vol 4 - cont j. agric sci-2010

8/8/2019 Vol 4 - Cont J. Agric Sci-2010

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol-4-cont-j-agric-sci-2010 1/47

1

Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 1 - 6, 2010 ISSN: 2141 - 4203

© Wilolud Journals, 2010 http://www.wiloludjournal.com

DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY EVALUATION OF WEANING FOOD FORTIFIED WITH AFRICANYAM BEAN (SPHENOSTYLIS STENOCARPA) FLOUR.

Okoye J.I.1, Ezigbo, V. O.

2And Animalu, I.L.

3

1Department of Food Science and Technology and

3Department of Microbiology, Madonna University, Elele

Campus, P.M.B 48, Elele, Rivers State, Nigeria and2.

Department of Industrial Chemistry, AnambraState University, P. M. B 02, Uli Anambra State, Nigeria.

ABSTRACTThe use of sorghum and African yam bean blended flours in the preparation of weaning

food formulations was studied. The sorghum flour (SF) was composite with African yam

bean flour (AYBF) at the levels of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%. The weaning food

formulations produced from the flour blends were analysed for their nutritional and sensory

qualities using standard methods. The nutritional composition of the samples showed that

the protein content of the formulations increased with increasing supplementation with

African yam bean flour from 8.64% in 90:10 (SF:AYBF) to 13.44% in 50:50 (SF:AYBF)samples, while carbohydrate decreased. In the same vein, the energy content of the

formulations increased gradually as the level of fortification with African yam bean flour

increased from 368.98KJ in 90:10 (SF:AYBF) to 382.98KJ in 50:50 (SF:AYBF). The

sensory evaluation carried out on different samples of weaning food formulation after

reconstitution into gruel with boiling water showed that the formulation made from 100%

sorghum flour used as control was the most acceptable by the judges and was also

significantly different (p<0.05) from the other samples in flavour and texture. However, the

formulation fortified with 50% African yam bean flour was scored highest in colour.

KEYWORDS: Weaning food, fortification, sorghum flour, African yam bean flour,

quality assessment.

INTRODUCTIONCereals and legumes, individually or as composites, are the main source of nutrients for weaning children in

developing countries (Chavan and Kadam, 1989). Weaning foods commonly used in Nigeria are composed

largely of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) with a limited amount of dried –milk powder. However, such mixtures

have been shown to be poor in protein content and quality (Achi, 2005).

The fortification of weaning foods with a variety of inexpensive vegetable proteins from legumes, nuts and

oilseeds has received considerable attention from nutritionists and food scientists in several sub-saharan African

countries (Uzogara et al; 1990). This is because these grain legumes and oilseeds are relatively high in lysine, an

essential amino acid deficient in most cereals (Nout, 1993). Whole legumes generally contain high amount of

protein compared to other foods of plant origin (FAO, 2005). Ideally, the ingredients for low cost

complementary foods must be derived from dietary staples that are available and affordable in the region of

interest.

African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) is one of the edible grain legumes widely cultivated in Africa that is

used for human and animal nutrition (Eke, 2002). Like most grain legumes cultivated in African, African yam

bean is rich in protein, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals (Iwuoha and Eke, 1996). The protein of African yam

bean is made up of over 32% essential amino acids, with lysine and leucine being predominant (Onyenekwe et

al; 2000). The supplementation of cereal-based weaning foods with adequately processed African yam beanflour would help to improve their protein content and quality. It could also help to extend the use of this lesser

known and utilized legume in a number of food preparations especially in developing countries for human

consumption. The purpose of this study was to examine the nutritional and sensory qualities of weaning food

formulations fortified with African yam bean flour at different levels of substitution.



2

Okoye J.I et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 1 - 6, 2010

MATERIALS AND METHODSWhite variety of sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) and African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) used for thisstudy were procured from local markets in Owerri and Umuahia, respectively. This research work was carried

out in Department of Food Science and Technology, Madonna University, Elele, Nigeria, in August, 2008.

Preparation of Sorghum Flour

The sorghum flour was prepared according to the method described by Ihekoronye (1999). During preparation,two kilograms of sorghum grains, which were free from dirts, damaged and contaminated grains were weighed,

cleaned and soaked in tap water for 18h. During soaking, the water was changed occasionally at intervals of 6h

to prevent fermentation.

Thereafter, the soaked grains were drained and wet milled (attrition mill) with tap water into fine slurry. The

resulting slurry was sieved (muslin cloth) and allowed to sediment for 10h after which it was decanted. The

sedimented and decanted slurry was eventually dewatered, spread on the trays and dried in the tray dryer (600C,

8h). After that, the dried cake obtained was milled (attrition mill) and sieved through a 500µm mesh sieve. The

sorghum flour produced was finally packaged in sealed polyethylene bags for blending and preparation of

weaning food formulations.

Preparation of African Yam bean FlourThe African yam bean flour was prepared according to the method described by Eneche (2006). During

preparation, two kilograms of African yam bean seeds which were free from foreign particles such as stones,

leaves and sticks as well as damaged and contaminated seeds were weighed, cleaned and soaked in tap water

containing 0.1% sodium metabisulphite (NaHS03) for 12h. Thereafter, the soaked seeds were manually dehulled,

drained and boiled (1000C, 20 min). The dehulled and boiled seeds were spread on the trays and dried in the tray

dryer (600C, 10h). After that, the dried seeds were immediately milled (attrition mill) and sieved through a

500µm mesh sieve. The cooked African yam bean flour produced was finally packaged in sealed polyethylene

bags for blending and preparation of weaning food formulations.

Preparation of Weaning Food Formulations

The weaning food formulations were prepared according to the method described by Agu and Aluyah (2004).During preparation, the sorghum flour (SF) was composite with African yam bean flour (AYBF) at the levels of

10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% in a Kenwood mixer (Model NX806 H) to obtain different samples of sorghum /

African yam bean blended flour. After that, 5% vitamin mix, 5% mineral mix, 2% salt and 5% sucrose (sugar)

were added to each of the flour blends and mixed thoroughly in a mixer (Model A409 G) for 10 min to produce

fortified weaning food formulations. Thereafter, the fortified weaning food formulations obtained were

individually packaged in sealed polyethylene bags and kept at ambient temperature conditions until further

analysis. In addition, the weaning food formulation made with 100% sorghum flour was similarly prepared as

reference. The various samples of weaning food formulation prepared from sorghum / African yam bean blended

flours are shown in Table 1.

Chemical AnalysisThe moisture, protein, fat, ash and fibre contents of each of the weaning food formulations were determined

according the methods of AOAC (1995). The carbohydrate was determined by difference Okaka et al; (2000).The food energy was calculated from proximate composition according to the standard method described by

Onwuka (2005). All determinations were carried out in triplicates.

Sensory EvaluationThe weaning food formulation prepared from 100% sorghum flour and the fortified samples with different levelsof substitution with African yam bean flour were individually prepared into gruel with boiling water. During

preparation, 20g of each sample was suspended with 50ml of tap water in a small plastic bowl. Thereafter, 60ml

of boiling water was added to each of the suspended sample to produce hot gruel. After preparation, the various

samples of gruel produced were scored by a panel of fifteen untrained judges drawn from the University

Community for attributes of colour, flavour, texture and overall acceptability on a hedonic scale of 1-9 where 1 =

dislike extremely and 9 = like extremely (Iwe, 2001).



3


Statistical AnalysisThe means and standard deviations of all the data generated after the analyses were calculated. The results weresubjected to Ducan multiple range test to detect significant differences (p<0.05) among the sample values

(Powers, 1998). The turkey test was used in separating significant means.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The proximate composition of weaning food formulations prepared from sorghum / African yam bean flourblends are shown in Table 2. The moisture content of the weaning food formulations was significantly different

from each other (p<0.05). They were also higher than those reported by Jipara et al; (2001). The protein content

of the formulations ranged from 6.84% to 13.44%. The differences were observed because the protein content of

the formulations increased as the level of fortification with African yam bean flour increased. However, the

result is in agreement with the report of Nnam (2001). This addition effect was also observed for ash and fibre

contents of the formulations. In other words, the ash and fibre contents of the formulations increased steadily

with increasing supplementation with African yam bean flour. The results also showed that African yam beans

are good sources of ash and fibre (Enwere, 1998). However, the opposite effect (subtraction effect) was observed

for fat and carbohydrate contents of the formulations. The fat and carbohydrate contents of the formulations

decreased readily with increasing content of African yam bean flour. They were also similar with those reportedby Treche and Mbome (1999). The energy content of the formulations ranged from 362.10KJ to 382.98KJ. The

energy content of the formulations was significantly different from each other (p<0.05). They were also higher

than those reported by Okoye et al; (2007). Generally, the use of these products for feeding infants and weaning

children should be encouraged because they contain both salt and sugar which are the major ingredients of oral

rehydration therapy. However, infants and weaning children placed on these products may not need oral

rehydration therapy solution.

The results of the sensory evaluation performed on different samples of reconstituted weaning food gruel madefrom sorghum / African yam bean flour blends are shown in Table 3. The various samples of gruel prepared

from different weaning food formulations were generally scored high in all the sensory attributes evaluated.

However, the gruel prepared from the formulation made from 100% sorghum flour used as control was most

acceptable by the judges and was also significantly different (p<0.05) from the other samples fortified with

African yam bean flour at different proportions in flavour and texture. The differences could be attributed to theunique quality of sorghum flour in the preparation of weaning food formulations (Thaoge et al; 2003). In

addition, the result also indicated that the gruel made from the formulation fortified with 50% African yam bean

flour had better colour than the other samples. The improvement in colour of the sample could be due to the

ability of African yam bean products to retain some of the colour pigments found naturally in their seeds on

exposure to heat during processing (Banigo et al; 2004).

Table 1:Samples of Weaning Food Formulation

Samples SF(%) AYBF(%)

A 100 0

B 90 10

C 80 20

D 70 30E 60 40

F 50 50

Legend:A – Weaning food formulation made with 100% sorghum flour.

B – Weaning food formulation made with 90% sorghum flour and 10% African yam bean flour.

C – Weaning food formulation made with 80% sorghum flour and 20% African yam bean flour.

D – Weaning food formulation made with 70% sorghum flour and 30% African yam bean flour.

E – Weaning food formulation made with 60% sorghum flour and 40% African yam bean flour.

F – Weaning food formulation made with 50% sorghum flour and 50% African yam bean flour.



4


CONCLUSIONWeaning food formulations of acceptable quality were prepared from sorghum / African yam bean blendedflours. From the study, it was observed that the weaning food formulations fortified with different proportions of

African yam bean flour generally had higher protein, ash and fibre contents than the formulation prepared from

100% sorghum flour. The fortification of weaning food formulations with adequately processed African yam

bean flour would improve their nutritional quality and make them meet the protein –energy needs of children in

the regions where protein-energy malnutrition is prevalent. Further studies should be carried out on the fortifiedweaning food formulations to determine their respective protein quality and amino acid profile.

Table 2:Means1,2

of proximate composition of weaning food formulations Prepared from SF and SF: AYBF

Blends on moisture free basis

Samples Moisture

(%)

Nx6.25

protein

(%)

Fat

(%)

Ash

(%)

Fibre

(%)

Carbohydrate

(%)

Energy

(KJ/100g)

A 8.06a

6.84a

0.80a

1.44a

2.12a

86.64a

362.10a

B 6.24 8.64 0.84 2.20 2.42 82.08 368.84

C 6.44c 9.62c 0.86a 2.46c 2.68c 80.62c 370.44c

D 6.62d

10.76d

0.86a

2.88d

2.86d

78.88d

374.96d

E 6.84e

12.68e

0.88a

3.02e

3.12e

77.58e

376.87e

F 7.26f

13.44f

0.90a

3.46f

3.62f

75.94f

382.98f

1.Values are means of triplicate determinations.

2.Means with different superscripts within the same column are significantly different from each other

(p<0.05).

Table 3:Means1,2

of sensory evaluation performed on different samples reconstituted weaning food gruel

prepared from SF and SF: AYABF Blends.

Samples Colour Flavour Texture Overall acceptability

A 6.0a

8.2a

7.8a

8.6a

B 6.6 7.6 7.2 7.8

C 7.2c

7.0c

7.0c

7.2c

D 7.8d

6.6d

6.4d

6.6d

E 8.0d

6.0e

6.2d

6.0e

F 8.6e

5.4f

5.6e

5.8e

1.Values are means of 15 untrained judges.

2.Means with different superscripts within the same column are significantly different from each other

(p<0.05).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThe author is grateful to Miss J.A. Nnani and Messers A.C. Ikpeama and F.E Ezeka for their support and

contribution. The provision of research facilities by the management of Madonna University, Elele Campus,

Rivers State, is also appreciated.

REFERENCES Achi, O.K. (2005). The potential for upgrading traditional fermented foods through biotechnology. African

Journal of Biotechnology; 4: 375-380.

Agu, H. O. and Aluyah, E. (2004). Production and chemical analysis of weaning food from maize, soybean and

fluted pumpkin seed flour. Nigeria Journal of Food Science and Technology; 22: 1711-177.

AOAC (1995). Official Methods of Analysis. Association of Official Analytical Cchemists. 16th

edn. WashingtonD. C. Pp. 205-224.



5


Banigo, E. B., Mepba, H. D. and Duru, S. N. (2004). Pasting characteristics of African yam bean (Sphenostylis

stenocarpa) starch . Proceedings of the Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology. Pp. 210 –211.

Chavan, J. K. and Kadam, S.S. (1989). Nutritional improvement of cereals by sprouting. Critical Reviews in

Food Science and Nutrition; 28:421 –437.

Eke, O. S. (2002). Effects of malting on the dehulling characteristics of African yam bean (Sphenostylis

stenocarpa) seeds and the functional properties of the flour. Journal of Food Science and Technology; 39 (4):

406-409.

Eneche, H. E. (2006). Production and evaluation of cakes from African yam bean and wheat flour blends.

Proceedings of the Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology. Pp. 46-47.

Enwere, N.J. (1998). Foods of Plant Origin. Afro-Obis Publications Ltd, Nsukka. Pp. 76-98.

FAO (2005). Food and Agricultural Organization. FAOSTAT. Http//Faostat.fao.org//.

Ihekoronye A.I. (1999). Manual of Small-scale Food Processing. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, London. Pp. 108 –

212.

Iwe, M.O. (2001). Organoleptic assessment of single-screw extruded mixtures of soy-sweet potato flour by

response surface analysis. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition; 56:324 – 330.

