced in evaluating performance. Serving these kind of clients involves not only outstanding products and services, but also high quality human resources in delivering them; professionnal knowledge and personal skills are both required. Recruiting and retaining the bests has to become and then to remain, a priority for businesses that want to survive on the market. The present paper is intended to underline the importance of the emotional intelligence in the human resources management, especially in the tourism industry.

JEL Classification: L83, M12 Keywords: tourism, human resources management, emotional intelligence

1. Introduction

Economies are dominated by services and adding value through services has become one of the ways to compete, whether it is about a traditional service firm or a manufacturing company. Most of the potential clients are looking beside unique experiences, for comprehensive solutions and service value, too. To deliver high-quality services, to better understand own customers and to improve their lives, to enable own „people to both innovate and continuously improve services” and, of

* Faculty of Machine Building, Address: 103-105 Bulevardul Muncii Street, Cluj-Napoca. E-mail: [email protected] ** Faculty of Machine Building, Address: 103-105 Bulevardul Muncii Street, Cluj-Napoca. E-mail: [email protected]

Considerations upon the role of the emotional intelligence in the human resources...

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course, to set own and specific strategy are „a must” for all companies no matter their size or activity field (Gustafsson and Johnson, 2003).

According to the widely accepted concept, „The general category of the services includes a wide variety of industries, which can be categorized into primarily consumer-oriented (providing a service directly to a consumer), primarily business-oriented (providing a service directly to another business) or mixed (providing services to both businesses and individual consumers) [...]Alternately, the services [...] can be described by their economic activities as physical, intellectual, aesthetic, and other experiential activities [...]. A final way in which to categorize services is by what is transformed through the service: a physical object (object mending), a consumer (throught education or health care) or an organization (professional consulting) [...]” (Encyclopedia of Management, 2006).

In other words, services are produced in processes that directly involve the customer and their result is mainly intangible, therefore difficult to evaluate. The immediate consequence is that „customers can contribute much more to the development of services than they typically can for physical goods [...]. But the value is gained only if the organization is able to tap customers' expertise and ideas and translate them into service improvements [...] and to regard customers as a source of competence for company” (Gustafsson and Johnson, 2003).

Tourism includes those activities producing services that are destinstated to meet the consumption needs of tourists. In contemporary society, the tourism has become a social phenomenon in continuous economic expansion generated by the human need for knowledge, recreation and physical and psychological recovery in the conditions of a demanding civilization, but with superior materials opportunities for most of the people (Cocean, 2004). Tourism is one of the basic engines of the entire world economy leading to direct economic effects (net income for the economic agents) and some indirectly by stimulating other industries and economic sectors (industry, agriculture) through the so-called multiplication effect.

Andreea Măriuca Rus, Ing. Daiana Curtean

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2. Tourism

The phenomenon of tourism today is a very complex one and is defined by a wide range of specific concepts, which include its main features. The main notions involved in tourism are: tourist, tourism, touristic capital, tourism product, touristic supply and demand, tourist movement (Cocean, 2004).

Tourism activity has to be supported by a natural tourism potential and is inconceivable without the presence of the anthropogenic factor which varies from country to country. Depending on this factor, the touristic categories can be divided into different types. Among the most common are: spa tourism, mountain tourism, seashore tourism, cultural and religious tourism, trading tourism, festival tourism, sports tourism, and nowadays we can see in our country too, the increasingly frequent business tourism.

In order to have a tourism carried on in the best conditions, sufficient touristic accommodations, meals and entertainment must be provided according to the market level. Units of accommodation, meals and entertainment form the turistic resources and through them volume, structure and competitive services must be provided. But only the technical and material resources are not sufficient to ensure a quality tourism, a well trained staff is also needed.

The concepts of tourist and tourism are closely interconditioned, the tourist beeing the driving element of the whole phenomenon, and tourism is the result of this activity. Tourist means any person traveling outside the own residence or for an indefinite period, with the main purpose of recreation and physical and mental recovery (Cocean, 2004).

Accommodation units may come in different sizes, depending primarily on the nature of the type of the organized tourism. Usually in a hotel specific activities are undertaken within the framework of services and departments. A service consists of a group of workers carrying out various operations and services form a merged department. In a small hotel with 10-50 employees a service structure is enough, but in a large hotel with 3-400 rooms, a structure consisting of departments is required. Regardless the size of the company or the volume of the work involved, the basic principles of managing a touristic unit are the same.


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The Role of the Human Management Resources

In order to conduct a quality tourism based on the work of employees capable of performance, the senior stafft must adopt two strategical directions regarding the human resources management which are absolutely necessary: recruiting and improvement. Recruiting is the basic step to ensure staff, a very important one, because the quality of recruitment can have a major influence on future performances of the company. The improvement should be seen as a management process of maintaining and developing own staff to attain the competitive level required to the survival of the business on the market.

It is well known that in the recent years in Romania, there was no emphasis on the quality of tourism staff, this problem was overlooked in favour of the technical and material resources. The concept "our customer is our master" or "absolute master" should not be forgotten, his level of satisfaction is essential to the business survival in the competitive environment. Most tourists who visit our country complain primarily about how they were treated by the tourism employees and it is most likely that this behavior is due to their lack of professional preparation. Mainly, this personnel training for tourism is conducted within the national education and training system.

The traditional vision of staff recruiting and improvement confined mainly to the theoretical and practical knowledge of employees, the need of the testing periods, the continuous improvement of the employees through specific training activities ment to lead to the change of the employees and travel agents attitudes in order to increase the motivation and participation in continuous training and lifelong learning. Moving towards a knowledge society requires investments in human resources development in order to encourage employees to learn new skills. Thus,there have emerged in the big companies the HR departments and people specialized in recruitment and selection.

The need to have in key and leading positions as valuable employees as possible, and well prepared too, is obvious to everyone involved in business, but the above-mentioned principles are not sufficient anymore. There is one thing, a key element that influences the professional success and implicitily, the personal one, and that is a plurality of personal traits involving communication, adaptation, desire for cooperation and


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participation, positive and tonic presence. Once ensured the professional threshold set by selection and training, the personal traits should be highly regarded as they have a major contribution to at the workplace and in personel life, too.

A direction worth to be considered is one that is in trend now, the adoption of emotional intelligence as a criterion for selection and promotion. Still, there is a mention to be made: this criterion alone is not sufficient, it must be part of a whole set of criteria which should focus on those personal traits that are useful in an organization, and the set has to be consistent with the business vision and the Romanian cultural specific nature. To imitate models or to adopt solutions that other national and organizational cultures have developed and successfully used, does not guarantee the competitiveness and sustainability of a firm.

There are two basic ways to increase emotional intelligence in an organization:

1. hire people who are emotionally intelligent; 2. develop emotional intelligence in current members.

The fastest way to raise the emotional intelligence of the members of an organization, and consequently their emotional skills, is still selecting individuals who already possess and demonstrate these skills and behaviours. Although emotional intelligence skills are harder to detect than traditional ones that appear on a CV (education, skill and experience), they proved to be key differentiation between the employees truly remarkable and the media. If organizations want to increase these skills in their staff, human resources recruitment, selection and hiring must include procedures and methods of identifying these skills in candidates. The literature on emotional competence provides resources and guidelines to develop the formula or algorithm that would lead to successful performance of each business. (Ashour, 2005)

3. Emotional Intelligence

So far, numerous researches have been done which demonstrates that a person's ability to perceive, identify and manage own emotions provide the basis of the social and emotional skills that are so important to success in almost any job position.


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According to the "classical" principles which governs the recruitment process, the criterion of intellectual intelligence accompanied by a resume that should reflect as much "experience in the field" as possible, are still of major importance. In many organizations reigns the belief that "boss" should have a high IQ and too close relations among employees who are on different hierarchical levels are unthinkable, that among these organizational levels the mutual respect is sufficient and the responsibilities coming from professional obligations is an attribute that has to be assumed by every employee.

The practice of the recent years and the unexpected success of some organizations has shown that IQ and professional knowledge are not sufficient for positive outcomes. Specialists in various fields have begun to study the skills of those who are successful in life, and the reasons why some people fail in almost everything they do. So, what was presumed by many of those involved in working with people, has become a proven scientific certainty: in a company, in addition to the intellect, regardless of rank, other qualities are also needed: self-control, self -motivation and perseverance, pleasant presence, sense of humor etc.

What is intelligence ?

Intelligence is a very general mental ability that involves "the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience and the potential to do so" (Gale Encyclopedia, 2001)

Emotional Intelligence. A Brief History

For a long time the psychological sciences were dominated by the belief that man has only one form of intelligence. The situation was changed in the 1920s, when E.L.Thorndike, professor at Columbia University, uses the term social intelligence to describe our ability to understand others and to manage our relations with our fellow man (Indiana.edu, 2009). His son, Robert Thorndike, continued research in this area, and in 1937, with Steven J. Stein, published "An evaluation of attempts to measure social intelligence" in the Psychological Bulletin, (p.275-284).

In 1940, David Wechsler, the author of the standardized tests set for academic intelligence (theoretical), said that non-intellectual skills (the


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emotional and personal skills, and social factors) are essential in predicting success in life, and in 1944 defined intelligence as an aggregate or an individual's overall capacity to act consciously, to think rationally, and to relate effectively with his/her environment. “The main question is whether non-intellective, that is affective and conative abilities, are admissible as factors of general intelligence. My contention has been that such factors are not only admissible but necessary. I have tried to show that in addition to intellective there are also definite non-intellective factors that determine intelligent behavior. If the foregoing observations are correct, it follows that we cannot expect to measure total intelligence until our tests also include some measures of the non-intellective factors.” (Wechsler, 1943).

Howard Gardner (1983) introduces the concept of multiple intelligences. In his book „Frames of Mind. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences”, published in 1983 in New York, Basic Books, the author believes that it can not be stated the we have only one monolithic form of intelligence that would be crucial to success in our life, but rather a spectrum of seven key-intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. This view of intelligence provides a wider picture of a person's ability and his/her potential for success than the standard intelligence coefficient (IQ) could offer. In other words, our IQ may be the foundation for how mentally brilliant we are, but in order to properly function in today's society, it is imperative that a person knows too, how to interact with others and to do this, one must be able to read emotions and have the capability to channel own’s emotions appropriately in different situations.

Emotional Intelligence (El) It is a relatively new area of psychological research and its definition is constantly changing. It is often measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ) which describes the ability or the capacity to identify, assess and manage the emotions of one's self, of others and of groups.

The first use of the term Emotional Intelligence (EI) appeared in a German publication „Praxis der Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie” by Hanscarl Leuner in 1966. In it, Leuner argues that women who reject their social roles behave in this way due to the fact they have been separated at an early age from their mothers (Wikipedia, 2009). Later, the term was used again in 1985, by Wayne Leon Payne in his PhD


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thesis: „A Study of Emotion: Developing Emotional Intelligence” after graduating in liberal arts at Union Institute of Cincinnatti (Hein, 2009). In the late 1980s, M.D. Stanley I. Greenspan, clinical Professor of Psychiatry and Pediatrics at The George Washington University Medical School submitted to the public his opinions on assessment, diagnosis and intervention in emotional disorders (Greenspan, 2009).

The concept of „emotional intelligence” was rigorously defined and entered the world of psychology for the first time in the works of John D. Mayer, professor at the University of New Hampshire and Peter Salovey, a professor at Yale University. The two authors drafted two papers that will become landmarks in the emotional intelligence research, "Emotional Intelligence" published in 1990 at Baywood Publishing Co., Inc. and "The Intelligence of Emotional Intelligence" published in 1993 as editorial in Intelligence 17, p. 433-442.

In October 1995 appears in the "Time" magazine the article "The EQ Factor", signed by Nancy Gibbs that refers to the book published earlier that year by Daniel Goleman, "Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ" journalist at the same publication (Gibbs, 1995). Daniel Goleman graduated Harvard University with a doctorate in clinical psychology and personality development. The book becomes a bestseller and remains a top-selling almost for a year and half attracting the attention of many businessmen.

Another important step was the defining of the emotional quotient: EQ. In 1996, Reuven Bar-On presents the article "The EQ’s Era: Defining and Assessing Emotional Intelligence" at the Annual Conference of American Psychologist and in 1997 he published the first test to measure the emotional intelligent quotient EQ, called "The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (the EQ-i).

In 1998 Daniel Goleman realized the importance of the emotional intelligence for the business area and published another book: "Working with Emotional Intelligence", which became a bestseller in only three weeks after its release. The subject is one very interesting, especially because the author proposes a different way of evaluating the human qualities. In the same year, Goleman designes an evaluation test of emotional and social skills for members of organizations, an emotional intelligence test based on


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the model defined in the book mentioned above, called The Emotional Competence Inventory 2.0.

In 1998, David Caruso, John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey redefine emotional intelligence as the ability to perceive and express emotions, to assimilate emotions in thought, understand and judge guided by emotions, and to regulate own and others emotions.In the same year, they designed a measuring instrument based on the EI model with four branches developed by the last two in 1997, called the MSCEIT, Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, Emotional Intelligence Test measuring. (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2008).

What is emotional intelligence ?

In the literature there are given several definitions and this is because there are a lot of opinions about this cocept. Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer gave in 1990 a definition of the emotional intelligence often cited even today. According to it, EI is "the ability to monitor one's own feelings and emotions, and others, to discriminate between them and use that information to channel thought and action." Despite the variety, all definitions are based on abilities to accurately perceive own emotions and those of others, to use these emotions to facilitate thinking and actions arising from them, to understand how emotions affect own behavior and of others, and in the same time, to keep under control own emotional reactions. (Cherniss, 2004)

EI Models

There are several concepts and models of emotional intelligence. In the present study we present two of them because of their importance in the development of this area:

1. The model with five areas of Daniel Goleman, filed in 1998, in the book "Working With Emotional Intelligence". In 2002, the author reconsiders his model, publishing in his new book, "Primal Leadership", a new model version with four fields.

2. The Mayer-Salovey model, filed in 1997, which defines four areas of emotional intelligence.


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Mayer – Salovey, 1997

According to these two authors, emotional intelligence includes the following branches:

1. Managing emotions so as to attain specific goals; 2. Understanding emotions, emotional language and the signals

conveyed by emotions; 3. Using emotions to facilitate thinking; 4. Perceiving emotions accurately in oneself and others. (Mayer,

Salovey & Caruso, 2008)

Daniel Goleman, 1998

The concept includes the next emotional constructs grouped in five domains:

A. Personal: 1. Self-awareness: knowledge of own internal states, preferences,

resources and insights; 2. Self-management: self-monitoring of internal states, impulses

and resources; 3. Motivation: the emotional tendencies which guide the

performance of the proposed goals; B. Social:

1. Empathy: feeling feelings, needs and concerns of others; 2. Sociability: the ability to induce in others desired reactions.

(Goleman, 1998).

EI at Work

All professionals who work in fields in which human interaction is preponderant need a high level of emotional intelligence (medical personnel, welfare work, teaching, administrative staff, artists, managers, leaders). At the work place, in a lesser or greater manner, it is desirable that all persons in the organization should have minimal emotional skills to be able to perform work tasks in a successful way. A salesperson, for example, needs empathy to understand the emotional state of the purchaser, and also optimism inorder to be not discouraged after one to two unsuccessful sales. Other employees might be requested for proving a greater initiative or self-discipline. Many of those who studied emotional intelligence believe


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that it has applications in all life areas, because knowing how to work and communicate with people is a quality which no one can dispense.

EI Study Case for Goleman’s Model, 1998

Next, we illustrate how emotional skills can determine the ideal behaviour of the receptionist in a tense situation which may arise in the evolution of a conversation with a customer.

Self-awareness: Knowledge of own internal states, preferences, resources and insights

The awareness of the personal emotions involve the identification and their consistent expression in a given context. Sometimes it is difficult to express clearly what we mean or feel – we are not consistent, and sometimes it is hard to understand what it is said - the intention behind the words. These situations can generate conflict. Moreover, during difficult periods, some employees who have direct contact with customers, tend to ignore or deny their own emotional experiences. Identifying emotions associated to various actions is useful and necessary because it encourages the receptionist to have an active attitude and spontaneously develop a plan to reduce tension between him and the customer. Dimension of self-consciousness enables the receptionist to pay attention not only to his own emotions, but also to the client’s emotions. The lack of understanding of his/her own and client’s mental state may have a negative impact on the overall image of the company.

Self-management: Self-monitoring of internal states, impulses and resources

Job insecurity might generate most often a tension in the company. There is a risk that some receptionists would adopt a defensive attitude when the pressure made by the customer is very high and in his/her mind and heart he/she would make a direct connection between the boss’s and client’s aggressiveness. Although it is better to externalize the emotions, they must be kept however, at a certain level of self-control; the self-control ability being considered in fact, one of the most important indicators in optimal communication strength and a measure of professionalism.


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Motivation: The emotional tendencies which guide the performance of the proposed goals

Individuals who excel in this competency are driven by the desire to strive, they set their moral and professional standards higher than the average; they turn to be the colleagues and subordinates that you can always rely on. Such a receptionist will inspire the client without any effort with a a sense of seriousness and solidity through an impeccable professional conduct.

Empathy: Feeling feelings, needs and concerns of others

When trying to deal with extreme situations, one solution may be that receptionists would try to identify with the customer, thinking how they would react in a similar situation. The answer to some questions - such as "How would I react in a similar situation?" Or "What would I feel if my vacation money would be at stake?" – might help them to empathize with the nervous state of the client. However, there is a risk that if there is too much empathy regarding the customer’s concerns, the receptionist might lose his/her objectivity. Although receptionists must understand the feelings and the needs of the customers, however, they must use firstly their own self emotional control in order to prove professionalism.

In order to benefit from the positive aspects of empathy it is very important for the receptionists to respect the value of every individual. Showing empathy enables customers to feel understood and appreciated. Generally, those customers who feel "incomprehended" can live strong feelings of anxiety and stress and can impact negatively on others and on prospective customers.

Sociability: The ability to induce in others desired reactions

It should be pointed out that the receptionists who are truly interested in the client’s state and have the talent to lead a pleasant conversation, will receive positive feedback from customers, valuable ideas, not just comments like "ledger for complaints and suggestions".

In conclusion, a receptionist with a high level of emotional intelligence serves both the clients as a human entity and the organization as an economic and social whole.


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4. Conclusions

The importance of emotional intelligence at work is undeniable. Researchers have demonstrated this scientifically, while those possessing this kind of intelligence do not need arguments and theories in supporting it or in its practical application. To demonstrate the economic efficiency or to translate in numbers "intangible assets" such as the emotional intelligence of the employees or the emerged emotional capital of the company, it is extremely difficult because they can not be quantified in accounting. A direct measurement is not possible, an assessment can be made only upon the effects this intelligence can have on the company’s productivity.

In the service industry, especially in tourism, the quality of the personnel coming into direct contact with customers is essential. Many companies recruit and select their future employees on a professional basis, not paying the enough importance to the personal qualities. Consequently, in many hotel or public service locations one can see unfriendly faces or even bad manners. Although it might seem exegerated, but looking to recruit staff with pleasant presence and aspect, is a step towards winning customers.

We believe that ensuring a minimum threshold of professional knowledge through recruitment is imperative. The true staff selection starts from here: from the candidates that demonstrate an acceptable level of professionalism, only those with obvius emotional skills should be hired. Employers should „try the client’s shoes” and to evaluate the candidates from this side, too. The effort will pay off, for sure.

Bibliografy

Ashour A.S. (2005). ”Building The Emotional Competencies Of Organizations”, Alexandria University Paper, Nov.2005, p.14-15

Cherniss C. (2004). “Emotional Intelligence”, Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology, Volume 2, Elsevier Academic Press, p.315-319

Cocean P. (2004). „Geografia turismului”, Editura Focul Viu, Cluj-Napoca, 2004, p.3-15

Colom R. (2004). “Intelligence Assessment”, Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology, Volume 2, Elsevier Academic Press, p.307


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Gibbs N. (1995). site http://www.time.com/time/classroom/psych/unit5_article1.html accesat la 15 decembrie 2009, ora 10:00

Goleman D. (1998). “ Working with Emotional Intelligence”, Bantam Books, New York, 1998

Greenspan S.I. (2009). site http://www.stanleygreenspan.com/ accesat la 15 decembrie 2009, ora 11:00

Gustafsson A., Johnson M.D. (2003). ”Competing in a Service Economy. How to Create a Competitive Advantage Through Service Development and Innovation”, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, p.xiii-8

Hein S. (2009). site http://eqi.org/payne.htm accesat la 15 decembrie 2009, ora 12:00

Mayer J.D., Salovey P., Caruso D.R. (2008). “Emotional Intelligence. New Ability or Eclectic Traits ?”, American Psychologist, September 2008, p.503-517.

Wechsler D. (1943). ”Non-intellective factors in general intelligence” , Psychological Bulletin, no.37, p.444-445.

***** Encyclopedia of Management 5th Edition (2006), Thomson Gale, Farmington Hills, USA, p.790-794

***** Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology 2nd Edition (2001), Gale Group, Farmington Hills, p.333

***** Indiana.edu (2009). site http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/ethorndike.shtml accesat la 15 decembrie 2009, ora 14.00

***** Wikipedia (2009). site http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence accesat la 15 decembrie 2009, ora 14:30

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Particularities of fixed assets. Accounting and fiscal treatment

Laura Sărac Aldea*

Abstract. The present work proposes to realize o complex research of the accounting

and fiscal perspective of fixed assets. A special attention will be given to the opportunity and the efficiency of the investment as an instrument in the management decision for the development of a company.

The accounting theory will find in the present work a complex approach on the subject of the investment in fixed assets especially while the investors and the owners of fixed assets as well as the fiscal and legal authorities will find in it a clear mention and explanation of all the present interpretations on this theme.

Many aspects that a company has to take into account in its development strategy find themselves out in the financing programs regarding a maximization of the profit through investment of the capital in tangible and intangible assets, implementing of new technologies, measures for protection of the medium or financial investments.

The company is the driving force of the economy and the company that moves after a strategy based on competitive know how is the future of the economy. The present work aims to offer this know how to the companies.

The work treats in detail the aspect of the capital investment in long term assets , the obligations and risks that this investment involves, the efficiency of the investment and its effects on the development of the business.

The work start from the concept of" assets ".I tried the reflection at the some time of the common points and the differences to immobilizations approach between as part as International Standards of Financial Report issued by IASB and OMFP nr. 1752/ 2005 for the approval of Accounting Rules according to Europe Directives.

Theoretical and scientific support of work is the ensemble of concepts, princes, researches, studies of cases, techniques of audit and the acknowledged methods of management from the special national or international literature.

JEL Classification: M41, M21 Keywords: investments, assets, tangible assets, intangible assets

* A.S.E. Bucureşti, Romania, Şaguna University of Constanţa, Romania


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1. Introduction

The present work proposes to realize o complex research of the accounting and fiscal perspective of fixed assets. A special attention will be given to the opportunity and the efficiency of the investment as an instrument in the management decision for the development of a company.

The scientific novelty work is focused to the element of complexity and actuality of information, which, due to deep changes from the structure markets, of transformations alerts ale the process of productions based on the technical progress unknown in history, becomes vital as much in, practice the quotient and in theory. The novelty consist in comparative approach of the theoretical appearances concerning the immobilizations according to International Standards of Financial Report issued by IASB and OMFP nr. 1752/ 2005 for the approval of Accounting Rules according to Europe Directives.

2.The fundamental concepts concerning the material / immaterial assets. Viewpoints.

Different appearances of the assets immobilizations were treaties in the economic literature especially separate, on stage of active , or except alone viewpoints, as a rule either the bookkeeper, either juridical, either managerial, fact for which considered equip an which his work is one the all the appearances being in a the complete guides of the investor.

A correct characterization a phenomenon of investments upon on: The economic appearance, financier, bookkeeper and juridical.

From economic viewpoint, investment represents all the consumptions of which funds done currently in of a hopes economic future effects.

From financial viewpoint investment represents the creation of capital of production through the renunciation to the immediate consumption of money funds, capital achieved a flux of future receipts.

Below appearance bookkeeper, investments represents the transformation of money’s availabilities in active physical submissive amortization, or in active financial. The expenditure in the case of investment, he represents the active transformation in active material an financial which increase the patrimony of business, be the word of an expenditure of which effect is stretched outside of the current exercise.

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From juridical viewpoint, investment represents the creation of elements of which patrimony can constitute the objects of the ownership.

Considering investment as a phenomenon financial and monetary, it would be appreciated as these represents envolved on a long of a term capital of to his investor or given the accumulations of the populations in the aim obtaining of a the maximum gain with minimum in a riskness the after days.

After some specialists, through investments are apprehended: I., Vasilescu I. – Management of investments, Editura Margaritar,

Bucuresti 1997, pag6 " an acts wherewith spend his another money funds in hope as the in

future are shall received sums the big maul of his money - Vasilescu I., Luban F. Investitiile in the system of the business, Editura

Eficon Press, Bucuresti 2003, pag 134 " anything used of a active as capital in the aim realization of economic

efficiency and therefore of profit. Românu, i; Vasilescu, i - coordinators – Management of investments -

Editura Margaritar, Bucuresti, 1997, pag. 12 " Anything the expenditure of funds were in the sight realization

conditions needfulness to obtain in future, on a specific distance the effects scontated.

R H - Managerial accounting - Editura IRWIN, Homewood, Illinois, USA, 1988

" investments has four elements, scilicet the investor, the object of investments, the cost and the effects.

An way a maul defined investments realized in Dictionarul MIT of moderne Economics - The MIT Dictionary of Modern Economics, The MIT Press, 1992, pag. 219. The term of investments is used most frequently surprised the flux of fated his expenditures to increase or to maintain the stock of real capital.

As an agreement of a theories of the specialists, the elements components ale the concept of investments established by-path as the next:

- the concrete and material content of the effort of investments, I carry consider investments as a particularly structure of different funds as the nature and the volume, what I am brought in the realization of the project;


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- the factor “The time”, which show the fact as the any project of investments has a period of scroll, presented through stages and good moments described and on during which the indicators economically have the project have particular ways of evolutions;

- the concept of efficiencies, as per which, the investor accepts the utilization of present funds for an effective series( receipts) future, I carry in the total sum to is superior initial expenditures;

- the risk, carry results from the concrete way of achieve in the after days of the effects waited. Risk appears due to the fact as the these effects waited are maybe , but not certainties, the degree of risk be inverse proportionate the probability of achieve the waited effects.

In the literature the maul can be meet a series of approach of the concept of investments, such as in large sense and in limitary sense, or in economic sense, financier and the bookkeeper.

In large sense and from the microeconomic view, investment identified with the placements of the economies of physical his juridical persons in different areas and below different forms, as of example:

- Of equipments of productions, therefore as the increase the technical capital;

- And the modernization of fixed capital; - The stock of circulating assets; - The constructing of buildings; - The purchasing of buildings; - The purchasing of stocks; - Research Science and projection; - The transport and the winding-up of the equipments of

productions In the versions of the teacher Dobrota investments represents, an

addition to his capital to personal existing patrimony, addition the result from the of a use parts of the economies obtained from the activity of respective person.

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The concept of investments represented always a subject of chat, completions in on the average investigatory. The economist P. Caspar proposes a series of criteria appreciatory investments:

- for an expenditure an employee today, is expected to is obtained a result tomorrow.

- this expenditure conduces to a constituted the sinking-fund that is a capital of which effects are produced on an what period exceeds the of a landmarks exercise.

- the correspondence expenditures conduces to multiply the capacities of production or commercialization of the enterprise.

- Exist the evidence as the different expenditures employee increases the patrimonial undertook

And a supplementary condition applied to these expenditures were delimitate of the expenditures of operation:

- Place a break an in a report with the tendencies extrapolate from pasts.

All in sphere of the concepts concerning the answers of long-term capital existed the which specialists tried to accredited the term of" cvasi investments" as be certain which expenditures have the characters of investments but are categorysis all the some in the category current expenditures, because they have no frequent and the repeatability of investments the appearance.

Pierre Masse says as investments is" an expenditure dispute about future an uncertain" or, otherwise gave up to," the satisfaction quickly and sure, on the expense of the economies of which we dispose currently against of a future hopes of which support represents it just good invested"

The French economist F. Aftalion formulates the next definition:" The investments represent the renunciation to the monetary sources i current liquids against the of a hopes future funds, obviously else big.