Iwuoha, C.I. and Eke, O.S. (1996). Nigerian indigenous fermented foods: their traditional process operations,

inherent problems, improvements and current status. Food Research International 29:527 – 540.

Jipara, P.H., Normah, M.M., Zamaliah, R. and Mohamad, K. (2001). Nutritional quality of germinated cowpea

flour (Vigna unguiculata) and its application in home prepared powdered weaning foods. Plant Foods for

Human Nutrition; 56:203 – 216.

Nnam, N.M. (2001). Chemical, sensory and rheological properties of porridges processed from sorghum

(Sorghum bicolor), Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. verde) and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) flours.

Plant Foods for Human Nutrition; 56:251 – 264.

Nout, M.J.R (1993). Processed weaning Foods for tropical climates. International Journal of Food Science;

43:213 – 221.

Okaka, J.C. Akobundu, E.N.T and Okaka, A.N.C (2000). Human Nutrition: An Integrated Approach. 2nd

edn.

Ocjanco Academic Publishers, Enugu. Pp. 176 – 192.

Okoye, J.I., Nkwocha, A.C. and Ezigbo, C.I. (2007). Nutrient composition and microbiological evaluation of

weaning food from maize and soybean flour. International Journal of Biotechnology and Allied Sciences; 2 (2):

179 – 185.

Onwuka, G.I. (2005). Food Analysis and Instrumentation: Theory and Practice. Naphthali Publishers Ltd, Lagos.

Pp. 56 – 62.

Onyenekwe, P.C., Njoku, G.C. and Ameh, D.A. (2000). Effect of cowpea processing methods on flatus causingoligosaccharides. Nutrition Research; 20:349 – 358.

Powers, J.J, (1998). Current Practices and Application of Descriptive Methods. In: Sensory Analysis of Foods.

Elsevier Publishers Ltd, London and New York. Pp. 187 – 268.

Thaoge, M.L., Adams, M.R., Sibara, M.M., Watson, T.G. Taylor, J.R.N and Goyaverts, E.M. (2003). Production

of improved infant porridges from pearl millet using a lactic acid fermentation step and addition of sorghum malt



6


to reduce viscosity of porridges with high protein, energy and solids (3%) content. World Journal of

Microbiology and Biotechnology; 19:305 – 310.

Treche, S. and Mbome, I.L. (1999). Viscosity, energy density and osmolality of gruels for infants prepared from

locally produced commercial flours in some developing countries. International Journal of Food Science and

Nutrition; 50:117 – 125.

Uzogara, S.G., Agu, L.N. and Uzogara, E.O. (1990). A review of traditional fermented foods, condiments and

beverages in Nigeria: their benefits and possible problems. Ecology of Food and Nutrition; 24:267 – 288.

Received for Publication: 17/08/2009

Accepted for Publication: 15/03/2010

Corresponding Author

Okoye J.I.

19 Uke Street Phase 1 Omagba Layout, P.O. Box 273, Onitsha, Anambra State Nigeria.



7



GENESIS, CLASSIFICATION AND AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL OF THE SOILS DERIVED FROM

KERRIKERRI SANDSTONE FORMATION IN NORTHERN NIGERIA.

A.M. Hassan

Crop Production Programme, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, PMB 0248, Bauchi-Nigeria

ABSTRACT

Genesis, classification and agricultural potentials of the soils derived from Kerrikerri

sandstone formation in Bauchi State, Nigeria were investigated. Field and laboratory

observations with the soils from five pedons, one each at crest, lower slope and valley

floor, and two from middle slope positions, revealed that they were deep (>150 cm), brown

(7.5YR 5/3) to very pale brown (10YR 7/3) and sandy loam to sandy clay loam in the

upper horizon underlain by yellowish red (5RY 4/8) to brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) and

gravely sand clay to clay horizons, with moderately well-developed sub-angular blocky

structure and friable to very friable consistence. The soils were strongly to moderately

acidic (pH. 5.1-5.9 in H2O, 3.8-5.3 in CaCl2), low in exchangeable bases (1.04 – 1.40 cmol

(+) kg-1 as well as exchange acidity (0.54 -1.90 cmol (+)kg –1 )with cation exchangecapacity ranging between 4.4 and 27.6 cmol (+)kg

-1soil. The dominant pedogenic

processes influencing the rate of soil development were found to be clay lessivation,

colluvial-fluvial deposition and neoformation of minerals in the lower horizons as a result

of downward leaching of the bases and likely better moisture condition at depth. The soils

were classified according to the USDA Soil Taxonomy System (2003)/FAO-UNESCO Soil

Map of the World Legend (1988) as Pedon 1 (Crest): Aquic Haplustult fine loamy,

isomesic/Gleyic Acrisol, Pedons 2, 3 and 4 (Middle slopes 1 and 2 as well as Lower slope):

Orthic Paleustults fine loamy kaolinitic, isohyperthermic/Orthic Acrisol, and Pedon 5

(Valley floor): Aquic Plinthic Haplustaults clayey, isohyperthermic/ Plinthic Acrisol.

KEYWORDS: genesis, classification, agricultural potentials, sandstone, formation,lessivation.

INTRODUCTION

About 50% of Nigeria’s geological land mass consists of sedimentary rocks (Fig. 1) mainly sandstone of

Cretaceous age (Adeleye and Dessauvagie, 1970), part of the sediments lays roughly along the River Niger and

Benue Basins. They are collectively referred to as Nupe and Bima sandstone, respectively. Within the Benue

Trough, the sandstone is referred to as Bima or Gombe sandstone under which the Kerrikerri sandstone

formation exists. It is composed of grit, shale, and clay (Carter et al 1963). The soils derived from Kerrikerri

formation possess a great potential for increasing crop production through expansion of the cultivable area and

adoption of improved agro-technology. One of the main requirements towards the opening up of new areas for

intensive farming is a detailed characterization and mapping of the soils within a given land area. Such

information is not much available for the study area and other areas with similar soils. This study was aimed to

investigate the morphological as well as phyisco-chemical properties of the dominant soils in Gwaram area

within the Kerrikerri sandstone formation, and to classify them according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff

2003) and the FAO/UNESCO (1988) World Soil Map Legend. Attempts have also been made to highlight theagricultural potentials of the soils and identify possible soil-related constraints to sustainable agricultural

production.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Study Area

The area of study is located at Gwaram (10o15’N, 10

o20’E, 145m above sea level), some 8km south east of

Alkaleri Town (10o

16’N, 10o20’E,) in the Alkaleri Local Government Area of Bauchi State, Nigeria. The

Tertiary Sedimentary rocks consist of segment of flat –lying continental grits, sandstone and clays known as the

Kerrikerri formation. They underlie the Kerrikerri Plateau and the Potiskum plain to the north (Dousse, 1969).

Kerrikerri Plateau forms extensive rolling upstanding flat-topped Ironstone– capped relic hills. Bawden (1972)

described the drainage pattern as widely spaced with stream lines as much as 1.6 km apart. In the north, tributary

streams flow in narrow V-shaped valleys to the flood plain of the Gongola. Further south the Pai and its major



8

A.M. Hassan: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 7 -19, 2010

tributaries have flat-floored valleys bounded in most places by steep sides rising to the gentler plateau slopes.

This formation occupies an area of 65,000 ha form which over 100 ha was investigated. The area is characterizedby very deep and leached ferruginous soils previously identified as Ferralsols.

Receiving about 882 mm annual rainfall, the area has some 7 months (October – April) of dry season and diurnal

temperatures averaging 31.6oC maximum and 13.1

oC minimum. This puts the area in an isohyperthermic

temperature regime. The area is situated in the Northern Guinea Savanna ecological zone with natural vegetationconsisting of Hyparrhenia, Riparia spp and Andropogon as grasses, and scattered Tamarindus indica, Parkia

clapertoria and Khaya senegalensis as the dominant trees. Some of the commonly cultivated agricultural crops

are millet (Pennisetum typhoideum Rich), guinea corn (Sorghum bicolor L.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) and

groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea L.).

Field Studies

Based on a reconnaissance survey using topographic and land-use approaches (free survey method), initially 36

sites were augured randomly to establish the kinds of soils in the area.

Subsequently, four soil units were identified as Unit 1 – Crest, Unit-2 Middle slope, Unit 3 – Lower slope andUnit 4 – Valley floor, One profile (pedon) pit was dug in each unit except the Unit 2- Middle slope where two

pits (Middle slope –1 and Middle slope –2) were dug. Each profile was described according to the procedures

outlined by the Soil Survey Staff (2002). A composite soil sample was collected from each recognizable

pedogenic horizon in each profile.

Laboratory Studies

The soil samples were air- dried, crushed with a pestle and mortar and passed through a 2 – mm sieve. A 20g

sub-sample of each was finely (<0.5mm,) ground and stored in a polythene bag for the estimation of organiccarbon and total nitrogen. Each soil sample was analysed for various parameters included in Tables 2 to 4 using

the methods as described by Page et al. (1982).

Briefly, the particle – size distribution was determined by the Bouyoucos hydrometer method and bulk density

by the clod method; the latter was used to calculate the porosity assuming the particle density to be equal to2.65Mgm-

3. Soil pH (in 1:1 soil: water and 1:2 soil: CaCl2 solution) was determined potentiometrically. The

electrical conductivity of a 1:5 soil: water suspension was determined using a conductivity meter and the value

multiplied by a conversion factor of 6.4 to obtain the EC of saturation extract as suggested by Landon (1991).

Organic carbon and total nitrogen were respectively determined by the Walkley – Black wet combustion and

macro-Kjeldahl digestion–distillation method. Bray No. 1 method was employed for the estimation of available

phosphorus. Exchange acidity was estimated by the extraction with 1m KCI solution. Cation exchange capacity

(CEC) was determined by the NH4- saturation method using the atomic absorption spectrophotometer; the values

were used to calculate percentage base saturation. The cation exchange capacity of the minerals clay colloids was

estimated by the equation:

CEC (clay) = CEC (soil) – 3.5x%OC X100

% Clay

Where, CEC = Cation exchange capacity in cmol (+) kg-

1

soil determined at pH 7.0, and OC = Organiccarbon

This estimate is made on the assumption that 1% organic carbon accounts for an exchange capacity 3.5

cmol(+)kg-1soil as empirically determined for the savanna soils by Sombrock and Zonneveld (1971).



9



Morphological PropertiesData on morphological features of the pedons are given in Table 1. The soils were deep to very deep, well-

drained and sandy loam to sandy clay loam in the Ap horizon over a gravely sandy clay to clay subsurface

horizons. This shows clearly the influence of parent materials especially in the surface horizons. The soil colour

ranged from brown (75YR 5/3) to very pale brown (10YR 7/3) in the Ap horizons over yellowish red (5YR 4/8)

to brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) subsurface horizons with moderate medium sub-angular blocky peds of friable to

very friable consistencies Frequently, quartz grains were seen. Presence of a few ant and termite holes as well as

nests indicated limited faunal pedoturbation within the soils. Pedon 5 (valley floor) had many nodules (10YR

8/1) of Fe and Mn with petroplinthic clay in the sub-soils which were also mottles.

Generally, there was an evidence of clay depletion in the surface horizons (Table 2). The lessivation appeared to

have been promoted in these soils by the planar topography which enhances infiltration and consequently the

effective rainfall. Pedon 1 showed the evidence of moderate drainage due to either accumulation of kaolinite or

silty parent materials as shown by the high proportion of silt in this pedon (Table 2). There was a distinct

disappearance of vegetative cover in the area. This may be due to kaolinite mining in the area which gives thisunit (Pedon 1) a distinct local micro-relief and the land was left barren.

Physico-chemical Properties

Physical properties

Data in Table 2 show that with the exceptions of the horizons of lithologic discontinuity in Pedons 1 and 2

and B2v horizon of Pedon 4, sand was the dominant fine earth fraction in the soils indicating that the

sandstone dominated the shale in the mixed parent materials. In pedon 1, silt was the dominant fraction in

the last two horizons; in fact, the silt content in this pedon was generally higher than in the remainingpedons possibly due to higher content of shale as parent material. The higher clay content in the lowest

horizons of pedons 2 and 4 as well as in all the sub-surface horizons of Pedons 5 may be attributed to clay

lessivation and toposequential effect of the landscape more specifically in pedon 5, the Valley floor. These

observations show a strong texture – parent material relationship and confirm the finding of Akamigbo

and Asadu (1983) that the parent material dominates over climate as determinant of soil texture. The Aphorizon texture was sandy loam in the crest and middle slope positions and sandy clay loam in the lower

slope position and valley floor. The texture in the sub-surface was variable except in pedon 5 (valley

floor) where it was distinct clay (Table 2) indicating its accumulation through clay lessivation. There was

general clay depletion in the Ap horizons as was observed by others before (Ojanuga and Awujoola 1981;

Esu and Ojanuga 1985; Ojanuga 1995) working with the soils derived from sandstone parent materials.

Such a depletion of clay in the upper layers may be attributed to the biological sorting of soil materials,

clay migration and erosion (Ojanuga and Awujoola 1981).

Data in Table 2 further show that with exceptions in the Ap horizons of Pedons 4 and 5 and Bt1 horizon of Pedon

4, the silt: clay ratio was higher than the 0.15 limit reported by Van Wambeke (1962) to represent old parent

materials. This indicates that the soil parent materials are old. The Weathering index silt: (silt+clay) was

calculated to assess the degree of weatherability of silt and clay size particles in the soils. Young (1976) quoted

that a ratio of <0.5 indicates less weathering. With this limit and the data on silt: (silt + clay) in Table 2 in view,it may be argued that the soils in the study area are highly weathered especially Pedons 1 – 3 (crest and middle

slopes). While the lower slope and valley floor are less weathered as a result of fresh frequent materials deposit.

It also depicts the consequence of interfluves on the soil units.

Bulk density values given in Table 2 show an appreciable variation among and within the soils units pointing tothe differences in mineralogy, clay content and structural development. The values ranged from 0.87Mgm-

3to

1.53Mgm-3

in the Ap horizons and 1.12 to 1.94Mgm3

in the subsurface horizons. A relatively high bulk density

recorded at the zone of lithologic discontinuities in some pedons may be related to a decrease in the pore space

(Table 2) and possible concentration of iron oxide minerals into a gravelly layer. Good plant growth is obtained

with bulk density below 1.4Mgm3

for clay soils and 1.6Mgm3

for sands (Donahue et al 1990). Further, a bulk

density between 1.7 and 1.8 Mgm3

for sandy soils and between 1.45 and 1.65Mgm3

for clayey soils have been

shown to inhibit root growth (Veighmeyer and Hendrickson 1948). With the Ap horizon bulk density



10

<1.53Mgm3, the surface soils of the study area do not appear to offer any resistance to root penetration or

growth. With the 0.42 – 0.67m-3

m-3

porosity in the surface horizons, the soils appear to be favourable for good

aeration, root penetration and free water movement. The porosity decreased gradually with depth to a value ≥

0.27m-3

m-3

owing to poor structure development in the subsurface horizons, e.g. in Pedons 2. Donahue et al.