P. Masse establishes the next four main elements for investment scilicet:

- Subject, represented of he who did investments - the person physics or juridical;

- Object, represent the thing, undertake, the firm, the equipment etc., the way in which the investment is;


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- Costs, carry is the supplementary effort, admonish, current spent for obtaining that concrete object;

- Effects in numbers, results through the realization of investments and which obtained in future and represents, in practice a hope more or less admonish.

Nicolae Feleaga in his book" The risks of bookkeeping to balance among milleniums" brings an important contribution and a binevenues to this research themes and does the specification as the nameable studies take the in the calculus the investments considerate measurable excluding investments material toes enterprises how are for instance: Investments in the strategic reflection, in formalization of his methods or the organizational investments.

The author says as analyses of immaterial don't is can confined to a distinction between immobilizations and expenditures. If undertake achieves the important expenditures this in area, means as they he expects to obtain a series of advantages in exchange. The author considers as the investment as the a papers of give in the immediate satisfaction of certain and against of a hopes of future benefits brought of good invested has a series of consequences how are:

- -the investment is built from series of expenditures and future earnings of which ransom character is characterized of the notion of hope

- -the investment is a defalcation from production in the sight of utilize them for building of a potential new susceptible to generate economic long-term advantages

- the investment is an arbitration , a problem of a person who decide is not a realization of investment but choose from a portfolio of projects.

- -the investment is a strategic decision , not being enforced of the

current exploitation. Taking in these sight these numerous characteristic immaterial

expenditures can require the statute of investment. Most massive expenditures done of enterprises are in the areas: research development, the personal formation, reorganization of the production, information and commercial investments.

Yet, according as I show the author the inclusion of all immaterial expenditures in the category of the investments is, in the certain way, perniciously because the immaterial investments present a series of

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characteristics differed against one material: I am risky and their profitableness is uncertain, their effects don't the by-paths always perceptible, recognize their juridical and the patrimonial is limited many times of their virtual character.

In the researches done in this in area, the specialists adopts else many concepts: investments, funds, expenditures, or active.

The specialists considers as the mutations from the modern economy have a double consequence: On aside he causes a movement of the process of production from matter and energy towards information and knowledge and but then lead to an interconnection and a diversification without unprecedented these. Same in the same time the specialists considers as the blast of informal technologies, nationalization the economies, globalization markets led to an index of uncertainty of the phenomena much more than by now what does as the productive classic his models don't the maul gives results. New in stage these shall must set-up on the strength of the fashions of which his organization based on the development flexibility and the speed of reaction to changes in order to integrated in a economy based on cognition.

A report of OCDE specifies as" despite of conceptual difficulties the practical and in the definiteness immaterial and in the adoption as an account rule which permits their taking in a account manner the proper maul, the economic contribution of immaterial investments to the growth of the performance and competitiveness undertake does necessary the progressive these uses in accounting systems ".

Sequence in-sequence or OCDE considers as:" The notion of investments immaterial cover all long-term expenditures different than one proved by purchased corporal immobilizations, which the societies engages upon them to improve the results."

An study of OCDE divides the immaterial investments in three big components, investments in research, investments in produced the programs, and one of the third gift don't on last place, the publicity.

An another which tackled the in at large this category of were, Patrik Epingard in the work" L'investissement immateriel, coeur d'une economy fondee grey to savoir, Ed. CNRS, Paris", from which we quote:" To level economic, the notion of capacity becomes confusedly in numerous sectors of activity, so that nobody don't else knows which by-paths the frontiers of


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the investments: These limitation to the level corporal immobilizations don't focus the strategy of the enterprise, and the integration of all expenditures engaged in the sight obtain of economic future advantages in the sight obtain of future advantages is pre ambitious"

Epingard considered as in the place of the universal definitions or of a list which specify which the expenditure can be qualified as the investment is more important to be enumerated the specifications of immaterial investments as being in their views to:

-Massif in amonte of the process of respective production equal-phase in of research, develop into the case of his technologies of equal-phase in of the expansion of the market in the case of commercial investments of irreversible active specific difficult rule of marketed, their value be as a rule connected with the organizations which in by-paths incorporate

3. The controversial problems of the appearances of evaluation and recognize of corporal and still more selected immobilizations immaterial.

Objective the financial compliant situations of general frame for the elaboration and the presentation of financial situations elaborated of IASB is delivered information about the financial sprocket, the performances and the modifications of financial sprocket ale of the entity, carry the useful of a by-paths large spheres of users in the taking of economic decisions.

The fate financial bookkeeping is connected with the elaboration, the presentation and the publication of balance-sheet in accordance to foresee of a frame conceptual bookkeeper.

The determination of the base of measure, used for the ascertainment different patrimonial elements in situations represented, one of the problems most difficult of bookkeeping. Recognize of a active or a debt were a long weather the preserve of expert bookkeeper. The examples most typical the one by-paths according to the expenditures investigatory, to brands, to the commercial background.

In the practice and in the theory of accounting were accredited on many bases of measure. In as part as general for creating and the presentation of financial sheets issued of IASB these am: The historic cost, the current cost, the value net of realization, the value updated.

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Historian: The assets are counted to the sum in coin or equivalent of specie paid in the moment their his purchase to the value justly the sum paid in the moment of purchasing.

Current: The assets are counted to the sum in coin or equivalent of which specie burn must paid if one same active his burn be buy in currently.

Realizable: The assets are counted to sum in coin or equivalences of which species can be obtained currently through the natural selling of his actives.

The updated value: the assets are counted to the updated value of the future incomes which were generate in the natural scroll activity.

Problem consist in the choice the fit maul among these in contextually satisfy the requirements of the users of accounting information on aside and an observance a principles and an accounting foundations but then.

Producers and the users of financiers sheets appreciated as , in the measure and the presentation of accounting information, most utilized is cost the historian, although presents and one thin points. This is of habits used another bases of evaluation. More, tendency is of is passed to the utilization of current cost as a response to the incapacity of the model of the bookkeeper based on the historic cost solved the incident to effective problems of modification prices the unmonetary assets.

He is obvious as the determination clear value of realization is released of an uncertainty an estimation nice and an erect incites the how much good time sold really on sale caning generate the different estimations from the assessors.

Exist only that one difficulties and divergences between different viewpoints and in the determination of historic cost of special in the case the costs of production of a good obtained from own production.

In condition of inflation and hiper-inflation by experience the years past were focused serious difference of situations flatly fallen across the under valuations of the assets counted to a historic cost became obsolete the in report with the monetary devaluation.

And yet certain experience from past does impossible the prevision to earnings in the fight between the historic cost and the just value.

In the years" 70, after the shock oil, the companionships from the occidental countries crossed an inflationary period, and counteracted the


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effects inflation about accounting information some strong adopted the which settlements certified the utilization of current cost as the base of evaluation in big bookkeeping. The Great Britain was the one European which entered a compulsory system of bookkeeping of inflation, adopting for the societies cotated to the fellowship an accounting rule an wagons compel them to present financially sheets in current costs.

The British model of bookkeeping of inflation the age founded on the concept of maintain the physical capital, through the active evaluation to the cost of substitution, in the variant" value of deprivation".

- if active he is still useful entity, the maxim value missed is cost of substitution, and through the good substitution assured constant of the physical capital of entity;

- if the entity estimated as the good don't is it useful, the evaluation is done the cost which shall it support it if she shall be weak of such an active, whence and the valuable name of deprivation.

The value of deprivation the high maul the " value for enterprise" and the age used for the evaluation corporal immobilizations and the intangible. This is most little value among the cost of substitution of immobilization and the future fluxes of which treasury burn can be generate through the good utilization.

The practical results ale bookkeeping in current cost enforced the British firms in 1980 were beyond expectation. Undertake British they were obliged his practical a bookkeeping with two bases of evaluation:

- In historic cost, for fisc, carry deliver an elder profits than one in current cost, result from the bookkeeping in current costs communications actuations;

- In current costs, for actuations. This situation bring big costs with accounting information, produced

on the strength of the system of evaluation considered too complicated the very subjective. Also auditors, have be confused in what their juridical responsibility through subjective evaluations, and the users they complained of the lack of comparability the accounts of the enterprises.

On the background of decrease of inflation, the English rule concerning the evaluation in current costs the irretrievable and the justification, be

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applied less and less, which did as she to is optional in 1985 and disappear in 1988.

And another strong which they experimented the bookkeeping in actual value have given up gradually hereto base of evaluation, so with the decrease of inflation, he produced and " the end of the current cost”.

If we accept as a cost is an effort agreed for obtaining income and if we placed in the optics of independent exercises, the acquire of a active fixed is an which transaction has consequences about the more exercises. Otherwise said, you be the word about an effort agreed about the more exercises. Following same the optics independence of exercises, each exercise shall it be it granted the afferent these incomes are due to absorbs the part from the efforts agreed achieved a results.

Or, these measure efforts is, of habits, the cost, from the value of the market. Is easy realizable as the, for the external users of financially sheets, the cost offers the irrefutable qualities, as one of prudence, continuity, provability and accuracy.

The concept of just value we meet in many international standards of bookkeeping( IAS 16, IAS 19, IAS 36, IAS 38, IAS 39, IAS 40, IAS 41), and the organism of settlement accounting IASB don't gives up to this concept no with the occasion of creating the international standards of financial report, used as part as IFRS 2 and IFRS 3. All these standard skies the utilization just values for one or else many class of active and debts.

IFRS 2" Payments on the strength of of shares”. The pays on the strength of shares proved through instruments of capitals, as and the transactions proved in coin, must evaluate to the just value. All the afferent this modifications values shall be recognized the in the account of profit and miss.

IFRS 3" Combination of enterprises’. The cost is seed from view of the acquisition, which estimate the cost combinations of enterprises as the sum agreed between:

a) a)the just values from the date of the shift ale active date, of existing his debts and of the instruments of own emissive capitals of to this part in the shift obtain the control over that society ; Addition

b) any other cost corresponding directly combinations of enterprises.


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IAS 16" Corporal Assets.” The alternative treatment the license foresees the revaluation corporal immobilizations to the reevaluated value, that is to the just value from the moment revaluation, reduced with the subsequent amortizations cumulate and the valuable subsequent loss cumulate.

IAS18" Incomes from ordinary activities”. The evaluation comes from the current activities is achieved to the value justly the elements brought or received in change. This size evaluated to the just value is fault-free with the decreases of commercial nature ( lodgments).

IAS 19" Benefits employees”. The pension schemes must evaluate in the balance-sheet the bookkeeper on the strength of updated estimation present value of the debts concerning the pensions, any the less the value justly of any active prisoner to the date of the balance-sheet.

IAS 36" Depreciation of the assets.” The assets must sited for the retrievable value, carry is moderate how many times an active he can be depreciated, and the depreciation must established to the date of each report. The retrievable value is defined as be maximum among the just less value the for sale costs and the value of utilization.

IAS 38" Intangible assets”. An intangible assets can be assessed at the cost, any the less the depreciation, or to the just value( when exist an active market).

IAS 39" Financial Instruments: Recognize and measure.” The assets and the financial debts the by-paths recognized initially to the just value, and in the case which in by-paths owned for transaction or classify as the available for sale, the subsequent evaluations is achieved all to the just value.

IAS 40" Real investments”. Undertake can estimate the real investments is to the less book value the depreciation, is to the just value, and the changes just value by-path recognized immediately in the account of profit and miss.

IAS 41" Agriculture”. The biologic active the by-paths recognized initially to a coequal book value the just less value the for sale costs, and the modifications just value by-path figured in the account of profit

After some authors the value of the active market of the in the conditions continuity activity, when the horizon of time of development of the business is big, he is irrelevant if exist the economic equilibrium the

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financial and only that in period of inflation and deflation the active presentation of the in the financial situations to historic costs generates strong contentions.

Only that but then the historic cost is again rough criticism when he is word of the depreciations of active incite for subjective estimated how much and for dependent estimations of the intentions of different size of interests ale the users of the information.

In current period the accounting practices appeal to a new guys of models of which evaluation win against historic costs the modern and just value to an another valuable respective concept: The updated his value the value of utility.

The actuarial brought we come in a row devotees modernization of the bases of evaluation. The context normalization the bookkeeper which in appeared these new expressions ale evaluation is one of the active depreciation.

At the present day an all elder brand name number deal in an globalization economy characterized through nationalization markets and the fluxes of capitals and seem as, for the present, don't he arrived at an agreement in the utilization of a bases of his evaluation, what drives, still once, to the conclusion as the for a distance these they shall coexist and are shall improved an in concordantly with changes from economy and requirement enforced the system informational the bookkeeper.

Another problem is a concept of capital and maintain the capital: The concept of financial his physical capital.

As per the concept of financial capital, this is synonymous with active clear his with the own capitals ale entity. The profit is obtained just if the financial monetary value of assets clear to exhausted the period is elder than the financial active clear value in the beginning the period, after the exclusion of any distributions to owners and any other contributions from the owners of the temporally period Maintain the financial capital can be evaluated incite the in monetary nominal units, quotients and in units of power of constant purchase.

As per the concept of physical capital, the capital represents the capacity of production entity counted, for instance, in units of production on day. The profit is obtained just when the physical productive capacity entity last the period exceeds the physical productive capacity from begin


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with the period, after he excluded any deliver to owners and any contributions from the owners of the temporally period .

The concept of maintain the physical capital require the adoption of current cost as the base of evaluation. The concept of maintain the financial capital don't enforces all the some the of a certain use bases of main evaluation difference between two concepts according to maintain the capital is reduced across the treatment of the effects of the modification prices of assets and the debts of the entity.

4.The International and continental normalization in according to the concept of immobilization assets.

The international harmonization represents a process institutional, which has as the aims, the assurance the convergence the accounting norms and the practices national assured of the pertinences in comparisons between financiers sheets of the enterprises from strong different, comparability of accounting information be a conditions necessary for a maul hello allocate a funds on world plan, definition taken over from Ion Ionascu, “Epistemology bookkeeping” , Ed. Economic, Bucuresti, 1997

The daily international harmonization would be considerate a simple consequence of globalization, she participate invisible, but persuasive, to sustain the report of power. The accounting norms the neutral totals, am incident to the big interests on international sale. Through they use concepts, ideation, ways of thoughts, of communication, of act from in last row, enforces behaviors. The accounting harmonization is requested in first site of the financial international community, represented of investors, but and of the organisms of regulate the financial market.