(1990) advocated that a porosity <0.4m-3

m-3

may affect root growth adversely.

Chemical properties

Data in Table 3 indicate that the soils were generally very strongly acidic with pH ranging from 4.1 to 5.9 in H2O

and 5.3 in CaCl2. The negative pH (pH (CaCl2) – pH (H2O)) values in Table 3 indicate that the soils contain

positively charged minerals as suggested by Uehara and Gillman (1981). In the study area, the variable charge

mineral may be dominantly kaolinite as it is mined locally. The high Al3+

content in the soils (Table 4) suggest

that they contain some amount of reserve acidity.

The average saturation extract electrical conductivity of 0.59 dSm-1

in Ap horizons and 0.43 dSm-1

in sub-soils

(Table 3) together with <2% exchangeable sodium percent (ESP) suggest that the salinazation and sodication are

not significant pedogenic processes and also calcification because of the acidic soil reaction (pH <6.0). Raji et al

(1999) while working with the sand dunes, reported that calcification is not a major pedogenic process in the

soils with pH <6.5. These results tend to suggest that a rainfall of about 882 mm/annum, an ustic moisture regime

and high soil macroporosity prevalent in the study area are not conducive to salt accumulation in the soils (Table

4). In this regards, Buol et al. (1980) reported that a rainfall of about 760mm was just adequate for the leachingof bases in some Australian soils.

The data in Table 3 further show that the organic carbon content in all the pedons decreased irregularly with

depth and was very low with the values being < 10.0gkg-1

in the Ap horizons and 0.2 – 1.2 (mean 0.6) gkg-1

in the

subsurface horizons. Available phosphorus content ranged from low (1.3mgkg-1

) to high (28.2mgkg-1

) with an

irregular pattern of vertical distribution. Farmers do apply phosphatic fertilizers in the area which might have

been responsible for exceptionally high available P values (>20mgkg-1

) in some horizons (Table 3). The

inherently low contents of organic matter mineralization, sparse natural vegetation inadequate return of crop

residues, bush burning and short fallow period are associated with the low levels of available phosphorus andorganic carbon.

Data in Table 4 show that the contents of exchangeable bases in the soils were quite low with the means (in

cmol(+) kg–1

) of 0.20 Ca, 0.19Mg, 0.20K and 0.10 Na; their magnitudes followed the order K>Ca>Mg>Na. Thisis contrary to the past findings that Ca and Mg are the dominant bases in the Nigerian savanna soils (Jones and

Wild 1975, Ogunwale et al 1975). It may be attributed to leaching losses of the bases and K- rich parent

materials from which the soils mighty have developed. Further, it is evident from the data in Table 4 that the

CEC values were low in pedon 2 (4.4 to 7.5cmol (+) kg-1

soil) up to the litholitic zone. In the other pedons, it

varied from 7.2 (medium) to 27.6 (high) cmol (+) kg-1

soil). Low CEC values have been reported for the savanna

soils in the past (Ogunwale et al 1975; Ojanuga, 1979). They attributed the low CEC values to low organic

matter content and a variable charge nature of the clay minerals. The clay CEC data in Table 4 suggest that its

values generally increased with depth in Pedons 1, 2 and 3; the vertical distribution was irregular in Pedons 4 and

5. Further, with a few exceptions most notably the horizons above 2Cv of Pedons, the clay CEC values were

>35 cmol kg-1

indicating the presence of 2:1 layer silicate clay minerals besides kaolinite and Fe-oxyhydroxide as

argued by Somebroek and Zonneveld (1971). Neoformation is most probable in the lower horizons as a result of

downward leaching of the bases and likely better moisture condition at depth.

Exchangeable cations are part of the components of effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) and organic

matter accounts for at least half of the CEC of surface soils (Agboola and Corey 1973). Sanchez (1976)

advocated that any soil which has <4cmol (+) kg-1

ECEC is less productive. The soils from all pedons possessed

low ECEC within the range 1.18-2.80cmol (+) kg-1

. Their base saturation ranged from 2 to 14% (mean 6%)

indicating their low native productivity.

Soil Classification

As mentioned earlier, the soils of Gwaram in Alkaleri probably had an ustic soil moisture and isohyperthermic

soil temperature regimes. The soils of pedons 2,3,4 and 5 have argillic horizons as confirmed by the presence of

clay skins in Bt horizons (Table 1) and of clay bulges observed in the area, and have base saturation <50% (by

neutral NH4Oc extraction) which is considered equivalent to being <35% by the summation of cations (Sanchez,

1976). These soils may, therefore, be placed into the Order Ultisols of Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2003).



11


Owing to the ustic soil moisture regime, the soils are further classified into the Suborder Ustults. The soils of

pedons 2, 3 and 4 are also thick reddish Ustults lacking plinthite that forms a continuous phase or constitutesmore than half the matrix in any sub-horizon within 1.25m of the surface, They have argillic horizons in which

the clay content does not decrease by as much as 20% from its maximum value within the depth of 150cm from

the surface. These soils are, therefore, classified as Orthic Paleustults at the Great Group Level. These soils have

control sections which are composed of more than 15% (by weight) of fine sand and more than 35% but less than

60% clay; thus, they are classified into the fine loamy particle–size class. Kaolinite constitutes more than half of the clay fraction in the soil units; therefore, they are classified at the Family level as Orthic Paleustults fine

loamy kaolinitic, isohyperthermic. Pedon 5 (valley floor) has petroplinthite forming continuous layers within 150

cm depth and is classified at the Great Group level as Aquic plinthic Haplustult clayey, isohyperthermic. The

Pedon1 was classified as Aquic Haplustult fine loamy kaolinitic, isomesic. The corresponding FAO/UNESCO

(1988) classification is Orthic Acrisols for pedons 2, 3 and 4. Pedon 5 (valley floor) can be placed as Plinithic

Acrisols and pedon 1 as Gleyic Acrisol.

Agricultural Potential of the Soils

Some good attributes of the soils under study coupled with fairly distributed available phosphorus status and

friable consistency would pose no problems to tillage operation. They have good structure for adequate aeration,root penetration and free water movement.

However, the problems peculiar to the study area appear to be low organic matter content, high exchangeable

aluminium which may cause phosphorus fixation, low CEC, deficiency of macro-nutrients especially N, Ca and

Mg contents. The use of organic manures together with available inorganic fertilizers is therefore advocated for

peasant farmers in the area.

REFERENCESAdeleye D. R. Dessauvagie T.1970. Stratigraphy of the Nigeria embayment near Bida, Nigeria In: Dessaubvagie

T.F. J., Adeleye D.R. (Eds) Conference of African Geology Proceedings, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Pp 7-14.

Agboola A.A., Corey R B .1973. Soil testing: NPK for maize in the soil Derived from metamorphic and igneous

rocks of Western State of Nigeria West African Science Association. 1793 – 100.

Akamigbo F O R, Asadu C l .1983. Influence of parent material on th soils of southeastern Nigeria. East Africa

Agricultural. Forstry Journal 48: 81 - 91.

Bawden M.G .1972. Geomorphology In; The Land Resources of North East Nigeria Volume 1. The

Environment (eds) P.J. Aitchison M.G. Bawden, D. M. Caroll, P.E Glover, K. Kleinkenbery, P.N. de Leeuw and

P. Tuley. Land Resource Study No. 9 England.

Buol S W, Hole F D, McCracken R J .1980. Soil Genesis and Classification. 2nd

Edition. The Iowa State

University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Carter JDW. Barber W, Tait EA Jones GB .1963. The soils of parts of Adamawa, Bauchi and Borno Provinces in

North-eastern Nigeria. Explanation of 1: 250.000 sheet Nos. 25, 36 and 47. Bulletin of Geological surveys of Nigeria No 30.

Donahue R. I Raymond M W, Shickuna J.C .1990. Soils: An Introduction to Soils and Plant Growth. Plentice-

Hall of India, New Delhi.

Dousse. B .1969. Report on the hydrotogy of the Kemi-Kerri Sandstone. Unpubl. Draft Rep. Geol. Surv. Nigeria.

Esu IE. Ojanuga AG .1985. Morphological, Physical and chemical characteristics of Alfisols in the Kaduna Area

of Nigeria. Samaru Journal of Agriculture 3: 39-49.

FAO/UNESCO .1988. Soil Map of the world Revised Legend. World Soil Resource Report 60. Reprinted 1990,

FAO, Rome.



12


Jones M J, Wild A .1975. Soils of West African Savanna Technical communication No 55, Commonwealth

bureaux of Harpenden.

Landon JR .1991. Booker Tropical Soil Manual: A Handbook for Soil Survey and Agricultural Lnad

Evaluation in the Tropics and Subtropics. Longman Scientific and Technical Inc. Essex.

Ogunwale J A, Ashaye TI, Odu C T I, Fayemi AAA .1975. Characterization of selected Sandstone-derived soils in the ecological zones of Nigeria Geoderma 13: 331-347.

Ojanuga A G .1975. Morphological physical and chemical characteristics of soils of Ife and Ondo Nigerian

Journal of Science 9: 225-269.

Ojanuga AG .1979. Clay mineralogy of soils in the Nigerian tropical savanna regions. Soil Science Society of

American Journal 43 1237-1242..

Ojanuga AG, Awujoola A .1981. Characteristics and classification of soils of the Jos Plateau; Nigerian Journal

of Soil Science 2 101-119.

Page A. I P Miller R H Keeney D R .1982. Methods of soil Analysis. Agronomy 9, part 2, 2nd

Edition, American

Society of Agronomy, Madison Wisconsin.

Raji B. A Esu I E Chude V O .1999. A pedagogical characterization of soils of Sokoto sand plains of

northwestern Nigeria. Journal of Arid Agriculture 9 47-59.

Sanchez P A .1976. Properties and Management of Soils in the Tropics. Wiley-Interscince, New York.

Soil Survey Staff . 2002. Soil Survey Manual USDA Field Book for describing and sampling soils. Version 2.0

US Government printing Office, Washington DC.

Soil Survey Staff 2003. Keys to Soil Taxonomy 9th

Edition USDA Soil Conservation Services US Governmentprinting Office, Washington DC.

Sombroek W,G. Zonneveld I J .1971. Ancient dune fields and fluviatile deposits in the Rima Sokoto Basin (N-W

Nigeria). Soil survey paper No. 5 Netherlands soil survey institute Wageniugen.

Uehara G, Gillman G .1881.The mineralogy, chemistry and physics of tropical soils with variable charge clays.

Tropical Agriculture Series No. 4, Westview press, Boulder,Colorado.

Van Wambeke A .1962. Criteria for classifying tropical soils by age. Journal of Soil Science 13: 124-132.

Veighmeyer F J, Hendrickson A H .1948. Soil density and root penetration. Soil Science 65 487- 493.

Young A .1976. Tropical soils and soil survey. Cambridge University press, Cambridge.



14


TABLE 1 continued

Depth Munsell colour texture structure consistence boundary miscellanceous observ

Horizon (cm) (Moist)

Pedon 4: lower slope

Ap 0-9 10YR 7/3 scl 1mcr mvfr gs plenty fibrous roots, commhole

EB 9-32 10YR 6/3 scl 1mgr mvfr gs Many fibrous roots, macro

Btl 32-70 10YR 6/8 scl 1mcr mvfr gs Few coarse and fibrous ro

Bt2 70-97 7.5YR7/8 scl 2mcr mvfr gs Very few fibrous roots, a f

B2v 97-168+ 2.5YR 4/8 c 3 csbk mfi cs Macropores, a few animal

medium Fe/Mn nodules

Pedon 5: Valley Floor

Ap 0-11 7.5YR 5/3 sc 1fcr mfr gs A few medium krotorians

roots, mircropores

Btl 11-33 7.5 YR4/6 c 2 fcr mfr gs Macropores, many fibrou

roots

Bt2 33-100 5YR 6/7*5YR 5/1 c 3 csbk mfi gs Few very fine roots many

nodules2Btv 100-180+ 7.5 YR5/6 * 10YR 8/1 c 3mabk mfr cs Clay skin, many medium p

petroplinthite below

** Symbols as in soil survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff 2002)* Mottle Colour



15


Table 2 some physical properties of the pedons

Depth Soil separate Si:C Si(Si+C) BD Porosity

Horizon (cm) Sand Silt Clay Texture ratio ratio (Mgm-3

) (M-3

m-3

)

Pedon 1: Crest

Ag 0-5 61 25 14 sl 0.79 0.64 1.53 0.42

Bs 5-10 60 13 22 sl 0.82 0.45 1.16 0.56

2Btx 16-54 50 24 20 sl 0.92 0.48 1.28 0.522CB 54-110 36 56 03 sl 7.00 0.88 1.52 0.43

3C2g 110-150+32 60 08 sl 7.50 0.88 1.60 0.40

Pedon 2: Middle Slope-1Ap 0-15 70 17 12 sl 1.42 0.59 0.87 0.67

BA 15-38 59 23 18 sl 1.28 0.56 1.68 0.37

Btl 38-90 63 19 18 sl 1.06 0.51 1.61 0.39

Bt2 90-110 41 27 32 scl 0.84 0.46 1.94 0.27

BCc 110-140 61 19 20 sl 0.95 0.49 1.51 0.43

2Cv 140-180 12 31 57 c 0.54 0.35 1.16 0.56

Pedon 3: Middle slope-2

Ap 0-18 65 18 17 sl 1.06 0.51 1.45 0.45

Btl 18-38 62 12 27 l 0.44 0.31 1.24 0.53

BA 38-62 63 18 19 sl 0.95 0.49 1.43 0.46

Btz 62-80 40 16 38 scl 0.42 0.30 1.30 0.51

Bt3 86-130 44 22 35 scl 0.63 0.39 0.46 0.45

C 130-200+67 24 09 sl 2.67 0.73 1.36 0.49Pedon 4: Lower slope

Ap 0-9 70 01 29 scl 0.03 0.03 1.25 0.53

EB 9-32 66 05 29 scl 0.17 0.15 1.26 0.52

Btl 32-70 64 03 33 scl 0.09 0.08 1.32 0.50

Bt2 70-79 62 07 31 scl 0.23 0.18 1.12 0.58

B2v 97-168+ 28 13 59 c 0.22 0.18 1.14 0.57

Pedon 5: Valley floor

Ap 0-11 62 03 35 scl 0.09 0.08 1.42 0.48

Btl 11-33 36 23 41 c 0.56 0.36 1.35 0.49

Bt2 33-400 42 11 47 c 0.23 0.19 1.32 0.50

2Btv 100-180+38 13 49 c 0.27 0.21 1.85 0.30

sl = sandy loam, sil=silt loam, 1=loam, c=clay, scl=sandy clay loam, ls=loamy sand BD=bulk density



16


TABLE 3:Some chemical properties of the pedons

Depth pH EC Organic C Total N Avail P

Horizon (cm) 1:1H2O CaCl2 dpH (dsm-1

) (gkg-1

) (gkg-1

) (mgkg-1

)

Pedon 1: Crest

Ag 0-5 4.4 4.3+0.1 0.74 74 0.7 28.2

Bs 5-16 5.1 4.2+0.9 0.52 2.0 1.0 12.1

2Btx 16-54 4.2 4.0+0.2 0.54 4.8 0.7 4.2

2CB 54-110 4.3 4.0 +0.3 0.43 2.4 1.0 8.93C2g 110-150+4.5 3.8

+0.7 0.41 1.2 0.9 4.2

Pedon 2: Middle Slope-1

Ap 0-15 5.9 5.3+0.6 0.74 3.4 35 8.2

BA 15-38 5.4 4.2+1.2 0.55 3.8 0.3 2.1

Btl 38-90 5.3 4.4+0.9 0.46 2.0 0.6 1.8

Bt2 90-110 5.1 4.3+0.8 0.51 2.0 0.2 1.3

BCc 110-140 5.2 4.5 +0.7 0.53 1.8 0.3 5.6

2Cv 140-180 5.3 4.6+0.7 0.42 1.8 1.6 29.4


Ap 0-18 4.6 3.8+0.8 0.42 3.6 1.0 2.8

Btl 18-38 4.9 3.9+10 0.46 2.5 0.7 18.2

BA 38-62 4.9 4.0+0.9 0.53 3.0 1.0 23.8

Bt2 62-86 4.8 4.0+

0.8 0.47 0.42 1.2 3.4Bt3 86-130 4.6 3.9 +0.7 0.45 1.8 0.9 7.0

C 130-200+45 3.9+06 0.48 1.6 1.2 11.2

Pedon 4: Lower slope

Ap 0-9 5.3 4.6+0.7 0.53 4.2 0.4 3.2

EB 9-32 5.1 4.2+0.9 0.51 1.6 0.2 70

Btl 32-70 5.0 4.4+0.6 0.46 1.4 0.2 42

Bt2 70-79 5.3 4.5+0.8 0.56 0.8 0.3 28

B2v 97-168+ 4.1 3.8+0.3 0.52 1.8 0.7 26.8


Ap 0-11 5.0 4.3 +0.7 0.54 3.0 0.6 82

Btl 11-33 4.9 4.1+0.8 0.45 2.0 0.7 16.8

Bt2 33-400 5.1 4.2+0.9 0.47 20 07 8.4

2Btv 100-180+5.2 42

+

1.0 0.55 1.6 04 5.6pH=+ with(pH H20-pHCaCl2) EC=electrical conductivity of saturation extract =-with (pH CaCl2-pH H20)



17


Table 4 Exchange properties of the pedons

Depth Exchangeable (cmol(+)kg-1

) EA Al CEC ECEC(cmol(+)

Horizon (cm) Ca Mg K Na (cmol(+)kg1) (cmol(+)kg1) Soil Clay Soil Clay

Pedon 1: Crest

Ag 0-5 0.15 0.27 0.35 0.11 0.88 0.72 7.2 37.2 1.77 *

Bs 5-16 0.30 0.27 0.12 0.09 1.66 1.50 11.2 47.7 2.44 7.91

2Btv 16.54 0.17 0.09 0.08 0.14 0.70 0.26 22.8 81.2 1.18 *

2CB 54.110 0.29 0.09 0.42 0.15 0.54 0.54 24.4 294.3 1.49 8.13

3C2g 110-150+ 0.31 0.09 0.10 0.06 2.22 1.48 27.4 337.3 2.80 29.75


Ap 0.15 0.11 0.23 0.17 0.09 1.70 1.28 4.4 26.8 2.30 9.25 BA 15.38 0.11 0.25 0.08 0.08 1.44 1.08 4.6 38.2 1.98 3.61

Btl 38.90 0.15 0.21 0.16 0.02 1.18 0.52 5.0 23.9 1.72 5.67

Bt2 90-110 0.12 0.29 0.06 0.10 0.94 0.66 8.1 23.1 1.51 2.53

BCc 110-140 0.22 0.34 0.23 0.10 1.40 0.96 7.5 34.4 2.29 8.30

2Cv 140-180 0.20 0.33 0.11 0.09 1.22 1.00 27.0 46.3 1.95 2.23


Ap 0-18 0.18 0.12 0.27 0.11 1.06 1.06 6.4 30.2 1.74 2.82

Bt1 18-38 0.30 0.09 0.04 0.09 1.00 0.76 15.2 52.9 1.88 3.59

BA 38-62 0.30 0.08 0.31 0.08 0.80 0.78 16.8 82.9 1.57 2.74

Bt2 62-86 016 0.29 0.30 0.16 1.42 1.06 17.2 43.1 2.33 3.92

Bt3 86-130 0.03 0.24 0.08 0.06 1.32 1.16 20.2 55.9 2.02 3.97

C 130-200+0.11 0.16 0.13 0.14 0.92 0.52 22.6 244.9 1.46 10.00

*=Values were negative



18


TABLE 4 (Continued)

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________Depth Exchangeable (cmol(+)kg-1) EA Al CEC ECEC cmol(+)kg1

Horizon (cm) Ca Mg K Na cmol(+)kg1

Soil Clay Soil Clay

Pedon 4: Lower slope

Ap 0-9 0.12 0.22 0.19 0.11 1.60 1.20 17.4 54.9 2.24 2.66

EB 9-32 0.12 0.12 0.24 0.07 1.04 0.96 11.6 38.1 1.59 3.55

Bt1 32-70 0.12 0.11 0.29 0.10 0.16 1.04 19.6 57.9 1.78 3.91

Bt2 70-97 0.26 0.13 0.26 0.11 1.34 0.54 24.4 294.3 1.49 8.13

B2v 97-168+ 0.23 0.11 0.13 0.12 1.74 1.34 27.6 45.7 2.33 2.88


Ap 0.11 0.25 0.15 0.28 0.07 1.72 0.70 19.0 51.3 1.47 1.20

Btl 11-33 0.12 0.15 0.05 0.08 1.76 0.54 25.6 60.7 2.16 3.56

Bt2 33-100 0.15 0.29 0.32 0.12 1.28 1.04 13.6 27.0 2.16 2.66 2Btv 100-180+0.18 0.29 0.14 0.13 1.14 1.08 21.4 42.5 1.88 2.69

EA = Exchange acidity (Al3++H+), Al3+= Aluminium concentration, CEC = Cation exchange capacity, ECEC = Effective CEC



19





[email protected]



20



EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PHOSPHORUS ON THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF MAIZE (Zeamays l.) IN OFERE (BASEMENT COMPLEX) SOILS KOGI STATE, NORTH CENTRAL ECOLOGICAL

ZONE, NIGERIA

Amhakhian,S. O1

Oyewole, C.I2

and Isitekhale, H.H3

1Department of Soil and Environmental Management,

2Department of Crop Production Kogi State University,

Anyigba,3Department of Soil Science, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma

ABSTRACT

In southern guinea savanna of Nigeria, where ofere belongs, the soils are inherently low in P

because of the dry nature of the climate, low vegetation cover and generally sandy nature of

the soil, whose clay mineralogy is dominated by inactive kaolinite materials. This study was

undertaken in Ofere, Kogi State, Nigeria to investigate the response of maize crop to addition

of varying rates of phosphorus. The trial, a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD)

involves seven rates of P (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 and 120kg/ha) applied as single super

phosphate (SSP) for P calibration. The soils of the area were analyzed for physical and

chemical properties prior to imposition of treatment. In the field calibration studies, optimum

maize grain yield of 3.93 and 4.86 ton/ha were obtained for 2007 and 2008 cropping season,

respectively from the application of 120kg P/ha. Application of 120kg P/ha is therefore

recommended for maize production in soils of Ofere, Kogi State of Nigeria.

KEY WORDS: Basement Complex, phosphorus, cropping system, calibration.

INTRODUCTION

Phosphorus is one of the major elements and it is second in importance to nitrogen in terms of nutrient requirement

for increased crop production in most tropical soils. The beneficial effect of phosphorus fertilizer application had

been widely documented (Nguu, 1987; Ragi et al., 2001). It is generally recognized as one of the major elementsessential to the well being of all plants with its deficiency constituting a serious limitation to crop production in most

weathered soils with high Fe and Al oxides that quickly fix added P (Uyovbisere, 1994). It is a major constituent of

nucleic acid, phytin and phospholipids and is considered to be especially importance in stimulating early growth in

the development of reproductive parts and vigorous root systems of all higher plants. Although, phosphorus occurs

in most plants in much smaller quantities than other two major nutrient elements, N and K, it is widely used in the

fertilization of agricultural crops because most cultivated soils cannot meet the demand of rapidly growing annual

crops (Prictchett, 1978)

Previous studies had shown that soils deficient in P and having high P-fixing capacity, irrespective of soil P,

responded to P rates and liming (NRCRI, 1977). Buckman and Brady (1969) after considering the significant avenue

of P loss concluded that P problems are due to the following: (i) low total amount in soils. (ii) unavailable native P

and (iii) retention of added P, which subsequently leads to inefficient P-utilization. Plants suffering from phosphorus

deficiency are retarded in growth and the shoot/root dry matter ratio is usually low. In cereal, tillering is affected,fruit trees show reduced growth rates of new shoot and frequently the development and the opening of buds is

unsatisfactory. There is premature leaf fall, purple or red anthomyacin pigmentation and the development of dead

necrotic areas on the w the deficiency symptoms before the young leaves (Mengel and Kirby, 1987; Bame, 1998;

Ochi et al., 2002). Omoregie (1999) studied the effect of phosphorus application on verano Stylosanthus hema and

Centrosema pascuorum under sub-humid conditions in Nigeria. He observed a significant effect on dry matter

production and seed yield with increase in P application. He also observed that the application of 40 kgP/ha was best

for optimum production of Centrosema pascuorum while 60 kgP/ha was best for the production for the legumes. In

the savanna soils of Mokwa, Kogbe et al. (2003) reported that control plot (0 kg P2O5) gave the least yield of maize



21

Amhakhian,S. O et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 20 - 28, 2010

when compared to other rates. A steady increase in grain yields to 3.5 ton/ha of the hybrid maize was obtained whenup to 60kgP/ha was applied. An early trial with P fertilizer indicated that 11kgP/ha was the optimum rate of

phosphate fertilization in the savanna zone of Nigeria. However, recent experiments had shown that improved grain

varieties responded to 33 kgP/ha (Dougherty et al., 2004). The latest fertilizer recommendation is 21 kgP/ha

(Elkased and Nnadi, 1987).

In southern guinea savanna of Nigeria, where ofere belongs, the soils are inherently low in P because of the dry

nature of the climate, low vegetation cover and generally sandy nature of the soil, whose clay mineralogy is

dominated by inactive kaolinite materials (Uyovbisere, 1994). It is consequently recognized that profitable cropping

is only possible where soil fertility is adequately maintained (Lombin, 1987; Sinang, et al., 2002). With increasing

pressure on soils of southern guinea savanna agro ecological zone, shifting cultivation is no longer sustainable and

traditional bush fallow period for maintaining the productivity of the soil has become shorter; soils are no longer

able to supply the quantity of nutrients required and as a result, yield level declines rapidly once cropping

commences. Although phosphorus had been reported to be the most limiting nutrient to crop production in Northern

Nigeria (Yusuf and Yusuf, 2008), however, there is scarcity of information as regards P status in soils of Ofere in

the Guinea Savanna of Kogi State, Nigeria. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of different

levels of phosphorus fertilizer on the growth and yield of maize in soils of Ofere.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Location of Study Areas

Ofere lies between longitude 70

251

to 50

461

N and latitude 70

461

and 50

441

east of the equator and their main

occupation is farming. It has a bimodal rainfall with the peak pattern occurring in July and September with a mean

annual rainfall of 132.00 mm. Rainfall is distributed from March to November with most rains in occurring in July

and again in September and October. The dry season generally extends from November to March. During this

period, rainfall drops drastically to less than 12.00 mm in any of the months. Temperature shows some variation

throughout the year with average monthly temperature varying from 170C to 33.3

0C. Relative humidity is

moderately high and varies from an average of 65 - 85% for most part of the year. The main vegetation is the forest

savanna mosaic zone. The geology of the area is Basement complex Soils. Composite surface soil samples (0 - 15cm), were collected from pre-classified sites (FDALR, 1985) for soil analysis. The soil samples were air dried,

crushed with the aid of wooden roller and sieved through 2 mm sieve then stored in sealed plastic container for

subsequent use. Particle size was determined by hydrometer method (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Soil pH was measured

in a soil: water ratio of 1:1 with the aid of glass electrode pH meter (Maclean, 1982). Organic matter was determined

by wet dichromate acid oxidation method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K and Na)

were extracted with 1N NH4OAC buffered at pH 7 (Thomas, 1982). Ca and Mg was determined using atomic

absorption spectro photometer, while K and Na were read on flame photometer. Exchange acidity was extracted

with 1N KCL (Thomas, 1982) and determined by titration with 0.05N NaOH using phenolphthalein as indicator.

Nitrogen was determined by Macro Kjedahl method (Bremmer and Mulvany, 1982). Effective cation exchange

capacity (ECEC) was calculated by the summation exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K and Na) and exchange acidity

(Carter, 1993). Extractable micronutrients (Mn, Fe, Zn and Cu) were determined by double acid method. Total

phosphorus was determined by per-chloric acid (HCLO4) digestion method (Murphy and Riley, 1962). Organic

phosphorus was determined by ignition method (Legg and Black, 1955). Available P was estimated by Bray P-1(Bray and Kurtz, 1945) (Table 1).