The accounting harmonization has three degrees of differentiations: 1. International Normalization - the use of the same norms in

same geo politic space 2. the harmonization the appearance - authorized the many maul

practices and treatments, but compel to the settlement of equivalent in the documents of the synthesis of accounting;

3. Harmonization of Legislation – national court of settlement build, modify or adopt the settlements visas, the

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accommodation and approach the international accounting practices.

The accounting normalization is a social process wherewith is negotiated an equilibrium between very diverse interests and the necessity of uniformity presupposes formalization and the objective materialization, of the concepts, of the methods, of the rules and the procedures concerning the production and the utilization of the accounting information.

The bookkeeping has as the finality the supply of information concerning the economic activity of the entity. The account information help different users( purveyors, customers, investors, authorities, banks, wage earner, national statistics etc.), I carry the by-paths the economic partners have of a entities, therefore he is the necessity as the production of accounting information to is submissive of a social check, that is of a" normative codifications", after his expression B. Colasse ( 1996).

The origins attempt of encode the bookkeeping through the settlement as a rule which his underlies the production of account information , they appeared the in medieval his opening period of the capitalism, when they were written first codes concerning the commercial his another activity which settlements referring in express way to the way of" young man" bookkeeping. In France, the Cod of named trade " Savary Cod", were, approved in a his orderly Colbert in the year 1673; In the Romania first countries settlements concerning the bookkeeping were entered through organic “The Rule from 1831”.

First attempts of achieve the frames accounting conceptual were in the period 1975-1985 and belong to the American organism of normalization accounting FASB – “Standard of Financial Accounting Board”, private free organism of the accountancy profession (commission stock -" Securities and Exchange Board).

This constituted the base of the concepts adopted and of to another organisms of normalization for the own accounting frames conceptual, inclusively one elaborated of IASB.

The accounting normalization, to national level, can have a dominant audience, that is interfere the public authority in the codification bookkeeping is strong( as in the case France, Germany, Romania etc), with dominant a private, which in the associations of the accountant profession have a very important role( SUA, Great Britain) or of nature mixt, which in


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the normalization bookkeeping presupposes can published and a private organisms.

International Standard of Financial Report ( IFRS) establish the requests of recognitions, evaluation, present and describe which applied to transactions and the which events important by-paths in financiers sheets of general interests. They else can establish, also, thus of requests for transaction which events appear in main in sectors of specific activity. IFRS am based on general framework, carry concerns to concepts underlie information presented in financiers sheets of general interests.

Departing from objective my work presented all the appearances note to the corporal assets try to delimit the efforts of nameable organisms of international normalization the active tangible category.

The tangible assets were definite in contextually standard IAS1" Presentation of financier sheets" as active non current( non assets) presented asunder in balance-sheet in the active category .

The normalization of the appearances concerning the corporal were, realized of to the international organism of normalize of accounting information, through IAS 16" corporal Assets".

Aspects relevantly concerning tangible active the by-paths treaties and as part as presentations:

IAS 23"Indebtness Costs" the components of the cost. IAS 39" Instruments financier, recognize and evaluation. IAS36" Depreciation of the assets. IFRS5" Assets used for sale and activities interrupted. IAS17" Contracts of leasing. IFRS5" Non current assets in the aim transaction and the cancels of

activities. The general frame of IASC foresees as the information are significant if

through their default, either through their incorrect presentation, the users of the information can take economic wrong decisions

When is envisaged the registration and the classification corporal immobilizations, must analysis the appearances referring to the range of signification. If all the elements of the nature corporal immobilizations burn be capitalize, all the same of at all I burn be their value, this burn have in result a very cumbersome compliant system IAS 16, each society shall be due to utilize rational vocationally established a proper level, below which

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an elements aren't due to isn't capitalized, but he can be credited to of profits and miss. The intangible assets and the requested of presentation in as part as accounting information are presented in IAS 38.

The normalization of the treatment of the bookkeeper referring to the immobilizations were written for first in detail of the international bookkeeper, through standard IAS 38 in 1998, which in established criteria of recognitions, the bases of evaluation and requests of report this ale categories of immobilizations.

The Intangible assets compliant IAS 38 are active identifiable unmonetary, without substances the physics.

This Standard is applicable accounting to intangible assets, with exception:

a) a)Intangible assets fall under the of a another incidences Standard;

b) the financial assets, just as I am definite in IAS 39, c) of the laws concerning the ores and expenditures with the

exploitation, the development and extract of ores, oil, natural gas the another and like funds renewable.

In the case of specific guys applied depictive of Standards the bookkeeping applied them from this Standard. For instance, this Standard don't applied:

a) intangible assets of an entity in the aim of sale on development accustomed the activity( am them applicable IAS 2, Stock and IAS 11, Contract of building).

b) receivables looking the excise delayed ( be applicable IAS 12). c) the contracts of leasing wagons fall under the incidences IAS 17,

Leasing. d) the assets from the benefits employees( be applicable IAS 19). e) the financial assets, just as I am they definite in IAS 39

Recognize and the evaluation of financial active by-paths foreseen in IAS 27 and, IAS 28 Investments in associate entities and IAS 31 Interests in the partnerships in participation.

f) goodwill acquired as a result of business combination (as under IFRS 3 Business Combinations)

g) the costs of acquisitions delayed and intangible immobilizations appeared from the contractual laws of a ale the insurers in the


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of a background the contract of assurance from the area of application of IFRS 4 Contract of assurances. IFRS 4 foresees requests specify of present information for those costs of acquisitions delayed but don't and for those intangible immobilizations.

h) intangible assets classified as for his build-in in a sale fated group cession, classified as be the prisoner for sale am them applicable IFRS 5 The assets used in the sight sale and activities interrupted.

There are situations in which am due to is appealed to the reasons decided which Standard is applicable.

IAS38 applied, associated to expenditures activities of publicity, of professional preparation, of constitute, investigatory and develop. For instance, the activities investigatory and develop can generate an active with a hardware( for instance, a prototype), but the physical element of active is secondary against his component intangible - the parcel of knowledge in this, reason for which applied this Standard.

In the case of the financier leasing, the basic assets can be as much tangible or intangible.

5.The definition of the concept of assets according to International Standards of Financial Report

Definition of the concept of assets according to International Standards of Financial Report is an active, in the vision International Standards of accounting, represents" a resource controlled of enterprise as the result of a past events and from whereat is waited for generated the economic future benefits for enterprise.”

His benefits the economic future advantages represent" potential contributed in direct his indirect way to the flux of specie and equivalent ale of the specie to enterprise.

This potentially can be, fitted the paragraph 53 of general Framework of elaboration and present financial sheets:

- -a potential of production, carry does the part from the activities of exploitation ale the enterprise.

- a method of conversion in his equivalent treasury of treasury;

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- -a capacity of reduce the output of liquidity, for instance an alternative process of production a new - technology - what cause cost of productions.

- -the possibility assured protection his average or the satisfaction of legal rules etc.

The economic future benefits incorporate active in can enter into the entity in the many maul ways, for instance:-Asunder or in company with another active for services or the production of good fated sale of to entity; -With another active; -For justify debts; -Shareholders of the entity;

Many active, for instance, the corporal immobilizations, have a physical form. With all these, form physics elemental for of a active existence of example, patents and copyrights.

Many active, for instance, the book debts and real property the associate by-path with legal laws, inclusively with ownerships. The ownership elemental for the determination be of a active of example, a realty in on the basis of an of a contract of leasing.

The assets of the entities arises from his another transactions previous events. In the natural way, the entities obtain the assets through his purchase these production, but and another his transactions events can generate assets for instance, property received by entity give to cabinet as the of a part program of bred economically in a region.

Exist a double harness between the exits of species and the generation of active, but isn't by all means necessary as any ones to coincide. For example the elements of a donate entities can satisfy the of a active definition, just in of a absent exits of species.

The previous version IAS38 don't specify "the features of identification", but sustained as the an intangible immobilization can be different clearly of the commercial background if active is separable, but the fact as the this is separable don't the east prerequisite for condition his identification. Standard 38 in the current version show as an immobilization carries out criteria of identification from the of a definition intangible immobilizations when:

- -is shared, that is he can be separate his broken apart form the entity and sold, dumped, proprietary, rented or changed, is individual, he is in company with a contact, his active afferent debt;


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- -from the contractual his laws from another secure laws of law, all the same if those laws are transferable his separable of his entity of another laws and obligations.

6. Definition of the concept of assets in according to OMF 1752/2005.

The assets fixed are active generated of benefits and possessed on an elder period of a year. The corporal immobilizations represent which were:

a) possessed of an entity were an used-up in production of good , making services, were rental the other parts or were used in administrative aims; And

b) am used-up on of during a long periods the big maul of an active years

An fixed asset is active an identifiable, unmonetarry, without material supports and prisoner for utilization in the process of his production supply of good and services, were rental the other parts or for administrative . An intangible assets must recognized in balance-sheets if estimated as the you generate the economic benefits for entity and the active cost can be estimated in credible way.

The financial immobilizations containing the shares in possession to the entities affiliated, the loans granted the entities affiliated, the interests of participation, the loans granted the entities of which the companionship is bind by virtue the interests of another participation , the investments as the another immobilizations loans.

In the accounts of receivable presenting loans granted with the sums granted other parts on the basis of contracts for which the entity perceives the interests, fitted the law.

To another loans granted contained guarantees, the warehouses and the sum deposited of entity to others.

The which entities have in the account of fixed receivable afferent receivable of the contracts of leasing financiers, as well as another fixed receivable with elder terms of a year, you present in balance-sheet, to financial immobilizations, merely the part with elder term of 12 months, differences were presented to receivable accounts.

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7.National peculiarities concerning to recognize of the assets.

Recognize of the assets can dress the peculiarities in some national concepts:

- In SUA the assets are" economic future probable advantages, obtained or over control of an entity, result of a transaction or past events" what definitions appears the in "Comparate Systems accounting , Anglo-saxon Accounting, edition II- vol I", (N. Feleagă, 2000, p.147). Americans scientists don't binds recognize of the assets of existences of his ownership of legal protection this.

- In France assets represents" anything the patrimonial which elements has a economic positive value for enterprise" what definition appears the in the work " Generale Accounting ", (B. Colasse, 1995, p.95). The vision the French about patrimony the gate the juridical mark about this concept and right the consequence excludes from active good from a contract of leasing financier. According as is seen the fundamental problem is put, referring to of a recognize of an element, as element of active in his balance-sheet as the element of the expenditure in the account of profit and miss, is connected with the ownership and this attributes: The law of disposal, the law of utilization and the law of life-interest.

- In the countries anglo the more important are practice view .This does as, in some cases, the law of his utilization is dominant and therefore prevalent of the ownership. Also, the impossibility of measure of an intangible active drives to the conclusion as the they does the object of balance sheet.

- In Romania bookkeeping is applied the principle property in the individual compliant accounts general of Conditions of elaboration and present financial sheets elaborated of IASC, take over of Romanians normalizators through OMFP 94/2001, orders were abrogated subsequently through OMFP1752/2005 looked the approval accounting settlements according to the lines „substance over image”.


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8.Recognition and evaluation of tangible and intangible as OMFP 1752/2005, IAS16, IAS38

8.1.Recognition and evaluation of tangible and intangible as OMFP 1752/2005

- Intangible assets:

An intangible asset should be recognized in the balance sheet that is expected to generate economic benefits for the entity and the cost of the asset can be reliably measured.

- An initial evaluation of intangible assets An intangible asset is initially recorded at cost or production, as

defined in these regulations. An intangible item reported as expenditure in a period not later be recognized as part of the cost of an intangible asset.

- Subsequent expenditure On an expenditure incurred subsequent to purchase or an intangible

asset after its completion is recorded in the accounts of expenses when incurred. Subsequent expenditure will increase the cost of the intangible asset when it is probable that this expenditure will enable the asset to generate future economic benefits than originally anticipated performance and can be measured reliably.

- An assessment on the balance sheet A balance sheet intangible asset should be presented in the input value

less the cumulative value adjustments. - An assessment of the entity on exit

An intangible asset should be removed from the records disposal or when no future economic benefit is not expected from its subsequent use.

Gains or losses that occur with an end use or output intangible asset is determined as the difference between revenue generated by the asset and the amount outstanding output, including the costs of its disposal, and be presented as income or expense, as appropriate, on behalf profit and loss.

-Tangible assets:

In recognition of the accounting of leases will be considered the provisions of contract between the parties and legislation. Entities that apply the economic principle of prevalence and the judiciary will take

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account of requirements. Entries in accounting depreciation property that the contract be made in financial leasing by the lessee / user, and an operating lease, the lessor / financier. Purchases of real estate and mobile, financial leasing, investment is treated as being subject to depreciation on a basis consistent with normal depreciation policy for similar assets.

- An initial assessment of tangible assets Tangible recognized as an asset should initially assessed its cost

determined under the rules of assessment of these rules, depending on how the entry in the entity. Examples of costs that are carried out in connection with construction of a tangible, directly attributable to it, are:

a) costs represent the salaries of employees, statutory contributions and other expenses related thereto;

b) material costs; c) costs of site planning; d) initial delivery and handling costs; e) installation and assembly costs; f) costs of design and obtaining permits; g) professional fees paid to lawyers and experts, etc..

The cost of tangible assets may also include the estimated costs of dismantling and moving it first to remove the record and the restoration site that is positioned restraint when such amounts can be estimated reliably and the entity has an obligation relating to the removal, moving body restraint and recovery site.

The estimated costs of dismantling and moving the body restraint and to restore the site to recognize the value thereof, in correspondence with a provisioning account (account 1513 "Provisions for decommissioning tangible and other similar actions related thereto").

- A subsequent expenditure Subsequent expenditure relating to tangible assets must be recognized,

usually as an expense in the period in which they were made. Costs incurred in connection with tangible property used under a lease,

location management and other similar contracts outlined in accounting entity has made in tangible assets or as expenses in the period in which they were made, according to economic benefits associated with similar costs incurred in connection with their tangible assets.


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The cost of repairs made to the tangible, to ensure their continued use should be recognized as an expense in the period is performed.

Are recognized as part of investments made in tangible assets, as further expenses. They should have the effect of improving their initial technical parameters and leads to future economic benefits, in addition to those originally estimated. Collection of benefits can be achieved either directly through increased revenue, or indirectly by reducing maintenance and operating costs.

Tangible progress is being made unfinished investment contract or direct labor and is valued at production cost or acquisition cost, as appropriate. Tangible progress is passing into the category of property completed after the reception, putting into use or operation of them, as appropriate.

The cost of tangible fixed assets constructed for its own is determined using the same principles as for an acquired asset. Thus, if the entity produces similar active in commercial, under normal transactions, then the cost of the asset is usually the same as the cost of construction of that asset to be sold. Therefore, any internal profits are eliminated in calculating the cost of that asset. Similarly, the expense being scrap, labor and other resources beyond the limits accepted as normal, and the losses that occurred during construction of its own activities are not included in the cost of the asset.

- An assessment on the balance sheet A tangible assets must be in balance in the amount of input, less the

cumulative value adjustments. - An assessment of the entity on exit

A tangible assets must be removed from the transfer or disposal records when no future economic benefit is not expected from its subsequent use.

If an entity recognizes in a tangible book value cost of a partial replacement (replacement of components), then record it out of the book value of the part replaced, the related depreciation, if it has the necessary information.

Gains or losses resulting from disposal of tangible Căşăriei or be determined as the difference between revenue generated by the removal of

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records and the amount outstanding, including the costs of this and be presented as income or expense, as appropriate, in profit and loss.

8.2.Recognizing and assessing tangible under IAS16

A tangible recognition

Tangible assets are recognized as an asset in a company where: a) is likely to generate future economic beneficial undertaking

related activities; b) the cost of the asset can be measured reliably.

Spare parts and service equipment of major interest are usually recorded as inventory and are recognized as expenses as they are consumed. As a general rule, assets not capitalized maintenance costs because they only bring the asset to original operating parameters. These costs are recognized in the income statement, as they are incurred. Daily maintenance costs of their equipment are mainly represented by wage costs and consumables.

To identify what constitutes an individual element of the tangible, business logic is required to apply the criteria to define the circumstances or specific types of businesses. May be appropriate to group the individual elements insignificant, and the asset resulting from group to consider as an individual asset, depreciated.

IAS 16 also recognizes that some components of fixed assets may require replacement at regular intervals and are significant components in the assets.

Tangible assets can be acquired in order to enhance safety or environmental protection. The purchase of such tangible assets, even if not directly increase future economic benefits of assets, may be necessary for the undertaking to obtain future benefits from its other assets.

In these situations, as the acquisition of tangible assets meet the recognition criteria for that enable future economic benefits generated by the related assets are greater than the benefit to be derived if they were purchased.

- An initial assessment of tangible assets An item of tangible, which is recognized as an asset should be

measured initially at its cost.


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The cost of tangible assets consists of: a) the purchase price, customs duties, sunk, and all commercial

sales discounts are deducted; b) any costs directly attributable to bringing the asset to the

location and having the properties necessary to function in the manner intended by the management company.

c) the estimated costs of dismantling and moving assets, namely, site restoration costs, since the cost is recognized as a provision under IAS 37 'Provisions, contingent assets and liabilities.

Examples of costs not included in the cost of acquisition of fixed assets: a) the cost of opening new production lines; b) the cost of introducing new products or services (including

costs of advertising or promotional activities); c) costs of carrying out activities in a new location or a new

segment of consumers (including costs related to personnel training) - operations "start-up ';

d) administrative costs and general overheads. The standard allow reasonable capitalization of all costs which

contribute to obtaining the asset, putting it into service and achieve the desired performance, but provided these additional values to increase our asset value more than its fair value.Recognition of costs in the carrying amount of tangible assets cease to be produced when these elements are brought to the location and having the properties necessary to function in the manner intended by management - IAS 16, Therefore, costs related to the use or reorganization are included in tangible book value thereof, for example:

1. costs incurred while in a restraint's ability to function as desired by management, but has not been put into operation or operate at a lower capacity than normal;

2. operational losses initial results, for example those encountered by the time the application forms for a particular product;

3. costs encountered in the relocation and reorganization of part or all activities;

A new element in the new standard is that if the payments are spread over a longer period than those in a typical credit agreement, the difference between the cash price equivalent and the total payments is recognized as

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interest over the loan, unless such interest is included in the cost of bodily restraint, according to the alternative treatment prescribed by IAS 23 "Borrowing Cost".

The book value of tangible assets can be reduced by the corresponding amount of government subsidy, in accordance with IAS 20 "Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure on government assistance.

- Acquisition by exchange One or more tangible elements of nature can be acquired in exchange

for a similar asset or not (called non-monetary transaction) or a combination of similar assets and money. Cost of new asset is the fair value, except that:

- -an exchange transaction lacks commercial substance or commercial character;

- -or a fair value of the asset received in exchange or the asset transferred is not reliably measurable.

The concept of "commercial substance" is relatively new accounting standards and is defined as operations that generate cash flows to or from entities that change. Under IAS 16, an enterprise determines whether an exchange transaction has commercial or not, taking into account the extent to which future cash flows will change as a result of this transaction.

- After initial recognition of an expenditure A firm will choose that trade policy be the model for calculating the

cost (called the accounting treatment of the antrerioare versions of IAS16) or the revaluation model (called the allowed alternative treatment in antrerioare version of IAS16) and will respect this choice for the entire class of tangible assets.

- Model for determining the cost Subsequent to initial recognition as an asset, a tangible assets should be

recorded at cost less related accumulated depreciation and any accumulated impairment losses.

- Derecognition a tangible The carrying amount of an item of tangible assets will be de-recognized

only: a) the time of sale; b) or when no longer expected to generate economic benefits

from the use or sale of that asset.


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Gain or loss resulting from derecognition a tangible item is recognized in the income statement when derecognition (unless that IAS 17 requires a different treatment for the sale or lease). Gains are not recognized as income.

Gain or loss resulting from an element derecognition tangible, be determined as the difference between winning sale and net book value of the property.

8.3.Recognition and evaluation of intangible assets under IAS 38

- An initial assessment An intangible asset is initially measured at cost. An intangible asset is recognized if and only if:

a) it is probable that future economic benefits attributable to restraint and to return entity;

b) cost of the asset can be measured reliably Recognition criteria (control, future economic benefits, the cost of

reliable measurement and separation of goodwill) must be satisfied before an intangible asset to be recognized. One of the most difficult criteria to satisfy is credible measure of the cost.

An entity shall assess the probability of future economic benefits based on rational calculations and defensible representing the best estimate of the management team for the set of economic conditions that will exist during the life of restraint.

Assuming that this condition can be met, intangible assets should generally be valued at cost. This will include, inter alia, the purchase price and any expenses that are directly related to preparing the asset for use. Examples of such costs are directly attributable:

• costs of employee benefits being attributed to bringing the asset to its working condition

• professional fees related to bringing the asset to its working condition • costs of testing the proper functioning of the asset Expenditure which is not part of the cost of intangible assets are: • costs of introducing a new product or service (including costs of

advertising and promotional services) • costs of work in a new place or a new class of customers (including

staff training costs)

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• costs of administration and other general overhead costs Recognition of costs in the carrying amount of an intangible asset

ceases when the condition is necessary to be able to function. Thus, costs incurred in the use of intangible assets not included in the carrying amount of that asset. For example, the following costs are not included in the carrying amount of intangible assets:

a) the cost incurred when an asset able to operate as intended leadership still is not ready to be put into

b) initial operating losses, such as those involved in the request for production of these assets

The only exception to this rule is the cost of any intangible assets acquired during an acquisition. Such intangible assets should be recognized at fair value, which is the price determined objective, for which an asset can be changed, voluntarily, between the parties informed. An intangible asset acquired in a business combination may be separable, but only with an intangible asset or other related injuries.

In such cases, the acquirer recognizes the group as an intangible personal property separate from goodwill if the individual fair values of assets in the group can not be measured reliably. Goodwill is capitalized when it was acquired. So, although the company acquired may not be recognized because goodwill was generated internally, the company acquired can to recognize, since they purchased the goodwill being recognized that they have paid an additional amount to something I think is inherent in the acquired company, such as the reputation for producing or doing something good.

A price obtained in an active market will provide the most reliable estimate of fair value. Can be obtained when a current price, the price of the most recent similar transactions can provide a sufficiently reasonable basis for estimating fair value. Where there is an active market, the cost will be the amount that an entity would have to pay for an asset in a transaction carried out voluntarily by the parties knowingly and the price was set objective.

Given this reasoning, it must consider whether the cost (fair value) of an intangible can be measured reliably and it is possible to periodically reassess the fair value to ensure that the carrying amount does not differ


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significantly from the amount which would be calculated using fair value at balance sheet date.

Where costs do not meet the criteria for recognition, items must be expensed when they occur. Examples include the costs of research (and internally generated brands.

If the exchange of assets, cost of such intangible assets is measured at fair value except that (a) the exchange transaction has commercial substance or (b) the fair value of either of the two property which have been exchanged can not be measured reliably.

Immobilization purchased is assessed in this way even if the entity can not immediately unrecognise no restraint just gave it to return. If restraint is assessed acquired at fair value, its cost is measured at the carrying amount of restraint given up.

It was shown that a condition for recognition of intangible assets is the ability to assess reliably the cost restraint. The fair value of intangible assets for which no comparable market transactions can be reliably assessed if

(a) variability series of estimation reasonable fair value is not significant for that restraint or (b) the probabilities of different estimates of that number can be measured reasonably and used in estimating fair value. If an entity can reliably determine the fair value of property, one of two that have been exchanged, then the fair value of restraint is used to assess the transferred cost, unless the fair value of restraint is more evident.

- Internally generated intangible assets Sometimes it is difficult to say whether an internally generated

intangible asset qualifies for recognition as an asset, due to the following aspects:

• identify the existence and when there is an intangible asset to generate future economic benefits;

• reliable determination of cost of the asset. In some cases, the cost of internal generation of intangible assets can not be separated from the cost of maintaining or increasing the entity's internally generated goodwill or daily functioning.

Therefore, in addition to compliance with general rules for recognition and initial evaluation of an internally generated intangible assets, an entity shall apply the rules and recommendations listed below.

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To specify whether an internally generated intangible asset meets the criteria to be recognized as an asset, an entity separates its generation process into two phases:

• a research phase, and • a development phase. If an entity can not make a clear distinction between the stage of

research and development phase of an internal project that will create an intangible assets, the entity treats the expenditure of that project as it was done only in research stage.

- Stage Research Intangible assets resulting from research or the research phase of an

internal project will be recognized as an asset. Expense of research or research carried out in phase of a national project will be recognized as a cost when it is conducted. In the research phase of an internal project, an entity can demonstrate that there is an intangible asset that will generate future economic benefits. Consequently, this expenditure is recognized as a cost when it is conducted.

- Stage of development An intangible asset arising from development or stage of development

of an internal project will be recognized as an asset if and only if an entity can demonstrate:

(a) the technical feasibility of such intangible assets are completed, so as to be available for use or sale;

(b) that it intends to complete the intangible asset to be used or sold; (c) ability to use or sell the intangible asset; (d) how the intangible asset will generate probable future economic

benefits. Among other things, the entity can demonstrate the existence of a market for products made using that intangible asset or intangible asset itself or, if required to use internally, the usefulness of intangible restraint;

(e) availability of technical resources, financial and other resources adequate to carry out the development was to use restraint or selling assets;

(f) ability to assess the credibility expense attributable to restrain assets during its development.

The development phase of an internal project, an entity may, in some cases, identify an intangible asset and demonstrate that the asset will


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generate probable future economic benefits. This is possible because the development phase of a project is more advanced than the research stage.

The brands, logos, publishing titles, customer lists and items similar in substance, generated internally are not recognized as intangible assets.

Internal generation expense marks, logos, publishing titles, customer lists and items similar in substance can not be separated from the cost of business growth as a whole. A such items are recognized as intangible assets.

- The cost of internally generated intangible assets The cost of internally generated intangible assets is charged to expense

of intangible asset after the first criterion met unrecognise. You must not be rewritten expense previously recognized as a cost.

The cost of internally generated intangible assets consist of all necessary costs directly attributable to the creation, production and preparation of restraint to be able to operate in the manner intended by management.

Recognition rate as a component of cost restraint internally generated intangible assets is determined on the basis of IAS 23 Borrowing Costs.

- After initial recognition of an expenditure Expenditure on an intangible item should be recognized as costs are

incurred when, except that: - -form part of the cost of intangible restraint that meets the

criteria for recognition or - -item is purchased by a business combination and can not be

recognized as intangible asset. Expenditure on an intangible item that was initially recognized as costs

are not recognized as part of the cost of tangible assets at a later date. A firm will choose that trade policy is to calculate the cost model

(called the accounting treatment of the earlier versions of IAS38) or the revaluation model (called the allowed alternative treatment in the lastversion of IAS38) and will respect this choice for the entire class of tangible assets.

- Model for establish the cost Subsequent to initial recognition as an asset, an intangible asset should

be recorded at cost less related accumulated depreciation and any accumulated impairment losses

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9.Differences between accounting and taxation assets

Particular attention should be focused on the difficulties and consequences of the tax plan of treatment for assessment of tangible and intangible assets, arising from inconsistencies between tax rules and accounting rules, which aim in particular initial recognition, evaluation and recognition of further asset impairment. Being a complex concept, assessing not only the company assets but also its potential in all aspects (technical, economic, financial and human). Determination of base measurement used to record assets in financial statements has been and is still one of the most difficult accounting issues. IASB accounting conceptual framework provides a high freedom in the choice of tax assessment, as long as the chosen ensure reliability and relevance of information released to the financial statements.

Accounting Depreciation and amortization of property tax is also the source of inconsistencies between accounting and taxation, representing a mixture of taxation in the accounts but the evidence and proof that it can achieve a separation of tax accounting. Choosing one or another of the elements necessary to determine tax depreciation (the depreciation, amortization methods and periods of depreciation) are all possibilities for the company to choose accounting policies that it considers relevant.