Field Calibration Studies:

The field experiments spanned two years: 2007 and 2008 cropping season. The experiments were conducted using

randomized complete block design with three replications (RCB). The experimental plot size used was 3.00 m x

1.75 (5.25 m2) and the entire experimental area was 15.25 m x 11 m (167.75 m

2). Maize variety, Downey mildew

resistant (DMRT) from IAR&T Ibadan was used for the experiment and the spacing adopted was 75 cm by 25 cm.

This was manually planted (three seeds per hole) at 3 - 5cm depths. The seedlings were thinned down to one plant

per stand two weeks after crop emergence. There were a total of 28 stands of maize plants in each plot, 196 stands in

a block giving a plant population of 588 plants on the entire experimental site. Seven different levels of single super

phosphate (SSP) fertilizer were applied at the following rates 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 and 120 kgP/ha coded P 0, P1, P2,

P3, P4, P5, P6, respectively. Nitrogen and potassium were below critical levels; hence urea and muriate of potassium



22


were used to raise them above the critical levels before planting was done. The fertilizers were mixed properly andapplied banded on one side of the maize seeds using groove of 10 cm wide and 10 cm deep and 8 cm away from the

seeds. The experimental plots were manually weeded by hoeing and by hand weeding as required. Before planting in

the fields, composite surface soil samples were collected from each the experimental sites and analyzed for their

physico-chemical properties. The following agronomic traits, number of leaves, plant height, stem girth, leaf area

were measured at 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 weeks after planting. For the yield, only 4 plants at the two middle rows were

harvested from the 28 plants in each plot to eliminate the effects of cross feeding and yield was computed per

hectare based on the area of the harvested cobs. The harvested cobs were de-husked, weighed, threshed weighed

again and the grain yield adjusted to 13% moisture content. Maize agronomic traits and yields were subjected to

statistical analysis. Mean comparisons were carried out using least significant differences (LSD) test only when F-

value was significant.


Analyzed results showed that except in 2007 where phosphorus application had no significant effect on maize height

at 2WAP it significantly influenced plant height at other times of data collection: 4, 6, 8 and 10WAP for 2007 and at

2, 4, 6, 8 and 10WAP in 2008. Maize crop significantly increased in height over the control with increase in P

application (Table 2a). In 2007 at 4WAP, only the application of 20 KgP/ha increased plant height significantly

when compared to the control. At 6, 8 and 10WAP, application of phosphorus resulted in plant heights that were

significantly taller than the control. Application of 120 kgP/ha gave the highest plant height of 161.67 cm and

174.33 cm at 6 and 8 WAP, respectively when compared to 62.83 and 96.33cm obtained from the controls. But at

10WAP, the application of 100 KgP/ha gave the highest maize plant height of 198.15 cm in comparison to 124.33

cm obtained from the control. In 2008, the trend was generally different when compared to the results obtained in

2007 (Table 2b). At 2WAP and 4WAP, the effect of phosphorus fertilizer application on maize plant height showed

similar trend. The application of 20 and 120 KgP/ha significantly gave the highest maize plant height of 44.73 and

76.83 cm when compared to 25.50 and 45.83 cm obtained from the control in 2 and 4WAP, respectively. The trends

at 6, 8 and 10WAP were generally different. At 6WAP, though all the fertilizer levels gave higher maize plant

height when compared to the control, the application of 120 KgP/ha was significantly better than mean maize plant

height obtained from the application of 20, 40 KgP/ha and the control. Application of 120 KgP/ha gave the highestmean maize plant height of 91.33 cm when compared to 56.50 cm obtained from the control. At 8 and 10 WAP,

application of 80, 100 and 120 kgP/ha significantly gave higher maize plant height when compared to the control.

The highest mean plant height of 105.50 cm and 119.17 cm were obtained from the application of 80 and 120

kgP/ha relative to 67.50 and 73.17 obtained from the control in 8 and 10WAP, respectively

The mean maize leaf area was significantly affected by phosphorus fertilizer application in 2007 (Table 2b). At

2WAP, application of 120kgP/ha significantly gave the highest maize leaf area of 1335.96 cm when compared to

657.60 cm obtained from the control (Table2b). However, the lowest leaf area was obtained from the application of

60 kgP/ha. At 4 and 6WAP the application of 120 kgP/ha significantly enhanced leaf area, it gave leaf area of

4429.16 and 4969.18 cm2

when compared to the lowest leaf area of 780.24 and 809.24 cm2

obtained from the

controls. At 8WAP, application of all levels of P fertilizer except 20 and 40 kgP/ha significantly gave higher maize

leaf area when compared to the control. The highest leaf area of 5394.52 cm2

was obtained from the application of

120kgP/ha. At 10WAP, similar trend was observed.

In 2008, application of 120 kgP/ha gave the highest leaf area at 2, 4 and 6WAP; it gave 1458.84, 1489.62 and

4633.22 cm2, respectively (Table 2b). However, at 2WAP, application of 60 kgP/ha gave significantly lower maize

leaf area when compared to the control. At 8 and 10WAP, the trend was different, application of 100 kg/ha gave the

highest leaf area of 4121.18 and 4592.08 cm2

when compared to 1446.68 and 1690.80 cm2

that what were obtained

from the control. In 2007, maize stem girth was generally significantly better than the control in all the weeks after

planting (Table 3a). At 2WAP, maize stem girth was significantly higher than the control with all the levels of P

fertilizer application except with 20 and 40 kgP/ha. But at 4WAP, 80 and 120 kgP/ha gave the highest stem girth of

6.00 and 6.67 cm when compared to 4.00 cm obtained from the control. At 6WAP, the result obtained showed

similar trend from what was obtained at 2WAP and was only significantly different from 20, 40 kgP/ha and the

control, respectively. At 8 and 10WAP the effects of the application of 60, 80, 100 and 120 kgP/ha on maize stem

girth was not significantly different from one another but different from that obtained from the control. The



23


application of 120KgP/ha gave the highest stem girth in all the weeks after planting. The application of 120 KgP/hain soils, in all the weeks after planting gave the highest maize stem girth (Table 3a) in 2008. At 2WAP, the

application of 60, 100 and 120 kgP/ha resulted in significant high stem girth when compared to what was obtained

from the control and what were obtained from the application of 20, and 40 KgP/ha. But at 4WAP, all P fertilizer

applications resulted in higher stem girths that were higher than the control. Similar trends were observed at 6, 8 and

10WAP, respectively.

In 2007, all P treatments effects on number of leaves at 2WAP were generally better than the control (Table 3b). At

4WAP, the application of 20, 40 and 120 kgP/ha significantly gave higher number of leaves of 8.00, 7.83 and 8.00

cm when compared to 6.00 cm obtained from the control. At 6, 8 and 10WAP, application of P resulted in number

of leaves that were significantly better than the control. The highest numbers of leaves of 10.33 and 11.67cm were

obtained from the application of 100 to 120 kgP/ha and 60kgP/ha in 6 and 8WAP, respectively while at 10WAP, all

the rates of phosphorus application gave numbers of leaves that were better than that obtained from the control. In

2008, the effect of applied phosphorus in Ofere soils on number of leaves did not show any definite trend at 2WAP

(Table 3b). Application of 40 KgP/ha resulted in the highest number of leaves when compared to the control. At 4

and 6WAP, maize responses to P fertilizer in terms of number of leaves was highest when 120 kgP/ha was applied.

At 8 and 10WAP, the trends were similar in all the levels of P application. The highest number of leaves were

obtained from the application of 120 and 100 kgP/ha and both were not significantly different from each other.

In 2007 cropping season, the highest cob weight of 4.68 ton/ha was obtained from the application of 100 and 120

kgP/ha, these were not significantly different from what resulted from the application of 60 and 80 kgP/ha,

respectively. Optimum maize grain yield of 3.93ton/ha was obtained from the application of 120kgP/ha (Table 4). In

2008, the highest cob weight of 6.09 ton/ha was also obtained from the application of 120 kgP/ha. Optimum grain

yield of 4.86 ton/ha was obtained from the application of 120 kgP/ha. Relative yields of 22.7% and 29.5% were

obtained for 2007 and 2008 in Ofere location, respectively (Table 4). These findings were in agreement with what

Kogbe and Adediran (2003) reported. They earlier reported a steady increase in grain yields of maize as P

application increases. They obtained grain yield of 3.50 ton/ha from the application of 60 kgP/ha. However, they

laid emphasis on P and N application. These findings were at variance with what was reported by some otherworkers, who suggested lower levels of P application (Irving, 1956., Elkased and Nnadi, 1987). Enwezor (1979) had

earlier criticized the low P application recommended by Irving (1956) and Igbokwe et al (1981) and questioned the

validity of the general P fertilizer application of less than 18kgP/ha.



25


Table 3a Effect of phosphorus application on maize stem (cm2) girth in soils of Ofere

2007

Treatments

P(kg/ha)

2WAP 4WAP 6WAP 8WAP 10WAP Treatments

P(kg/ha)

2WAP 4WAP 6WAP

0 3.22d 4.00ab 4.42c 5.02 5.60 0 3.23e 3.83d 4.25c

20 4.17cd 5.58ab 5.77 c 5.88 6.67 20 4.00de 5.32c 5.00

40 4.23cd 5.30ab 5.75 c 6.22 6.61 40 4.05de 5.68c 6.29

60 4.82c

5.50ab

7.17ab

8.17a

8.75a

60 5.02cd

5.65c

6.15

80 5.43 c 6.00a 6.90ab 8.18a 9.13a 80 5.67 c 6.57 c 7.15

100 5.87ab

5.93ab

7.13ab

8.23a

9.10a

100 6.72ab

7.83ab

8.67a

120 6.58a 6.67a 8.50a 9.58a 10.32a 120 7.27a 8.47a 9.25a

Means within the same vertical column followed by the same small letter (s) are not significantly different at 5% level of prob

3b: Effect of phosphorus application on maize number of leaves in soils of Ofere

2007

Treatments

p(kg/ha)

2WAP 4WAP 6WAP 8WAP 10WAP Treatment

p(kg/ha)

2WAP 4WAP 6WAP

0 4.33c

6.00 6.03 6.33 7.00 0 1.53c

6.50e

7.83e

20 6.67ab 8.00a 9.00a 10.83a 11.67a 20 6.83ab 8.33 c 9.83cd

40s 6.67ab 7.83a 8.50a 11.17a 12.33a 40 7.83a 9.17c 10.17c

60 6.00 7.33ab

9.50a

11.67a

12.33a

60 6.00c

7.33ed

8.83de

80 6.50ab 7.40ab

9.50a

11.17a

12.33a

80 6.33ab

8.83cc

9.83cd

100 5.01 7.17ab 10.33a 11.00a 11.83a 100 7.00ab 9.50 11.33

120 7.50a 8.00a 10.33a 11.00a 12.33a 120 7.17ab 11.00a 12.67a

Means within the same vertical column followed by the same small letter (s) are not significantly different at 5% level of prob



26


Table 4: Effect of Phosphorus on cob weight and grain yield (ton/ha) in soils of Ofere

2007

Treatments Treatments

(kgP/ha) Cob-wt (ton/ha) Grain yield (t/ha) (KgP/ha) Cob-wt (t/ha) Grai

0 2.01

2.66b

2.75b

4.13a

3.79a

4.68a

4.68a

0.89d

1.41d

1.63cd

2.38bc

2.74b

2.88b

3.93a

0 2.23

5.00a

4.90a

5.94a

5.94a

6.09a

5.50a

1.

2.

2.

2.

3.

3.

4.

20 20

40 40

60 60

80 80

100 100

120 120

LSD 0.97 0.93 2.25 1.04

Relative yield = 22.7% Relative yield = 22.50%

Means within the same vertical column followed by the same small letter(s) are not significantly different at 5% of level of pr



27


REFERENCESBame, I. B (1998). Estimation of available phosphorus in earth worm cast under two vegetation covers treated

with different phosphorus sources. M.Sc Project Report. University of Ibadan.

Bray, R.H. and Kurtz, L.T. (1945). Determination of total, organic and available forms of phosphorus in soils.

Soil Science. 59: 39 – 45. n A1 paper et al (editions) SA. Part 2 Second edition Agronomy Monograph, 9

America Society of Agronomy Madison W.I.

Buckman and Brady (1969). In Amhakian, S.O. (2010). Eva I luation of Phosphorus status in soils of Guinea

Savannah of Kogi State, Nigeri Ph. D Thesis submitted to the Post graduate School, Ambrose Alli University,

164pp

Bremmer, J.M. and Mulvany, C.S. (1982). Total 595 – 626. In: A1 paper et al (editions) MSA part 2 Second

edition Agronomic monograph 9 American Society of Agronomy Madision W.I

Carter, M.R. (1993). Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis, Lewis Publishers. London, page 23.

Dougherty, W.J.; Fleming, N.K.; Cox, J.W. and Chittleborough, D.J. (2004). Phosphorus transfer in surface runoff

from intensive pasture system at various scales: A review, Journal of EnvironmentalQuality.33: 1973-1988.

Elkased, F.A. and Nnadi, L.A. (1987). Phosphorus response of grain sorghum in the guinea savanna of Nigeria

as influenced by rates, placement and plant spacing. Journal of Fertilizer Research.11:3-8.

Enwezor, W. O. (1979). Phosphate sorption capacity of the soil as a measure of the phosphate requirement for

maize grown on acid soils of southeastern Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Agricultural Science. 1: 3-7.

FDALR. (1985). Soil Map of Nigeria Federal Department of Agriculture Land Resources.

Gee, G.W. and Bauder, J.W. (1986). In particle Size Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Microbiological methods.

Second edition. Agronomy. Series No 9. Soil Science Society of America,America Society of Agronomy.

Madison, Wiscoson, U.S.A.

Igbokwe, M.C.; Noka, B.O. and Odurukwe, S.O. (1981) Liming effects on the response of maize to phosphate

fertilizers on an ultisols in Eastern Nigeria. Journal of Soil Science. 2: 102 – 133

Irving, H. (1956). Fertilizer studies in Eastern Nigeria. 1947-51. Eastern Region Technical Bulletin

1pp.36.

Kogbe, J.O S. and Adediran, (2003). J.A. Influence of Nigeria, Phosphorus and Potassium application on the

yield of maize in the savannah zone of Nigeria. Africa Academic.Vol.2 (10) 345 – 349.

Legg, J. O, and Black, C. A. (1955). Determination of organic phosphorus in soils 11. Ignition method .

Soil Science Society of America. 19: 139-143.

Lombin, G. (1987). Soil and climate constrains to crop production in Nigeria. ConferencePaper 1987

Annual Conference of the Soil Science Society of Nigeria, Kaduna, Nigeria

Maclean, E.O. (1982). Soil pH and lime requirements in page. A.L. (Ed) methods of Soil Analysis part 2chemical and microbiological properties second edition, Agronomy Series No.9 America Society of

Agronomy, Soil Science Society AmericaMadison, Wisconson USA.

Mengel, K. and Kirkby, E. A. (1987). Principles of plant nutrition, 4th edition (Bern Switzerland InternationalPotash Institute.)Murphy, J. and Riley, J.P. (1962). A modified single solution method for the determination of

phosphorus in Natural Water. Analytical Chemical. ACTA 27: 31 – 36.



28


NRCRI (1977). National Root Crops Research Institute (1976-1978). Annual Report, Umudike- Umiahia, Abia

State. Page 11-13.

Nelson, D.W. and Sommer, L.E.(1982). Total carbon, organic matter, methods of Soil Analysis Part 2. Chemical

and Mineralogical properties. Americal Society of Agronomy Madison Wiscoson,U.S.A.

Nguu, N.V. (1987). Effect of nitrogen, phosphorus and soil and crop residues management practices on maize

(Zea mays L) yield in Ultisols of Eastern Cameroon.Fertilizer Rrsearch. 2:89-99.

Ochi F.; Oberson, A. A.; Tagma, H.U. and Frossand, E. (2002). P1 bridged and P availability in soils under

organic and conventional farming nutrients cycling Agro-ecosystem. 62: 25 –35.

Omoregie, A.U. (1999). Effect of phosphorus application on Verno Stylosanthis hamata and Centrosema

pascuorum under sub-humid conditions in Nigeria. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science.69(2): 106-110.

Pritchett, W.L.(1978). Phosphorus in forest soils, Phosphorus in Agriculture, No 67 page 27-34

Raji B A.; Chude,V O.and Esu I. (2001) phosphorus sorption characteristics of three stabilized sand dune soils

in Northern Nigeria. Vol.17, Samaru Journal of Agricultural Research. Vol.17:25 – 34

Sinang S.; Stamm, C.; Toor G.S.; Condrun L.M.; Hendry T.D.; Cameron K.C. and Frossand, E. (2002).

Phosphorus exchangeability and leaving losses from two grassland soils. Journal of Environmental Quality.

31:319 – 330.

Thomas G.W. (1982). Exchangeable cation. In A 1 page R.H. Moller and D.R/Keeney (eds) method of soil

analysis part 2. Second Edition. America Society of Agronomy,Madison Pp. 157 – 164.

Uyovbisere, E.O. (1994). Phosphorus uptake as related to extractable and inorganic phosphate fractions in some

savanna soils of Nigeria. Journal of Plant Nutrition. volume 6 219-237.

Yusuf, A.A. and Yusuf, H. A: (2008). Evaluation of strategies for soil fertility improvement in Northern Nigeria

and the way forward. Journal of Agronomy. 7 (1) 15 – 24.




Amhakhian,S. O

Department of Soil and Environmental Management, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi State



29



WATER, ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH: IMPLICATIONS ON CASSAVA PRODUCTION.

Omonona, B.T1

and Akinpelu, A.O2

1Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State.

2National Root Crops Research

Institute, Umudike, Private Mail Bag 7006,Umuahia, Abia State.

ABSTRACT

The paper examines the implications of water, environment and health on cassava production.

It was observed that although, cassava is a drought- tolerant crop, growth and yield are

decreased by prolonged dry periods. The critical period of water deficit effect in cassava is

from 1-5 Month After Planting (the stages of root initiation and tuberization). Also, cassava

processing can have negative, mainly site-specific effects on the environment, by producing

unpleasant odours and an unsightly display of waste. Consumption of cassava and cassava

products containing large amounts of cyanide can cause acute intoxication, with symptoms of

dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, stomach pains, diarrhoea and sometimes death. Policies

and institutions must be developed and cost-effective management practices adopted to halt the

environmental degradation caused by overexploitation of groundwater resources. Processors or

intending cassava processors should make adequate arrangement for proper disposal of

effluents and other waste from cassava. Cyanide poisoning can be prevented through educating

farmers and consumers of cassava and cassava products on the need to extend fermentation

period of cassava.

KEYWORDS: water, environment, health, cyanide poisoning, death, drought tolerant,

fermentation

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture produces the necessary food for the world’s populations under both rainfed and irrigated conditions. In a

wider perspective, agriculture is not only the main consumer of water but also a critical factor shaping importantterrestrial and freshwater biomes that form part of necessary life-supporting ecosystem services (Appelgren and

Klohn, 2001). Agriculture represents the first traditional life-supporting economic sector closely linked to

established cultural and ethical values of land and water on which traditional societies are built (Appelgren, 2004).

Agriculture is the activity most essential for human survival. It feeds people, produces basic commodities for society

and provides gainful employment for the majority (Ojemade, 2007). Agricultural demands represent actual current

use of rainfall, soil moisture and flowing waters for agricultural production. This is different from generally planned

demands and an enormous, rapidly growing investment gap for water supplies, sometimes referred to as the water

supply paradox (Appelgren, 2004).

Based on the standard hydrological index of water scarcity it is concluded that by 2025 one-third of the world’s

population will live in water scarce countries. The water scarce countries include many of the least developed

countries with limited social resources but also more wealthy economies with the necessary capacity for investmentsand social adaptation to water scarcity (Appelgren, 2004).

Agriculture is the largest user of water in the world and alters, depletes, contaminates, and eutrophies water

bodies—all of which have implications for human health. Water-associated infectious disease kill approximately 3.2

million people per year and a significant fraction can be traced back to agriculture-imposed changes in vector habitat

and water quality (Nugent and Drescher, 2006).

Cassava ( Manihot esculenta Crantz) has its origin in Latin America where it has been grown by the indigenous

Indian population for at least 4000 years. After the discovery by the Americas, European traders took the crop to

Africa as a potentially useful food crop; later it was also taken to Asia to be grown as a food security crop and for

the extraction of starch. It is native to tropical America and was introduced to Africa by the Portuguese in the

sixteen century (Okogbenin et al., 2006).



30

Omonona, B.T and Akinpelu, A.O: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 29 - 37, 2010

According to Howeler, 2006 cassava belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It can compete with other, morevaluable, crops such as maize, soybean and vegetables mainly in areas of acid and low-fertility soils, and those with

low or unpredictable rainfall. It is a major source of carbohydrate and it is the third largest source of carbohydrate in

the world with Africa being the largest centre of production.

Nigeria is the largest producer of cassava in the world (FAO,2007) and its cassava transformation is the most

advanced in Africa (Egesi et al., 2006).Cassava is grown throughout the tropic and could be regarded as the most

important root crop, in terms of area cultivated and total production (Ano,2003).It is a major food crop in Nigeria

(Ogbe et al., 2007).It is strategically valued for its role in food security, poverty alleviation and as a source of raw

materials for agro-allied industries in Nigeria with huge potential for the export market (Egesi et al., 2007).

Cassava can be a powerful poverty fighter in Africa. The cash income from cassava proves more egalitarian than the

other major staples because of cassava’s low cash input cost (Nweke, 2004). According to Egesi et al., 2006 cassava

has in recent years transformed from famine reserve commodity and rural staple to a cash crop in Africa

Cassava ( Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a very important crop in Nigeria deriving from the extensive use of the

various products and by-products as staples to most Nigerians. The consumption of cassava cuts across all parts of

the country. Its adaptability to climatic and soil conditions even in marginal soils has endeared cassava to most

people that have to do continuous cultivation on limited available land. The general acceptance of cassava and its

products to all classes of Nigerians on its own draws close attention to the producers of cassava (Olanrewaju et al.,

2009).

Fuglie, 2002 reported that cassava is a competitive crop, especially for the production of starch and animal feed. The

use of cassava from 1993-2020 is predicted to increase by around 1.74 per cent per annum in the region. This

implies that there is room to expand production. Moreover, improvements in quality, processing, and product

marketing could increase the value of cassava products by about 20 per cent (Harshey et al., 2000).

It is a known fact that plants require some resources to produce optimally and lack and or excess of these would inno small measures have implications on their productivity. The broad objective of this paper was to examine the

implications of water, environment and health on cassava production.

Water and Cassava production

The importance of water in cassava production cannot be over emphasized. Water is needed in cassava production

though not in quantities that will cause rot to the tubers. Cassava is a drought resistant crop that does well where

other crops fail. Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops. Plants, including

cassava need it continuously and in appropriate quantities during their life.

According to Olanrewaju et al., 2009 water is the most important compound in an active plant and constitutes more

than 80% of the growing tissue. Because it is essential for most plant functions, the amount of water applied during

irrigation, the time and method of water application, the quality of the irrigation water, and prevailing micro-

meteorological conditions are important in plant health and yield.

The inability of a plant root system to supply such demands is one of the principal constraints of plant productivity

(Baker et al., 1992).Water is essential for agricultural production and its linkage to food security and population

issues are often reflected in water scarcity and per capita water availability with finite water resources distributed

over growing populations (Appelgren, 2004).

Plants require water for photosynthesis, growth, and reproduction. Water used by plants is non-recoverable, because

some water becomes a part of the plant chemically and remainder is released into the atmosphere. The processes of

carbon dioxide fixation and temperature control require plants to transpire enormous amounts of water. Various

crops transpire water at rates between 600 to 2000 litres of water per kilogram of dry matter of crops produced

(Pimentel et al., 2004).



31


According to Bray 1994, plants respond to water deficit at many different levels: morphologically, physiologically,cellular and metabolically. The responses are dependent upon the duration and severity of stress, the genotype of the

stressed plant, the stage of development and the organ and cell type in question.

Water influences photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation and utilization of mineral nutrients, and cell

division besides some other processes. Both its shortage and excess affects the growth and development of a plant

directly and consequently, its yield and quality. Rainfall is the cheapest source of natural water-supply for cassava

and other plants (Dhanapal and Eswaramoorthi, 2005).

When water is available, cassava maintains a high stomatal conductance and can keep internal carbon dioxide (CO2)

concentration high; but when water becomes limiting, the plant closes stomatal in response to even small decreases

in soil water potential (El-Sharkawy and Cork 1984).

Porto et al., 1988 submitted that leaf conductance to water vapour has been evaluated as an indicator of the capacity

of different cassava genotypes to prevent water loss under prolonged drought. Considerable variation has been

observed in leaf conductance and this parameter seems to be useful for pre – selecting sources of germplasm

conferring adaptation to prolonged dry periods.

The growing scarcity and competition for water, however, stands as a major threat to future advances in poverty

alleviation. In an environment of growing scarcity and competition for water a comprehensive strategy is needed to

improve the productivity of water in both irrigated and rain-fed agriculture and to ensure access to water by poor

men and women (Barker et al., 1992).

Alves 2002 reported that cassava is commonly grown in areas receiving < 800mm rainfall per year with a dry season

of 4-6 months, where tolerance of water deficit is an attribute. The critical period of water deficit effect in cassava is

from 1-5 MAP (the stages of root initiation and tuberization).

Water deficit during at least 2 months of this period can reduce storage in root yield from 32-60%. Although,cassava is a drought- tolerant crop, growth and yield are decreased by prolonged dry periods. The reduction in

storage root yield depends on the duration of the water deficit and is determined by the sensitivity of a particular

growth stage of water stress (Connor et al., 1981; Porto et al., 1988).

Environment and cassava production

Agricultural production, according to Nugent and Drescher 2006 relies on environmental services to transform raw

inputs into the nutritious and diverse food that humans rely on for survival. Modified agricultural practices can help

mitigate these problems. The continuous increase in the supply and demand of cassava in developing countries has

accentuated the negative impact cassava production and processing has had on the environment and biodiversity

(FAO, 2001).

Ekundayo, 1997 reported that activities on the environment tend to hinge on effluents which may include acids, oils

and cooling water. All these consequently create a cascading concern about the protection and safety of theenvironment. Subair, 2009 reported that where there is no serious concern for the environment or measures for

containing its problems, several issues such as indiscriminate dumping of waste, illegal mining and pollution are

often inescapable.

The continued loss of forests and other vegetation plus the accumulation of carbon dioxide, methane gas, and nitrous

oxides in the atmosphere during land cultivation for cassava production can lead to global climate change. Over

time, such changes may alter present precipitation and temperature patterns throughout the world (Downing and

Parry, 1994).

Cassava is found over a wide range of edaphic and climatic conditions between 300N and 30

0S latitude, growing in

regions from sea level to 2300m altitude, mostly in areas considered marginal for other crops: low-fertility soils,

annual rainfall from < 600mm in the semiarid tropics to >1500mm in the subhumid and humid tropics (Alves,2002).



32


Irikura et al., 1979, identified temperatures, photoperiods and solar radiation as environmental factors that haveeffects on cassava production. At a temperature of 15-240C, the leaves remain on the plant for up to 200 days while

at a higher temperatures leaf life is 120 days (Splittstosser and Tunya,1992).This invariably may reduce

photosynthetic activities of cassava which is eventually transmitted to low and poor yield of the crop.

Furthermore, cassava is a crop that requires high solar radiation to perform photosynthesis more efficiently (El-

Sharkawy et al., 1992), it is therefore very important to know the effect of shade on cassava development and

production. Okoli and Wilson (1986) found out that shade delayed storage root bulking on cassava subjected to six

shade regimes of 20, 40, 50, 60 and 70%. Cassava yield obtained were reduced by 43, 56, 59, 69, and 80%

respectively. This finding shows that shade has a negative influence on yield and productivity of cassava.

Subsequently, under limited photosynthesis caused by low solar radiation, most of the photosynthates are utilized for

shoots growth, affecting storage root development significantly, showing that the shoots are a stronger sink than

roots (Alves, 2002).

The recent Nigerian government’s encouragement to grow and process more cassava for domestic and international

needs resulted in corresponding increase in production and processing thus increased amount of cassava effluent

discharged on the environment (Ehiagbonare et al.,2009). A poisonous substance called cyanide occurs in various

concentrations during cassava processing depending on the varieties. Forty to seventy percent of the total cyanide

appear in the water used to wash the disintegrated cassava and 5 to 10% in fibrous residue used in animal feed.