How depreciation accounting is not always equal to the tax depreciation, cost of business will be affected by the depreciation accounting, but the calculation of taxable income the costs will be deductible to the extent of depreciation determined in accordance with tax rules. However, the possibility for management company, to choose when legislation offers more options-the most advantageous or management interest, keep his professional reasoning ability.

10.Conclusions:

The theme is great due to the main aim touched all the appearances concerning the immobilizations and require a labor supported of documentary, of research recent researches and updated settlements, in the sight objective suggested realization.


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The development researches on the theme corporal immobilizations has the utility as much for investors and owners of fixed assets, quotients and for the fiscal and the juridical authorities and for the large audience.

Bibliography:

Bens A (2006). “Discussion of Accounting Discretion in Fair Value Estimates: An Examination of SFAS 142 Goodwill Impairments”, Journal of Accounting Research, Vol 44 Issue 2 Page 289-296, May 2006(ISI).

Colasse B. (1995). „Generale Accounting”,1995, Ed. Moldova, Iaşi

Denis, C., Huizinga H., Nicodème G ”The Internationalisation of Asset Ownership in Europe”, H. Huizinga and L. Jonung editors, Cambridge University Press.

Ely K., Waymire G. (1999). „Intangible Assets and Stock Prices in the Pre-SEC Era”, Journal of Accounting Research

Feleaga N , Malciu L (2004). “Recognize, evaluation and estimation in the international bookkeeping”, Editura CECCAR, Bucureşti

Feleagă N.. (2000). „ Comparate Accounting Systems , anglo- saxone Accounting, ediţia a II- a, vol I”, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti

Ionaşcu I. (1997). “Accounting Epistemology”, Editura Economică, Bucureşti

Lee C. , Lee A. (2007). “Changes in fixed assets”, Book:”Encyclopedia of Finance”, Publiser:Springer US, ISBN 978-0-387-26336-6, part3, item 91- SpringerLink Date, Tuesday, May 08, 2007 (ISI)

Matolcsy Z., Wyatt A (2006). “Capitalized intangibles and financial analysts”, Accounting & Finance, 2006, Vol 46:Issue 3, 457–479(ISI)

MIT Dictionary of Modern Economics,(1992)- The MIT Press, 1992

Românu, I; Vasilescu, I (1997) – “Investment Management”,Editura Mărgăritar, Bucureşti, Ministry of Finance Order 1752/2005 regarding the approval of accounting regulations consistent with European directives International Standards of Accounting

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Diagnosis of managerial competence trough the professiogram method – comparative study according to

the enterprise size

Anamaria Tohătan

Abstract The purpose of this analysis is to point out the distinctive competencies of the

top manager according to the size of his enterprise. We started from the premise that managing an enterprise according to its size is somewhat equivalent to driving a car, namely that professional drivers claim that it is way easier to drive a lorry, despite its size, than a B category vehicle.

This raises the following question: which are the similarities and the differences that appear within the distinctive competencies of big scale enterprises as opposed to smaller ones? Accordingly, is there any notable difference between the distinctive competencies of the top manager according to the size of his enterprise? The answer is to be found in the results of the following study.

JEL Classification: L26, M12, O15 Keywords: Professiogram of the top manager, Professional requirements, Managerial aptitudes, Psychological and social qualities

1. Introduction

Management means replacing muscles and raw force by the power of thought, of customs and superstitions by knowledge, and of aggressiveness by cooperation. This means that responsibility replaces obedience to rank and that the authority of performing replaces the authority of function. -Peter Drucker –

Together with the raise in dynamism and structural and functional complexity of enterprises and their environment, with the amplification of competences in using the economic levers belonging to a market economy, there appears the necessity of providing a proficient management.

Faculty of Economics, Extensia Baia Mare, Home Adress: : 17 Privighetorii Street, 430324, Baia Mare , Romania. E-mail:[email protected]

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In this context, a major concern is constituted by the identification of elements which can contribute to growing performance and the maintenance of managerial competitiveness.

2. Diagnosis of managerial competence

This thing supposes the initiation of investigations and analyses in view to diagnose the present situation, to point out positive and negative phenomena that occur, as well as to adopt corresponding measures for improving the envisaged issue.

In order to analyze the competences of the managerial function we used the professiogram of the top manager, adapted after Tabachiu A. and Moraru I.

We will try to see if the size of the run enterprise imposes distinct competences for managers.

The research of the competences of the top manager envisages aspects linked to professional requirements, experiences, managerial aptitudes, psychological and social qualities, cultural level and health state. Their distribution according to the importance they have in the activity of a top manager is made with the aid of a grading scale with four levels: unimportant, of little importance, important, extremely important.

These requirements are valid for all the persons who occupy the position of top manager of an enterprise irrespective of its profile, its size and the primary profession of the manager.

The professiogram has been applied to the top manager population within the 120 enterprises under scrutiny within the Maramures County, with the specification that:

- all enterprises are profit-bearing; - they are different according to their size - micro, small,

medium, large and very large -; and of their constitutive form -SA, SRL, SNC, RA and OC-;

- they activate within different activity fields – industry, constructions, commerce and services.

The purpose of this analysis is to point out the distinctive competencies of the top manager according to the size of his enterprise. We started from the premise that managing an enterprise according to its

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size is somewhat equivalent to driving a car, namely that professional drivers claim that it is way easier to drive a lorry, despite its size, than a B category vehicle.

This raises the following question: Which are the similarities and the differences that appear within the distinctive competencies of big scale enterprises as opposed to smaller ones? Accordingly, is there any notable difference between the distinctive competencies of the top manager according to the size of his enterprise? The answer is to be found in the results of the following study.

The measuring of the professiogram’s results was realized through the semantic differential.

The results of the research after implementing the professiogram of the top manager were centralized and the following aspects were retained.

1. under the criterion of professional demands the results underlined similarities as well as differences:

a) in as far as university degrees in aid of the managerial activity are concerned opinions differ according to the size of the run enterprise: the managers of medium, large and very large enterprises consider a degree extremely important for the perspective it offers them on the activity in general, while the managers of micro and small enterprises state that university studies, irrespective of the field of study, are of no importance to them. Managers of micro and small enterprises consider that in order to run an organization and to close profitable deals superior degrees are not a distinctive competence, as opposed to the managers of medium, large and very large enterprises for whom this competence is absolutely necessary in order to fill in the position of general manager, or to obtain a promotion, on the one hand, and on the other hand to acquire specific competences that constitute themselves in undeniable advantages.

b) on the requirement training course in management the gap between the results is not exactly significant: for the managers of medium, large and very large enterprises courses have a rather great importance, and for the managers of micro and small enterprises a smaller importance, nut on the whole, for all


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categories of managers (according to the size of the enterprise they run) knowledge in the field of management is necessary in order to manage the enterprise efficiently;

c) knowledge of marketing and economics does not represent a distinctive competence absolutely necessary for all the categories of observed managers. Managers of medium, large and very large enterprises consider this competence as belonging to the sphere of managers of the inferior echelon.

d) to the demand knowledge in the fields of market economics, Computer Science, law, administration, psychology, protocol knowledge, and the proficiency in a foreign language the synthesis of results appears as follows: - knowledge of market economics registered similar opinions

for all categories of managers, being considered as having a reduced importance;

- knowledge of Computer Science is absolutely necessary for all managers, irrespective of the size of the run enterprise, as it is an extremely efficient means to gather and to process information from the internal and the external environment of the enterprise;

- law and legislation knowledge alike is considered as having a reduced importance, no being a distinctive competence. The top managers of all enterprises turn to law experts for problems of this nature, as knowledge in this field supposes sound academic training;

- knowledge in the field of administration are of reduced importance for the managers of micro and small enterprises taking into account that activities within these are levelled, and for the managers of medium, large and very large enterprise this knowledge is irrelevant, as it is attributed to subordinated personnel in charge with administrative and organization issues;

- psychological knowledge is considered a distinctive competence for all managers, because the position of a manager entails working with people, and this means that having some psychological knowledge must be

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indispensable when acting as a manager, irrespective of the size of the enterprise one runs;

- proficiency in a foreign language is considered a distinctive competence, so for the managers of large and very large enterprises it is absolutely necessary to master a foreign language at least at intermediate level, because of the frequent business reports they establish with external partners, in order to have a fluent and direct communication with those, while for the managers of micro, small and medium enterprises it has a smaller importance, as their business mainly develop with internal partners.

- knowledge of protocol rules are important irrespective of the size of the run enterprise, being considered an element of etiquette in business;

2. Under the section experience in the field of activity of the enterprise and in the managerial activity, the results show that:

a) experience in the enterprise profile has a bigger importance at the level of large and very large enterprises, where the mastery of the implied activities is an essential attribute, while at the level of micro, small and medium enterprises this has no relevance;

b) experience accumulated as a manager has a high percentage of importance in all enterprises; on an evaluation scale we have it presented as very important for large and very large enterprises and important for micro, small and medium enterprises;

3. Aptitudinal competences don’t show significant differences, being somewhat univocally universal as far as their importance is concerned in the managerial activity:

a) prevision aptitudes are of great importance for all managers, as without a careful planning of activities chances of success are minimal, also without the capacity of prediction and anticipation of the future the enterprise runs the risk of being eliminated from the business field;

b) organization aptitudes are vital for enterprises on a smaller scale, respectively micro, small and medium sized enterprises, where the entire activity is directly supervised by the manager,


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as compared to large and very large enterprises where organization aptitudes have a reduced importance, being the competence of managers at inferior levels;

c) decisional aptitudes are very important in all situations and in all categories of enterprises, they being the specific attributes of any managerial activity;

d) coordination aptitudes are situated on the right side of the reference scale as being of major importance for micro and small enterprises where the manager supervises and coordinates directly, without intermediaries, the activities of his employees, and of medium importance for managers of medium, large and very large companies where there are managers at different hierarchical levels who are to encompass these in their attributes;

e) control aptitudes are within the same coordinates as the coordination aptitudes;

4. In as far as psychological qualities necessary for managerial activities are concerned the situation is as follows:

a) the intelligence of the person that occupies the position of general manager presents an important connotation, even a very important one for all managers under investigation;

b) the creativity is a competence considered as being very important irrespective of the size of the run enterprise;

c) the flexibility of thinking is appreciated as an important capacity, necessary for the accomplishment of the managerial process;

d) the perseverance also enters the sphere of importance for a good development of the managerial activity;

e) receptivity to the new is another demand of psychological nature with important valences on the work of the manager, being situated on the evaluation scale as having maximal importance for all managers;

f) courage and risk-taking is a specific characteristic to the managerial sphere, being considered extremely important;

g) motivation of the manager is unanimously considered as an extremely important requirement in all cases;

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h) the sanguine or phlegmatic temperament is not associated with a necessary competence to the managerial activity, being considered unimportant in all situations;

i) positive traits of character – exigency, firmness, objectivity, critical spirit, modesty, stability, honesty, - are considered of reduced importance for the manager position in all cases;

5. The component social qualities has registered the following appreciations:

a) sociability is valued as an important attribute in the work of the manager in all situations;

b) team spirit, taking into account that the work of a manager does not take place individually but in a firm cooperation with employees, this is deemed important at all levels;

c) suitable behaviour is appreciated through the following elements:

- language is an essential attribute for the manager’s activity, being positioned at important in all cases;

- communication ability is also important for the manager’s work, as through its specificity he interacts with employees, with business partners, thus it is vital for him to be able to communicate verbally, in writing and non-verbally;

- the way dressing is considered an „annex” of reduced importance for the manager’s work;

- behaviour of the manager is an important requirement in the manager’s activity in all registered cases;

6. The competence linked to the cultural level presents the following distribution:

a) professional culture is appreciated as being important by the managers of micro and small enterprises, and very important by the managers of medium, large and very large enterprises, thus it follows that the professional knowledge of the activity field of the enterprise is deemed essential;

b) general knowledge is an important attribute for managers of large and very large enterprises, and is less important for the managers of micro, small and medium enterprises;


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7. demands towards the health state of the manager are thus structured:

a) it is important that the health state of a manager be somatically good;

b) from a psychiatric point of view, it is absolutely necessary that the person occupying the position of general manager of an enterprise be sound of mind and emotionally balanced, impulsive tendencies are of very little importance in the activity of any manager.

3.Conclusions of diagnosis

The synthesis of the research on distinctive competences of top managers with the aid of the professiogram appears as follows:

1. Professional competences are considered important for the managerial activity, with small differences between the managers of micro and small enterprises and the managers of medium, large and very large enterprises, these differences being:

• similarities are registered in the following aspects: - training courses in management are approached with interest

by all parties involved as they offer the scientific support for running an enterprise, the so-called “compass of efficient management”, without which under the present circumstances managing an enterprise could be likened to piloting a ship in stormy weather without a compass on board.

- marketing knowledge is considered insignificant; - -knowledge in the fields of market economy and law and

administration are not considered important; knowledge of a foreign language, psychology and protocol were classified as important in all cases; computer literacy is very important in the activity of all managers;

• differences appear under the aspects of: - university degrees which are primordial and constitute a

distinctive competence for managers of medium, large and very large enterprises, while for the managers of micro and small enterprises these degrees are irrelevant;

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2. experience in the field of activity of the enterprise and in the managerial activity underlines:

similarities point out to the acquired experience in the managerial activity which is evaluated as being important in all cases;

differences appear on the level of experience in the profile of the enterprise having considerable implications on the level of large and very large enterprises, where knowledge of the specificity is an essential attribute, while on the level of micro, small and medium enterprises it is not an essential condition;

3. managerial aptitudes in general are identically important in the managerial activity:

similarities appear at: - prevision aptitudes present the same importance for all

managers; - decisional aptitudes have the same connotation of maximum

importance irrespective of the size of the run enterprise; differences appear at :

- organization aptitudes which have different weight according to the size of the enterprise, playing an important role for the managers of micro, small and medium enterprises, and of minimal importance for the managers of large and very large enterprises;

- coordination and control aptitudes register small inadvertences regarding their importance for the activity of the manager, according to the size of the run enterprise;

4. psychological qualities – intelligence, thought flexibility, perseverance, receptivity to the new, courage and risk-taking, motivation, and all character positive traits – follow the same coordinates of importance for the managerial activity, without being influenced by the size of the enterprise;

5. social qualities – sociability, team spirit, adequate behaviour, (language, communication ability, way of dressing, conduct) have the same rank according to the importance of the managerial activity without differences imposed by the size of the enterprise;

6. the cultural level analyzed through the prism of elements of professional culture and general knowledge register:


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similarities in what concerns the weight of importance of professional culture in managerial activity;

differences concerning the impact of general knowledge on the managerial act, so for the managers of micro, small and medium enterprises this is less important;

7. the health state is an essential condition for the good development of the managerial activity in all the studied cases.