Ehiagbonare et al., (2009) reported that waste water from cassava processing is released into the environment

without proper treatment in most rural areas where cassava is processed. This has been identified as a source of

pollution. Waste water running freely along surfaces contaminates agricultural surface water, stream, as it percolates

into the underground water, and the subsoil, domestic animals, man, fauna and flora; it may have effect on plants as

vegetation is hardly noticed on such areas (Ogundola and Laiasu, 2007).

Arotupin, 2007 submitted that during the processing of cassava tubers into various products, liquid waste waters

generated was reported to cause serious havoc to vegetations, houses and bring about infection. This no doubt havebeing causing serious environmental pollution as a result of the indiscriminate discharge.

Health and cassava production.

Good health and productive agriculture are important in the economy of any nation especially in the fight against

poverty. Health enhances work effectiveness and the productivity of an individual through increase in physical and

mental capacities (Ajani and Ugwu, 2008). Although the practice of agriculture is essential for human health,

careless and inappropriate agricultural practices can degrade and contaminate natural resources and in so doing,

harm human health (Nugent and Drescher 2006).

All cassava organs, except seeds, contain Cyanogenic Glucosides (CG). Cultivars with < 100 mg kg-1 fresh weight

(FW) are called ‘sweet’ while cultivars with 100-500 mg kg-1 are ‘bitter’ cassava (Wheatley et al., 1993). Total

Cyanogenic Glucosides concentration depends on cultivar, environmental condition, cultural practices and plant age

(McMahon et al., 1995).

Naturally occurring acyanogenic cassava has never been observed (Bradbury and Holloway, 1988). Since linamarin

is bitter (King and Bradbury, 1995), high-cyanide cassava roots containing >100ppm cyanide are normally bitter

and are called bitter cassava. One such variety in Nigeria is called ‘chop and die’.

It is difficult to understand how cassava can be promoted without giving proper consideration to the fact that it

contains a cyanogen (linamarin) that liberates poisonous cyanide in the body (Madamombe, 2006). When linamarin

is hydrolysed, it releases hydro cyanide, a volatile poison (Cooke and Coursey, 1981); but some cyanide can be

detoxified by the human body (Oke, 1983).

In some varieties of cassava the interior of the roots (parenchyma) contains only a small amount of cyanide. This is

called sweet cassava, which may be boiled and eaten, as is normal in the South Pacific (Bradbury and Holloway,



33


1988). However, Cardoso et al, 2005 reported that in Amazonia (the original source of cassava) and in Africadifferent varieties have a range of total cyanide contents in the parenchyma from very low to very high (1–1550

ppm).

Cardoso et al., 2005 and Siritunga et al 2004 in separate studies reported that linamarin is present in large amounts

in the leaves and the peel of cassava roots (900–2000mg HCN kg−1

fresh weight) and the leaves also contain a

second enzyme called hydroxynitrile lyase, which catalyses the hydrolysis of acetone cyanohydrin to produce HCN

and acetone.

Cyanogenesis is initiated in cassava when the plant tissue is damaged. Rupture of the vacuole releases linamarin,

which is hydrolyzed by linamarase, a cell wall-associated -glycosidase

(McMahon et al., 1995). The linamarin

content of cassava flour was reported to be more than double during drought (Cardoso et al., 2005; Ernesto et al.,

2002),which leads to outbreaks of konzo; most recently there were more than 100 cases in Nampula and Zambezia

Provinces due to drought in 2005 (Muquingue et al., 2005).

Cassava is increasingly popular with farmers particularly in countries of tropical Africa simply because of its

agricultural advantages and potential to feed rapidly increasing populations. Also households under stress from

HIV/AIDS are switching from high-input to low-input farming systems that involve cassava (FAO, 2008).

Consumption of cassava and cassava products containing large amounts of cyanide can cause acute intoxication,

with symptoms of dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, stomach pains, diarrhoea and sometimes death (Mlingi et

al., 1992). Since the lethal dose of cyanide is proportional to body weight, children tend to be more susceptible to

outright poisoning than adults. In regions where there is iodine deficiency, which causes goitre and cretinism,

cyanide intake from cassava exacerbates these conditions (Delange et al., 1994).

Ihedioha and Chineme 2003 in their work suggested that shortening the fermentation period of cassava mash to

about 24 hours constitutes a health hazard to consumers of gari. Various health disorders are associated with the

consumption of cassava, which contains residual cyanogens. These disorders include hyperthyroidism, tropicalataxic neuropathy, and konzo

(Osuntokun, 1981).

When cassava is eaten, most of the ingested cyanide is converted into thiocyanate, a reaction catalysed by the

enzyme Rhodanese, which uses up part of the pool of S-containing essential amino acids methionine and

cysteine/cystine (Osuntokun, 1981; Westly, 1988; Cardoso et al., 2004). These amino acids are essential in the diet

because they can only be obtained from the food consumed.

A shortfall of these S-containing amino acids would limit protein synthesis and could cause stunting of growing

children, as was found in a study of children in DRC (Cardoso et al., 2004).

A study made in Nampula Province in Mozambique showed that an estimated maximum cassava flour intake of

children in an area prone to konzo was 700–900 g fresh flour per child per day and in a non-konzo area was 20–140

g fresh flour per child per day (Cardoso et al., 2004).

It is important that the introduction of cassava into new regions is accompanied by efforts to educate the people in

correct methods of processing of cassava to remove cyanogens, rather than simply ignoring the dangerous aspects of

this crop (Madamombe, 2006).

It is likely that the high rate of population increase in these tropical African countries is a major cause of increased

cassava production, which highlights the need for proper health safeguards against cyanide diseases.

RECOMMENDATION

Policies and institutions must be developed and cost-effective management practices adopted to halt the

environmental degradation caused by overexploitation of groundwater resources. Special attention must be given to

implementing policies and developing technologies suitable for adoption by resource- poor farmers in water-scarce



34


or marginal upland and rain-fed areas, particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa. Measures should be takento control or minimise disease conditions that are related to cyanide poisoning, konzo and TAN intake in the diet of

people who consume cassava and cassava products. As young tissues (meristems) are involved in regrowth and

recovery after drought, further research is needed to give a fuller picture of cassava’s response to water deficit.

CONCLUSION

To implement sustainable solutions, more specific knowledge of the linkages between agriculture, environment and

health is needed, particularly on the human health effects of specific agricultural activities and the cumulative and

interactive impacts of multiple environmental changes. And while acute health impacts are relatively identifiable,

better knowledge of the chronic health problems that arise from unhealthy agricultural practices is required.

In the meantime, action is needed at the policy level. Policies aimed at environmental protection or resource

conservation already exist in many countries. These policies should be enforced and also examined and possibly

retooled to ensure that they are maximizing human health benefits.

Although any positive health outcomes would be revealed only over the long term, such approaches are needed as

human health becomes a higher priority in agricultural decision making. After all, agriculture relies on the

productivity of the environment for its survival, and humans rely on agricultural productivity for their survival.

REFERENCES

Appelgren, B. and Klohn, W. 2001. From Water to Food Security: Water and Ethics. EGS General Assembly,

Nice, March, 2001.

Appelgren, B. 2004. Water and Ethics: Water in Agriculture. Series and Water and Ethics, Essay 5. Published

in 2004 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7, Place de

Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP (France) Composed by Marina Rubio, 93200 Saint-Denis Printed by UNESCO

Arotupin, D.J. 2007. Evaluation of Microorganisms from Cassava Waste Water for Production of Amylase

and Cellulose. Research Journal of Microbiology. 2(5):475-480.

Ajani, O.I.Y., and Ugwu, P.C. 2008. Impact of Adverse health on Agricultural Productivity of Farmers in Kainji

Basin North- Central Nigeria Using a Stochastic Production Frontier Approach. Trends in Agricultural

Economics (1) Iss. 1:1-7.

Alves, A.A.C. 2002. Cassava Botany and Physiology. In: Cassava: Biology, Production and

Utilization. R.J. Hillocks, J.M. Thresh and A.C. Bellotti (eds).

Ano, A.O. 2003. Studies on the effect of Liming on the Yield of two cassava cultivars. In: NRCRI Annual

Report 2003 :9.

Baker, J.M., Wraith, J.M., and Dalton, F.N. 1992. Root function in water transport. Advances in Soil Science,

19, Springer- Verlag, New York. : 53- 72.

Bradbury, J.H. and Holloway, W.D. 1988. Chemistry of Tropical Root Crops: Significance for Nutrition and

Agriculture in the Pacific. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, MonographNo 6,

Canberra, Australia.

Bray, E.A. 1994. Alterations in gene expression in response to water deficit. In: Basra, A.S. (ed.) Stress- InducedGene expression in plants. Hardwood Academic Publishers, Chur, Switzerland. : 1-23.



35


Cardoso, A.P., Ernesto, M., Nicala, D., Mirione, E., Chavane, L., N’zwalo, H. 2004. Combination of CassavaFlour Cyanide and Urinary Thiocyanate Measurements of School Children in Mozambique. Int J Food Sci Nutr

55:183–190 (2004).

Cardoso A.P., Mirione, E., Ernesto, M., Massaza, F., Cliff, J., Haque, M.R. 2005. Processing of cassava

roots to remove cyanogens. J Food Comp Anal 18:451– 460.

Connor,D.J., J.H.,Cock and G.E. Parra. 1981. Response of cassava to water shortage.I. Growth and yield. Field

Crops Research 4:181-200.

Cooke, R.D., and Coursey, D.G.1981. Cassava: A major cyanide-containing food crop. In::Vennesland, B.,

Coun,E.E. and Knowles, C.J. (eds) Cyanide in Biology. Academic Press, New York.

Delange, F., Ekpechi, L.O. and Rosling, H. 1994. Cassava cyanogenesis and iodine deficiency disorders. Acta

Hortic 375:289–293.

Egesi, C., Mbanaso, E., Ogbe, F., Okogbenin, E. and Fregene, M. 2006. Development of cassava varieties with

high value root quality through induced mutations and marker-aided breeding. NRCRI, Umudike Annual Report

2006. :2-6

Egesi, C., Okogbenin, E., Mbanaso, E. and Fregene, M. 2007. Induced mutations and marker-aided

breeding for the improvement of root quality traits in cassava. NRCRI, Umudike Annual Report 2007. :22-

23.

Ehiagbonare, J.E., Enabulele,S.A., Babatunde,B.B., and Adjarhore, R. 2009. Effect of cassava effluent on

Okada denizens. Scientific Research and Essay Vol.4 (4): 310-313.

Ekundayo JA 1997. Environmental consequences of the pollution of the Lagos lagoons. Bulletin of The Science Association of Nigeria, 3: 298-302.

El-Sharkwawy, M.A. and Cork, J.H. 1984. Water use efficiency of cassava. 1. Effects of air humidity and water

stress on stomatal conductance and gas exchange. Crop Science. 24.: 497-502.

El-Sharkwawy, M.A. Tafur, S.M.D., and Cadavid, L.F. 1992. Potential Photosynthesis of cassava as

affected by growth conditions. Crop Science. 32.:1336 -1342.

FAO,2001. Strategic Environmental Assessment: An Assessment of The Impact of Cassava Production and

Processing on The Environment and Biodiversity Volume 5.Rome. Italy.

FAO, 2008. Corporate Document Repository. [Online]. The impact of HIV/AIDS on the agricultural

sector.:://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y4636E/y4636e05.htm

Fuglie. K. O., (2002). Economic Prospects for Root and Tuber Crops for Starch and Animal Feed in Asia,

Progress in Potato and Sweet potato Research Indonesia, CIP-ESEA and IAARD.

Hershey, C., Henry, G., Best, R., Kawano, K., Howeler, Reinhardt, Iglesias, C., (2000). Cassava in Asia, Expanding

the Competitive Edge in Diversified Market, Review document prepared for the Global cassava

development strategy validation forum, held in Rome, Italy. April 26- 28, 2000. FAO /IFAD, Rome, Italy. : 58.

Ihedioha, J.I. and Chineme, C.N. 2003. Clinicopathological Implications of Shortened Fermentation Periods in

the Production of Toasted Cassava Granules (Gari). Journal of Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (Formerly Qualitas

Plantarum) 58 (3): 1-11



36


Irikura, Y., J.H. Cock and K. Kawan.1979. The physiological basis of genotype- temperature interactions in cassava.Field Crops Research 2:227-239.

Keating, B.A. and J.P. Evenson. 1979. Effect of soil temperature on sprouting and sprout elongation of stem

cuttings of cassava. Field Crops Research 2:241- 252.

King, N.L.R., and Bradbury, J.H. 1995. Bitterness of cassava: Identification of a New Apiosyl

Glucoside and other Compounds that affect its Bitter Taste. J. Sci Food Agric 68:223–230.

Madamombe, I. 2006. Is cassava Africa’s new staple food? Africa Renewal 20:13.

McMahon, J.M., W.L.B. White, and R.T. Sayre (1995). Cyanogenesis in Cassava ( Manihot esculentus

Crantz). Journal of Experimental Botany. 46 :731-741.

Mlingi, N., Poulter, N.H. and Rosling, H.1992. An outbreak of acute intoxications from consumption of

insufficiently processed cassava in Tanzania. Nutr Res 12:677–687.

Muquingue, H., Nhassico, D., Cliff, J., Sitoe, L., Tonela, A. and Bradbury, J.H. 2005. Field trial in Mozambique

of a New Method for Detoxifying Cyanide in Cassava Products. CCDN News No. (6):3–4 (2005).

Nuggent,R. and Drescher, A. 2006. Impacts of inputs to Agricultural systems: Understanding the links between

Agriculture and Health for food, Agriculture and the Environment. In: Agriculture, Environment, and

Health: Toward Sustainable Solutions. Focus 13. Brief 14 of 16.

Nweke F.I. (1992): Cassava. A cash crop in Africa. A Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa, working paper.

No. 14

Ogbe, F.O., J.K.U. Emehute and J. Legg. 2007. Screening of cassava varieties for whitefly populations. In:NRCRI Annual Report 2007:30-33.

Ojemade, A.C.2007. Agriculture, environment, and poverty in Nigeria.Journal of Sustainable Development.

Vol.4.No.1/2. : 45-50.

Oke, O.L. 1983. The mode of cyanide detoxification. In: Nestel, B. and R. MacIntyre (eds) Chronic

Cassava Toxicity. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa. : 97-104.