Conclusions

We can draw the conclusion that the size of the run enterprise does not set major distinctive competences to the managerial act.

The manager is considered as being the man of new demands in the development of the society, fulfilling a position requiring a high level of knowledge and practical abilities the acquisition of which calls for a long and complex process of qualification and training.

The manager cannot be unilateral, knowing only technical or economic matters, to cover only the theoretical aspects or only the practical side of the business. His main ability should be the capacity to correlate and integrate all this knowledge.

In his work „Managers and Management” I. Verboncu stated that prevision, organization, coordination, training, and control-evaluation are „zones” of interest for the manager, are management functions at the level of which the one who runs and manages the enterprise can show his competence in order to obtain satisfying results.

Bibilography

Avram E. , Cooper L. Cary. (2008) Psihologie organizaţional-managerială, Editura Polirom.

Bezzubtev Serghei (2006) Psihologia afacerilor, Editura Fundatia Culturală IDEEA EUROPEANA.

Buchman D.A, Huczynscki, A.,(1985) Organizational behaviour, Prentice Hall International Ltd.

Corodeanu M. (2008) Management comportamentul şi înreprinzătorului roman, Editura Tehnopres, Bucureşti.

Klain H. M., Kolb C. (2009) Psihologia conducerii eficiente, Editura ALL, Bucureşti,

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Nica Elvira (2006) Managementul performanţei, perspectiva umană , Editura Economică, Bucureşti.

Nicolae Radu (2009) Teste psihologice pentru orientarea in cariera si autocunoaştere, Editura Polirom.

Niculescu O., Verboncu I. (2008) Fundamentele managementului organizaţiei, Editura Universitara, Bucureşti.

Peeling Nick (2008) Manager de mare succes, Editura Meteor Pres, Bucuresti.

Peter F. Drucker (2004) Managementul viitorului, Editura Asab, Bucuresti.

Tabachiu A., Moraru I. (1997) Tratat de psihologie managerială, Editura Didactică şi pedagogică, Bucureşti.

Verboncu I. (2000) Manageri şi management, Editura Economică, Bucureşti.

Zlate M. (2004) Tratatul de psihologie organizaţional-managerială, Editura Polirom Iaşi.

Wagner Rodd, Harter K. James (2009) Cele 12 elemente ale managementului performant, Editura ALL.

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Regions and "shared governance" at the eu level in the context of the current economic crisis

Elise-Nicoleta Valcu, Ionel Didea*

Abstract. Luc Van den Brande, President of the Committee of Regions, said that “the

areas together with their citizens are the first to suffer the economic consequences of the global financial crisis”.

The regions are the motor of the European innovation, creativity, dynamism and entrepreneurship representing regional cultural identity that leads to economic growth and social cohesion.

At the European Union’s level, the regions should have opportunities to cooperate with each other horizontally, without cumbersome procedures or institutional frameworks, but also vertically. In this respect, since 2006, the European Grouping for Territorial Cooperation provides a legal framework through which regions can establish functional cooperation structures adapted to their specific needs.

In this context, the Committee of the Regions’ plenary session of 17-18 June 2009, debated the “White Paper” on “shared governance” at the Union's regional policy on many levels. The White Paper is part of the political approach of building “a Europe in partnership” and sets the two main strategic objectives: promoting participation in the European process and strengthening the effective community action.

We believe that whenever Europe sets ambitious targets these must be achieved in “partnership” with the regions, which involves communication with the European legislator that the objectives to be realistic and local and regional feasible.

JEL Classification: F15, H 77, K33 Keywords: regions, shared governance, European Union, economic crisis

1. Introduction

The present world crisis shows both the importance of good governance, especially at European level, and the necessity of local and

* Lecturer PhD, Professor PhD

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regional authorities` permanent involvement in conceiving and fulfilling the EU strategies, taking into account that they apply almost 70% of EU legislation, having an essential position in fulfilling the economic straightening plan. “There are many objectives that we can not reach by ourselves, but only together1”.

The tasks are shared between the European Union, the member states and their local and regional authorities. The chiefs of state or government have expressed on March 27 2007, within the Berlin Declaration, that the “governance is one of the main keys in achieving the European integration. Europe will be powerful, its institutions will be legitimate, its policies-efficient, its citizens will feel involved if the governance guarantees the cooperation between different power levels in order to apply the EU agenda and to respond to the global challenge”. As well, in its report from 17.09.2008 regarding the “governance and the partnership at national and regional level and the ground for the projects in the field of regional policy A6- 0356/20082, the European Parliament “invites the Committee of the Regions to consolidate its actions in order to develop the governance practice, both in quantity and in quality”.

EU`s capacity to adapt to the new world context depends on the regions3 potential to react, to act and to interact. Therefore, it is essential for the European Union to have a governance that can respond in the same time:

- to the exigencies concerning the global confirmation and the coming into being of a world that has to determine the challenges to which the European Union has to respond ;

- to the European integration process continuation which eliminates the boarders, unifies the markets and brings closer the citizens by respecting the national sovereignty and by keeping its identity.

1 Declaration on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the Rome Treaty, Berlin, March 25th 2007 , C 211/2 RO, O. J. of EU 2 The European Parliament Report regarding “the governance and the partnerships at national and regional level and a ground for the projects in the regional field policy” A6- 0356/2008.C 211/4 RO, O.J. of EU 3 Local and regional authorities represent: 16% of EU 27 PIB; 1/3 of public expenses ; 2/3 of the public investment expenses, 56% of the labor force.

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Renewing the European Parliament and the European Commission, the transition to a new institutional system, the EU budget reform, as well as the direct and indirect effect of the world crisis , map out the European Union’s agenda for the next years. This next cycle has to bring a new approach to the European governance , perceptibly both at proposals` methodology and content level and at EU`s intervention impact level.

The multi-level governance serves EU essential objectives : an Europe for the citizens, economic increase and social progress, long term development and the European Union’s role in the world. It consolidates the EU democratic dimension and increases its progress efficiency.

“Governance”-strategic priority for the Committee of the Regions

During the European integration process, the political initiative of the Committee of the Regions appears in a moment of transition and change. Creating in Europe a real multi-level governance has always been the Committee’s strategic priority. Nowadays, it became an European good governance condition.

The Committee’s measures and recommendations are elaborated on the existing treaty grounds, but are also taking into consideration the coming into force of the Lisbon Treaty, which establishes the territorial dimension-especially the territorial cohesion-during the European integration process, putting on a solid basis the governance mechanism.

In this demarche of the Committee we can also mention its notification regarding The White Paper on multi-level governance4. In this respect, the Paper suggests obvious political options in order to improve the European governance and recommends specific mechanism and instruments that can be activated during the entire European decision process. It identifies specific actions, liable to facilitate the EU policies elaboration and application, pledging to develop them and it also presents examples of shared governance.

Moreover, the Paper represents the first contribution of the Committee of the Regions to the Wise Group charged by the European Council to help

4 Comité des régions de l'Union européenne, Cellule de prospective, Bureau VMA 0635, Rue Belliard/Belliardstraat 101, 1040 Bruxelles/Brussel, (2009/C 211/01)


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the European Union in its effort to anticipate and to get through with the long term difficulties ( the 2020-2030 period), having as starting point the Berlin Declaration from March 25th 2007.

The White Paper represents a political proactive demarche for “building Europe in partnership” and establishes two major strategic objectives: to promote the participation to the European process and to increase EU action efficiency. The lower interest of EU citizens for the European elections, when the affiliation to the European Union is perceived by their majority as an advantage in facing the challenges, represents an invitation towards political action development on the ground of multi-level governances mechanisms and principles.

The Committee of the Regions considers the multi-level governance as an European Union, member states and local and regional coordinate action, based on partnership that aims the EU policies elaboration and application.

Moreover, the multi-level governance represents a ‘political action sketch” rather than a legal instrument, impossible to understand only from the point of view of competences allocation.

The multi-level governance implementation in practice is based upon respecting the subsidiarity principle which avoids decisions concentration at only one power level and insures policies elaboration and application at the right level. Respecting the subsidiarity principle and the multi-level governance are inseparable. One concerns the power levels competences and the other shows the interaction between them5.

We have to remember that through this Notification the Committee promotes the agreement memorandum between the European Union and the Europe Council, regarding the pan-European accord concerning the multi-level governance, based on the democratic values and principles and on the constitutional ground of the fundamental rights.

In order to apply the multi-level governance, the Committee engages itself :

- to monitories the subsidiarity principle application according to Lisbon Treaty, the territorial impact evaluation of EU policies

5 The Committee of the Regions http://www.cor.europa.eu/ and the European Commission


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and its democracy stimulating role in Europe. The supervision network created by the Committee, that has 96 members (local and regional authorities, associations of the local and regional parliaments), accomplishes online consultations through the agency of its internet site.

- to develop its inter-institutional relations with the European Commission, in order to revise the cooperation agreement signed with the European Parliament6, in the context of the future political program and with the EU Council, in order to bring together the inter-governmental dynamic and the political action of the local and regional authorities for elaborating and applying the European decisions;

- to sustain the pioneer-initiative “Erasmus for the local and regional elected” and to cooperate with the European Parliament, with the Council and with the European Commission for the conceptual and operational development and to support the training programs, exchange of experience and good practice programs.

- to continue the approach action with the national and regional parliaments, especially within the subsidiarity supervision process;

- to start , when there is no possibility of formal representation within the Council, processes of internal consultation and coordination together with the local and regional authorities and to facilitate the electronic access for the member states to the supervision system, to analyze the EU bills in order to consider their competences within the national approach, as well as to offer them the possibility to participate at the supervision activity;

- to strengthen and to complete the existing mechanisms of shaping the national position and of formal representation

6 In its notice regarding “the new role and the new responsibilities of the European Parliament based on the Lisbon Treaty”, the European Parliament Committee on Regional Development establishes the importance of its relationship with the Committee of the Regions PE 404.556 v02-00 (30/5/2008).4.9.2009 RO O.J. of the EU C 211/9


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within the Council in order to fully respect the competences distribution established in their constitutional order;

- to obligate the local and regional councils to organize special meetings on the European integration and European policies and to invite to their debates representatives of the EU institutions involved in the shared governance7;

- to evaluate local and regional authorities experience within the former expansions in virtue of its working groups activity for the West Balkans, Turkey and Croatia as well as in virtue of the Advisory Paritary Committee for the Former Yugoslavia Republic of Macedonia;

- to promote and to maintain at real parameters the cohesion policy, considered the image of European cohesion. It has evolved over time: created to accompany the single market launch in order to develop the underprivileged regions, it allowed to soften the social-economic disparities generated by EU successive expansions and became a major instrument that helps the economic growth strategy and the employment labor strategy in the EU

Recently, the European Union appealed to the cohesion policy in order to support the European economy recovery plan8. In this respect, the Paper

7 Since the creation of the Committee of the Regions, the cooperation with the main European and national associations of the local and regional authorities and with several networks allowed to establish a complementary between its institutional role and the role of these organizations. Every year, the Committee and DG REGIO of the European Commission organize in Bruxelles the “Open days –European Week of Regions and cities”. Within the extended inter-institutional partnership, that includes EU presidency and the European Parliament, this event brings together over 7000 participants and 250 partners. The official partners of Open Days are the regions and their offices in Bruxelles and also many local partners, for example the local research associations and institutes. These partners are the main organizers of many seminars , workshops and of a consistent part of the framework program; The Association of the elected from the mountain cities (AEM) developed a inter-regional cooperation project within the INTERREG program; The Association of European boarder regions created a trans-boarder network based on good practices exchange in order to elaborate concrete proposals that can be accomplished during the EU programs, C211/12 RO Official Journal of the European Union; The Assembly of European Regions created a inter-regional cooperation program which has as objective developing the European awareness, promoting European regions and mobilizing regional enterprises to accept internships. 8 C 211/14 RO Official Journal of the European Union


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states that, in order to embrace an extensive view on territorial cohesion, that will take into consideration the new challenges that the local and regional authorities are facing (globalization, climatically changes, energetic security, immigration), it is necessary to determine the concrete objectives that the European funds are allocated for, depending on each territory particularity and on a competitiveness strategy.

At the same time in the political action field, where there are no explicit EU competences, but where the EU policies are efficient , for example the housing policy, the multi-level governance is an instrument that allows the transverse approach of this field and allows to solve an inflexible competence distribution, with the object of aiming common goals by respecting the constitutional and administrative diversity of the member states.

In this respect, the Committee of the Regions suggests the partnership practice consolidation, both vertically ( local and regional authorities- national government and the European Union) and horizontally ( local and regional authorities – civil society), especially within the social dialogue, insuring the citizens` participation by the agency of the authorities created to this end by the involved public administrations, especially by those which are closer to the citizens, due to geographical proximity and subsidiarity principle application.

By the medium of horrizontaly governance participation, various social groups will be able to present their evaluations, opinions and suggestions regarding the aspects of EU public initiatives9. In this field, through the Paper, the Committee requests to the European Commission:

- to evaluate the progress in the field of structural funds management simplification and decentralization in the 2007-2013 period, having in view the administrative tasks` proportionality reported to the type and dimension of the intervention and to the consequences they have over the local and regional authorities;

- to intensify the development of the territorial cooperation potential .

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The territorial cooperation consolidation is necessary in order to achieve the economic, social and territorial cohesion objectives. In this respect, the vertically and horizontally partnership opportunities, guaranteed by a political, legal and financial framework of transnational cooperation that allows the cooperation between many territories from different European states, have to be significantly promoted in the next years. In this respect, having in view the consolidation of European territorial cooperation10 groups and their regulations revision, the Committee of the Regions promised to express suggestions in order to improve the value added of this document.

In conclusion, through the present “White Paper”, the Committee of the Regions wishes to present its own view regarding the EU method based on a governance that brings together the European Union,, local and regional authorities to elaborate and to apply the EU policies. This view is based upon the progress due to the European Commission’s White Paper on European Governance, adopted in 2001 and explains the stake and the challenges of shared governance in Europe. Developing the European culture of multi-level governance represents a permanent challenge. In the future the Committee will evaluate periodically the progresses registered during this process and will present every three years a report on the EU multi-level governance evolution.

References:

*** “The White Paper on shared governance”, presented at the Committee of the Regions’ plenary session of 17-18 June 2009;

***.Declaration on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the Rome Treaty, Berlin, March 25th 2007 , C 211/2 RO, O. J. of EU;

*** The European Parliament Report regarding “the governance and the partnerships at national and regional level and a ground for the projects in the regional field policy” A6- 0356/2008.C 211/4 RO, O.J. of EU;

*** Regulation no. 1082/2006 concerning GECT;

10 GECT represents a new EU legal instrument (Regulation no. 1082/2006), that aims territorial cooperation constancy among different governance levels and trans-boundary cooperation, having a special importance for the territorial cohesion policy consolidation. In Romania, the necessary legal framework was created through the Government Emergency Ordinance no 127/2007 concerning GECT, published in O.M. no. 769/13.11.2007.


*** The European Commission’s White Paper on European Governance, adopted in 2001.

398

The role of the profit and loss accounting information

Odi Mihaela Zarnescu*

Abstract: The objective of financial statements is to provide information about the

financial position, performance and changes in financial position of an entity.The transparency of financial statements is secured through full disclosure and by prodiving fair presentation of useful information necessary for making economic decisions to a wide range of users.

The profit and loss account offers information about the financial fluxes of an enterprise at the end of the financial year. These explain how the profit and loss account could influence the cash flow. It is true in a cash accounting and it is false in an accrual basis.

Key words: accounting result, profit and loss account, result financial, result from the

explootation

As far back as Middle Epoch, when the economy based on the capital was incipient “the performance measure of the business was the gain” 1. In the XIX century, the big industry and commerce corporations periodically measured and analysed their performances with profit and loss account helping.

In the developing countries, the essential characteristic of any economical activities is rationality put in evidence with the “profit” term. The profit “result of the work and managerial innovation” 2 rose like a notion resulted after a long controversy between adepts of the different thinking currents, doctrines or economical schools. Between the many tackling of the profit (advantage get by a physical or juridical person, without he contributes for its obtain; an irregular, illegal and undue gaining of the capitalists owed by the increasing the sell prices or to convert some incomes without a proper effort etc.), present an interest for our analysing in this work: the concept of “the rightful profit”. In concordance

* Spiru Haret University, Faculty of Accounting and Finance, Campulung Muscel 1 N.Feleagă, I.Ionaşcu, Tratat de Contabilitate Financiară, vol.I, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 1998 2 D. Ciucur, I. Gavrilă, C. Popescu, Economie, Ediţia a II-a, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 2001


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with the specialists in Economy, this king of profit is obtained from an economical activity improved and modernized with the proper creative effort of the firms.

In the market economy conditions “the economical rations and the profit which relieved it are gone with the incertitude and risk”3 (the marketing risk, the economical restructuring risk, the financial and political risk etc.). From this point of view the profit constitutes the award of the enterprisers for the losing risk of the proper capital. In a competitive economy, the activity of the entity follows two objectives: realisation of the profit and satisfying the necessities of one segment on the market. For this, it is necessary an information which must develop the financial position of the enterprise and its profitableness. Who wants to be competitive he must progress in a credible mode, the enterprise capacity to generate the positive results and liquidities. In this strategy when there are consumed the information of used resources and obtained results, it must not forget about the truth when the profit appear like resulting of the enterpriser incertitude and the risk. So, the Accounting International Standards often use the concept of “probability” when they refer at the recognizing criteria of the structures contained by the financial statements.

The accounting information about the entity results can build and transmit to the users through two financial statements: the balance sheet and the profit and loss account. The balance sheet evidences the result under the profit and loss, in its quality of the enterprise fortune determined by the activity during the financial exercise and the profit and loss account describes and explains the results through the expenditures and incomes structures which determined it.

The complementarities between those two synthesis documents where there are added the changed financial position statement, we find into “The General Frame for making and presenting the financial statements” elaborated by the IASB.

So, “the information about the financial position is first offered by the balance sheet. The information about the results is first offered by the results account. The information about the financial position is offered by the financial statements through a separate statement. The component parts

3 Geoffrey Whitehead, Economia, Ed. Sedona, Timişoara, 1997

Odi Mihaela Zarnescu

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of the financial statements are interrelation because they reflect the different aspects of the same operations or events. Although every statement offers the different information it is possible no one to serve only one scope….”4.

But, the synthesis accounting documents which “measure the activity performance of an enterprise is the profit and loss account or the results account” 5. This document records and presents a classified and ordinate recapitulation of the transactions which consume the expenditures and product the incomes, leading towards the determination and explication of the exercise results. This recapitulation can be completed or simplified and the classification criteria are those of the nature or of the expenditures and incomes functions (destination). The both criteria stay on the base of two models of the result, displaying under the account or bilateral form, respectively under the list or difference form.

Existence of the two models of the result presentation does not exclude building of other models for the enterprise leading to manage the performance under the enterprise profitableness. In the practice activity it can be made the results analytic models when the result is calculated and evidenced in an analytic mode, on the value investment (on the type of products and services), on the function of the enterprise (production, selling, financial, administrative etc.), on the places of the activities which consume the resources and produce the results on the activities or process that get the costs and contribute directly or indirectly at the result requirement.

In a global mode and the each structure level, without the detailed grade, the result is calculated only at the base of the classical relation: incomes minus expenditure.

The informational value of the result account results in the possibility of determines different types of results with taking in calculation of the different types of expenditures and incomes. So, in concordance with the financial accounting in Romania is just connected at the taxation, the result account offer the possibility to calculate both the accounting result and the

4 The General Frame for making and presenting the financial statements -IASC, 5 N. Felegă, I. Ionaşcu, Tratat de Contabilitate Financiară, vol. I, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, 1998


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taxation one. In the same time the accounting result can be determined before and after taxing.

The accounting result, before the taxing can be determined on the following relations:

The accounting result before

the taxing =

The recognized incomes in the profit taxing

account before expenditures the results

- The correspondent of

the recognized incomes in the results

account before the profit taxing

On the base of the accounting result before the taxing it is determined

the taxation result. The relation about the determination of the taxation result is:

The taxation result

= The accounting result before the taxation

+ The deductible taxation expenditures

- The taxation illation at the profit taxing

Along with operation of the structure by eligible and amine taxation

(the requirement of the international standards of accounting), the relations between the accounting result before the taxation and the taxation result will be put in evidence by the following relation6:

The taxation

result =

The accounting

result before the taxation

+/- The

permanent difference

+/- The

temporary difference

After the profit taxation and recognize at the expenditures of the profit

taxation it could be determined the exercise result (the net accounting result), on the following relation:

The net accounting result =

The accounting result before the

taxation - The profit

taxation

6 M. Ristea, Contabilitatea Rezultatului Întreprinderii, Ed. Tribuna Economică, Bucureşti,1997


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On the base of determining the different moments of the result it was considered the criteria of the expenditures and incomes. In concordance with this, the expenditures are limited like qualitative structure and recorded while their doing and the incomes in the moment of their realised, indifferent the moment of expenditures paying, respectively of incomes encashing.

The informational value of the profit and loss account results that it permits the determination of an assemble result of the entity, on a given period but and a partial results (from the exploitation, financial, current, extraordinary). Also, it permits the exhaustive recapitulation of the incomes and expenditures elements which contributed for obtaining the result what permitted to identification of the favourable or unfavourable factors which influenced it.

The expenditures and incomes represented in the result account can be grouped after the criteria of their nature and after the criteria of their destination.

I. After their nature, the expenditures are grouped on the types of activities – of the exploitation, financial and extraordinary – and in these frame on the primary elements reported at the types of the used resources. So:

1. The exploitation expenditures contain the next types of expenditures:

- Expenditures with the charge stocks and consumable materials; - Other extern expenditures (energy and water); - Expenditures for goods; - Expenditures with staff; - Adjusting the value of the corporal an incorporeal

immobilization (expenditures/incomes) - Adjusting the value of the circulated assets

(expenditures/incomes); - Other exploitation expenditures (the expenditures for the extern

work; expenditures with other taxing; assimilated taxation and deposits; expenditures with reimburse; donates and given asset);


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- Adjusting of provisions for risks and expenditures (expenditures/incomes).

2. The financial expenditures contain:

- Adjusting the value of the financial immobilization what are like the circulated assets (expenditures/incomes);

- Expenditures with interests (from what in the group frame) - Other financial expenditures (the expenditures with the afferent

interests for the received credits; the unfavourable difference of the exchange rate).

3. The extraordinaire expenditures:

In the international accounting standards IAS 8, “The period net profit and losing, the fundamental errors and changes of the accounting policies”, the modality to distinguish an ordinary element by another extraordinary is determined by the nature of the event, transaction than its frequency. “The ordinary activities are any of the enterprise activities like a part of its activity object and additional activities where the enterprise involves continuing the principal activities or their derivation” 7.

The extraordinary expenditures represent those which are generated by the events, transactions or operations what are different by the ordinary activities of the enterprise and do not wait their repeatability. In conclusion, the extraordinary expenditures do not have a frequent or regular character and they are unusual. An earthquake, a natural disaster represent examples of the events what generate the extraordinary expenditures.

II. The incomes like the expenditures are different like the activities types: - of the exploitation, financial and extraordinary.

1. The exploitation incomes contain:

- The net business turn-over; - The stocks variation; - The immobilized production;

7 IAS 8, paragraph 16.


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- Other exploitation incomes (encashing the fines, penalizations, compensations, receiving the donation, receiving the subventions of exploitation).

2. The financial incomes contain:

- The incomes from participation concerning (from what, in the group frame)

- The incomes from other financial invest and book debts what take part from the immobilization assets;

- The incomes from interests (from what, in the group frame); - Other financial incomes (dividends and interests for encashing;

favourable differences of exchange rate).

3. The extraordinary incomes:

The extraordinary incomes represents the incomes which are generated by the events, transactions or operations what are differenced by the ordinary activities of the enterprise and do not wait their repeatability. In conclusion, the extraordinary expenditures do not have a frequent or regular character and they are unusual.

Introducing the “result on the share” indicator in the profit and loss account structure represents other new element for the Romanian accounting. This represents useful information in appreciation of the enterprise performance, especially for the investors. It is calculated in two variants: result on the base share and the result on the attenuate share.

The result on the base share is calculated like a report between the net results of the period of ordinary shares and the average number of the ordinary shares in circulation along the year.

The net result of period for the ordinary shares is determined like a difference between the net results of the period from what were excluded the extraordinary elements and dividends of the preferential shares.

The average number of shares in circulation is calculated adding at the existed ones at the beginning of the period, the new ones emission and illation the shares reimbursing or at the acquisition of the proper shares. The balanced is done in concordance with prorates. This is represented by the number of the months when the ordinary shares emitted along the year there are in circulation and respectively the number of the months which


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remain until the end of the year when are backing from circulation of this kind of shares.

Example:

It is known the information about the exercise finished at 31.12.N (thousand lei):

Profit from the ordinary activities (current) before the taxing 10,000 (-) The profit taxing from the ordinary activities 3,000

(=) The profit from the ordinary activities after the taxing 7,000 The dividends value of 1,000 thousand lei were distributed: for the

ordinary shares 800 thousand lei and for the preferential shares 200 thousand lei.

At the beginning of the N exercise there were 40,000 ordinary shares in circulation. On July, 31st, there were emitted another 12,000 ordinary shares.

The net result of the exercise for the ordinary shares will be: 7,000 – 800 = 6,200 thousand lei. The average number of the ordinary shares in circulation will be: 40,000 + 12,000 x 5 / 12 = 45,000 shares The result on the base share will be: 6,800 / 45,000 = 0.137777 thousand lei for a share The attenuate effect of the result on the share appears when the entity

has in the circulation the potential ordinary shares. These are represented by the preferential shares, liabilities and other value titles suspect to be converted in ordinary shares.

The result on the attenuate share is calculated through the adjusting the result on the share with the effect of the potential ones. So, the net result of the period is increased with the following net taxing elements: dividends what come to the preferential shares in the case of conversion them in ordinary ones, the interests of the liabilities converted in shares etc. More, at the number of the ordinary shares there are added the number of the


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shares which would result from the conversion of all potential in the ordinary ones.

Example:

In exercise N-1 were emitted 20,000 the convertible liabilities in shares. The minimum value of one liability is 20 lei, and the interest rate is 10%. When the liabilities are emitted it was fixed that on June, 30th N+1, each 100 liabilities can be converted in 150 shares. At the beginning of N exercise the company has in circulation 40,000 ordinary shares. The result of N exercise was 1,600,000 lei. The profit taxing is 25%.

The result on the base share will be: 1,600,000 / 40,000 = 40 lei on a share The calculation of the attenuate share:

The base result 1,600,000 lei (+) The economised interest

(20,000 liabilities x 20 lei/liability x 10%) 40,000 lei

(-) Reducing the taxing which is not beneficed (40,000 x 25%) 10,000 lei

(=) The attenuate result 1,630,000 lei

The ordinary shares in circulation 40,000 The potential shares 20,000 x 150/100 = 30,000 Number of total shares 40,000 + 30,000 = 70,000 The result on the attenuate share 1,630,000 / 70,000 = 23.285 lei on a share

Conclusions

The model of the profit and loss account consecrated by the OMF no. 1752/2005 although more opened to financial analysis than its predecessor does not satisfy the exigency of the enterprise modern management which presumes a tackling on the function of the expenditures and incomes. This


kind of tackling takes part from the tendency which is at the international level for making of the profit and loss account.

References

N. Felegă, I. Ionaşcu (1998) Traty of Financial Accounting, vol. I, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti,

M. Ristea (1997) Enterprise Accounting result, Ed. Tribuna Economică, Bucureşti,

*** The General Frame for making and presenting the financial statements –IASC

D. Ciucur, I. Gavrilă, C. Popescu ( 2001) Economy, Ediţia a II-a, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti,

Geoffrey Whitehead, (1997) Economy, Ed. Sedona, Timişoara,