Okogbenin, E., Egesi, C., Fregene, M. 2006. Marker Aided Introgression of CMD Resistance in Latin

American Germplasm for the broadening of the Genetic base of cassava in Nigeria. NRCRI, Umudike Annual

Report 2006. :2-6

Okoli, P.S.O. and G.F. Wilson (1986). Response of cassava ( Manihot esculenta Crantz) to shade under fieldsconditions. Fields Crops Research 14:349-360.

Olanrewaju, O.O., Olufayo, A.A., Oguntunde, P.G., Ilemobade, A.A. 2009. Water use efficiency of Manihot

esculenta crantz under drip irrigation system in South Western Nigeria. European Journal of Scientific

Research Vol.27 No.4 (2009) : 576-587

Osuntokun, B.O. 1981. Cassava diet, chronic cyanide intoxication and neuropathy in Nigerian Africans. World

Rev Nutr Diet 36:141–173.

Pimentel, D., Berger, B., Filiberto, D., Newton, M., Wolfe, B., Karabinakis, E., Clark, S., Poon, E., Abbett, E.

and Nandagopal, S. 2004. Water Resources, Agriculture and the Environment.



37

Porto,M.C. , Bessa, J.M.G. and Lira Filho, H.P. 1988. Diferenças varieties no uso da água em

mandioca, sobcondiçóes de campo no Estado de Pernambuco. Revista Brasileira de mandioca 7. : 73-79.

Siritunga, D., Arias-Garzon, D., White, W., and Sayre, R.T. 2004. Over expression of hydroxynitrile lyase incassava roots accelerates cyanogenesis and detoxification. Plant Biotechnology Journal 2:37–43.

Splittstoesser, W.E. and G.O. Tunya.1992. Crop physiology of cassava. Horticultural Reviews13:105-120.

Subair,K. 2009. Environment- Productivity Relationship in the South West Nigeria’s Agriculture. J Hum Ecol,

27(1): 75-84 (2009).

Westley, J. 1988. Mammalian Cyanide Detoxification with Sulphane Sulphur, in Cyanide Compounds in

Biology. Ciba foundation Symposium 140, Wiley, Chichester, pp. 201–212.

Wheatley,C.C., J.I.Orrego, T. Sanchez and E. Granados 1993. Quality evaluation of cassava core collection at

CIAT. In: Roca, W.M. and Thro, A.M. (eds). Proceedings of the first International Scientific Meeting of the

Cassava Biotechnology Network , CIAT, Cartagena, Columbia: 255-264.




Omonona, B.T

Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State.



38



PROFITABILITY OF TURKEY PRODUCTUION IN AHOADA EAST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OFRIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

Ironkwe M.O. and Akinola L. F.

Department of Animal Science and Fisheries, Faculty Agriculture, University of Port Harcourt, P.M.B 5323, Choba,

Rivers State

ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to investigate the profitability of turkey production in Ahoada East

Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. A total of one hundred turkey farmers were

selected from ten autonomous communities that make up Ahoada East Local Government

Area. This particular area was chosen for the study because about 70% of the entire population

is involved in turkey and other poultry productions. Structured questionnaires were employed

to elicit information from the respondents. Statistical analysis was accomplished by means of

frequency, distribution, percentages, Likert rating scale and budget analysis. The study

revealed the major sources of fund for turkey production among the keepers as personal

savings, financial assistance from family members and loans from micro-finance banks with

low interest rate of about 10%. It was also revealed that the keepers embarked on the project

because of its profitability ( Xs=4.2), minimal initial capital requirement ( Xs=3.6) and because

it can be practiced on part time basis ( Xs=3.5). Analysis also indicated that an average turkey

keeper with farm size of 300 turkeys makes a profit of about three hundred thousand naira

(N350,000.00) a year. However, turkey production has some constraints like high cost and

unavailability of poults ( Xs =4.10). High cost of quality feed ( Xs =3.21), disease mortality ( Xs

= 3.10). The turkey productions have offered reasonable income and employment

opportunities to the keepers in the study area.

KEYWORD: Profitability, turkey production, Ahoada East L.G.A, Rivers State Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION

Low animal protein intake has remained a major human nutritional problem in Nigeria, especially for the low

income and non-wage earners (Amaefule et al., 2009). Okorie (2000) had identified exorbitant cost of production of

ruminants and called for the encouragement of the production of monogastrics which cost less in terms of housing

and other management practices. It also takes shorter time to mature to market weights. Ironkwe et al; (2007) also

advocates that monogastrics are easier to manage, have relatively high turnover and quick returns to capital invested.

According to Ajala and Adeshinwa (2006), the production of turkey is not popular in Nigeria until recently. Turkey

is the largest of the poultry species, reaching10-15kg live-weight. But in Nigeria, large strains or hybrids of 8 -12 kg

live-weight and of white plumage are reared. Turkey can be reared intensively, semi-intensively or extensively.

But the scope of this study covers those under intensive system of management which makes for better profit

earning. According to Egbunike et al; (2000), turkey production is one of the good sources of animal protein in

Nigeria. It is considered like chicken as a suitable alternative for small or large scale animal protein productionbecause of its short production cycle. The turkey eggs require only twenty-eight day incubation period to hatch. But

the reason for apparent inertia in turkey production appears to be lack of appreciation of its potential in contributing

to the protein need or perhaps the lack of understanding of its management techniques and production (Oluyemi et

al., 2007).

Peter et al., (1997) stated that local turkeys are natural foragers and can be kept as scavengers. They can also be kept

on small financial capability. The study was aimed at investigating the profitability of turkey production among the

keepers in Ahoada-East local government area of Rivers State.

METHODOLOGY

The Study Area



39

Ironkwe M.O. and Akinola L. F: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 38 - 41, 2010

The study covered the ten autonomous communities that make up Ahoada East Local Government Area of RiversState. The major occupation of the people is farming in crop and livestock, trading and palm wine-tapping. Primary

data for the study were generated through the use of structured questionnaire distributed to 100 turkey keepers in the

study area. This sample size was randomly drawn from the ten autonomous communities that make up the study

area. Ten respondents were randomly taken from each of ten communities.

Table 1: Sources of fund to turkey keepers

Sources Percentages

1. Personal savings and grants from relatives 70.0

2. Loans from government agencies 0

3. Loans from commercial/community banks 10.0

4. Co-operative societies 20.0

Table 2: Distribution of respondents according to the factors that motivated and sustained their interest in

turkey production

Factors Xs (means score)

1. Profitability of the business 4.20

2. Required minimal initial capital 3.75

3. Easy management 1.80

4. Source of employment 3.50

5. Source of meat and egg for the family 2.40

6. Can be practiced on a small scale 2.25

Source: Field Survey, 2009

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics were used to analyze data on objective. The objective was analyzed with budget analysistechnique while objective of profitability and reason for keeping turkey were analyzed with 5-point Likert scale.

Any item in the mean score (X5) of 3.0 or above is accepted as a positive factor while items with mean score below

3.0 are rejected. Ninety two (92) questionnaires were accurately filled and returned while 8 of them were either

wrongly filled of not returned. Analysis was therefore based on the 92 returned copies of the questionnaire.


Result of analysis showed that the major source of fund to turkey farmers were personal saving and financial

assistance from relatives (71.2 %) as shown in table 1. It was indicated that none of the respondents obtained any

form of fund from government agencies. However, 15.4% of the respondents funded their turkey business throughcooperative societies while 13.4% obtained loans from commercial and community banks for their turkey projects.

The results of the analysis showed that cooperative societies funding ranked next to personal savings and grants

from relatives in capital generation for turkey business. This was because the conditions attached were less stringent

when compared to getting loans from other financial sources. There could be varying reasons while individuals

embarked on turkey business, (table 2). It was revealed that the highest motivating factor to turkey production by

turkey farmers is the profitability of the business (XS = 4.2). The result also indicated that other significant reasons

why people embark on turkey farming included that the business required minimal initial capital (XS = 3.75) and

that it can be practiced on a small scale (XS = 3:5): This finding validated claims by Ironkwe et al; (2009) that turkey

production require initial minimal capital when compared to other livestock practices.

Results from data analysis indicated that an average turkey farmer in the study area invested about one hundred andfifty thousand naira (N l50, 000) only in the enterprise in 2009 (Table 3). These included costs of the procurement of

some items as poults, feed, labour, drugs and vaccines and other veterinary services. The result also showed that a

total revenue of three hundred and fifty naira (N350,000.00) was earned from the enterprise during the period: these

figures implied that an average turkey producer in the study area earned a net income of two hundred thousand naira



40


(N200,000.00) during the period of production. In order words, ten naira thirty- three kobo invested in turkeyproduction earned twenty naira, thirty kobo.

Table 3: Enterprises budget for average turkey farmer using intensive system as at 2009.

Revenue Amount (N) Expenditure Amount (N)

Income from egg production 120,00 Variable cost (VC)

Income from meat production 180,00 Poults 45,000

Miscellaneous income from

enterprises

50,000 Feed 70,000

Total Revenue (TR) 350,000 Labour 5,000

Veterinary services 10,000

Miscellaneous 2,000

Fixed CostDepreciation on housing 10,000

Depreciation on equipment 8,000

Total production cost (TPC) 150,000

Net income (NI) 200,000

Table 4: Constraints to turkey enterprise

No Constraints Xs

(Mean score)

1 Lack of awareness for the Importance of turkey meat 1.98

2 Technical know- how 1.96

3 Lack of infrastructure 1.94

4 Lack of land- space for expansion 3.22

5 Lack of loans 4.086 High Cost of feed 4.10

7 High Cost of poults 3.22

8 Disease incidence 3.21

9 Lack of drugs and vaccine 3.10

10 High interest rates 2.48

11 Low quality feed 1.97

12 Lack of record keeping 1.97

13 High cost of labour 1.70

14 Lack of market for output 2.15

Source: Field Survey 2008

This was a good profit margin and indicated that turkey enterprise is a profitable business in the study area. Aboutfourteen possible constraints to turkey keeping were itemized for rating by the respondents (Table 4). Five items

were rated above the decision score of 3.0 indicating that they were the significant constraints to turkey business

among the keepers.

These major constraints included high cost of feed, (Xs = 4.10), difficulty in securing loams for possible expansion( Xs = 4.08),

high cost of poults ( Xs = 3.22), disease incidence ( Xs = 3.21) and lack of drugs and vaccines ( X s = 3.10). It is

remarkable that such sensitive factors as lack of awareness that turkey meat and egg are important sources of animal

protein to man, lack of technical know-how, high interest rates, shortage of land for turkey production, lack of

infrastructure, inaccessibility to veterinary doctors and services, lack of extension officers and low hatchability

constituted little or on problem of turkey keeping in the study area. It is obvious that constraints to turkey production

are more of input mobilization than management factors.



41


CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONThis study revealed that most turkey producers in the study area financed their turkey business through personal

savings and grants from relatives. This implied that turkey enterprise could start without initial resort to credit

facilities from financial institutions. It was also revealed that most keepers embarked on the production because of

its profitability.

REFERENCES

Ajala, M.k and Adeshinwa A.O.K, (2006): Constraints of turkeys production in Zaria, Kaduna state, Nigeria

Tropical Journal of Animal Science vol.9, (2) 101-106.

Amaefule, K.U, Ironkwe M.O, and G.S Ojewola (2009). Performance of grower pullets fed raw or processed pigeon

pea seed meal diets. International Journal of Poultry science. 5(1), 60-64.

Egbunike, G.N., Oluyemi J.A, and Taiwo A. (2000): Poultry management during Economic depression. Proceedings

of the Seminar of the Department of Animal science, University of Ibadan pp. 103-130.

Ironkwe, M.O and Ajayi, F.O A (2007): Profitability analysis of boriler production in oyibo Local Government Area

of rivers state, Nigeria. Global journal of Agricultural sciences. Vol.6; 195-198.

Ironkwe, M.O and Etela, I. 2009): Constraints of turkey production in Umuahia, Abia state Nigeria. Journal of

Agricultural Research and politics vol. 45: 40-45.

Okorie, J.U (2000): A guide to livestock production in Nigeria. Macmillan Ltd, London p.155.

Oluyemi J. A and Roberts F. A (2007) Poultry Production in Warm Wet Climate. Pp 202-204.

Peters, S.O, Ikeobi C.O.N and Bankole, D. D. (1997): Small holder local turkey production issues in family poultry

Nigeria. Sonaiya, E.B (Ed). Proceedings of an International Network for Family Poultry Development. Departmentof Animal Science, Obafemi Owolowo University, Ile Ife, Nigeria pp 308.




Ironkwe M.O.

Department of Animal Science and Fisheries, Faculty Agriculture, University of Port Harcourt, P.M.B 5323, Choba,

Rivers State

E-mail: [email protected]



42



EVALUATION OF ELEVEN VARIETIES OF MAIZE ( Zea mayzL.) IN ABAKALIKI AGRICULTURAL

AREA, SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA

Utobo, E.B., E.O. Okporie, H.O. Oselebe, L.G. Ekwu, E.O. Ogah and G.N. Nwokwu

Department of Crop Production and Landscape Management, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT

Eleven maize varieties were evaluated for their on-farm and off-farm agronomic performance

in the Teaching and Research Farm of the Department of Crop Production and Landscape

Management, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, which falls within the humid forest zone of

southeastern Nigeria during the 2008 growing season. The eleven varieties comprised six

China varieties (26-517/618, Jinghai 5, Normal corn CAU 541, High oil corn CAU 4515,

ND160 China Agric University I and ND160 China Agric University II), three IITA/Nigeria

hybrid varieties (Oba 98, Obasuper I and Obasuper II), one CRI Ghana variety (Obatamkpa)

and a local check (Ikomwhite). Highly significant difference (p<0.01) were observed among

the maize varieties for plant height (cm), ear height (cm), days to 50 % silking, number of

tassels and yield (t/ha), and difference on days to 50 % tasseling and kernel density at 15.5 %

moisture contents (gm) were significant (p<0.05). There were no significant differences among

the varieties for cob length (cm), cob circumference (cm) and 100 – seed weight at 15.5 %

moisture contents (gm). Mean grain yield was significantly (p<0.01) higher for IITA/Nigeria

hybrid maize varieties and the CRI Ghana variety than for the China varieties and the local

check. However, no significant difference was found among the IITA/Nigeria hybrid maize

varieties and the CRI Ghana variety although the mean grain yield differed in the order: Oba

98 hybrid > Obasuper II hybrid > Obasuper I hybrid > Obatamkpa.

KEYWORDS: Maize, evaluation, on-farm and off-farm agronomy

INTRODUCTION

Maize ( Zea mayz L.), is the most important cereal crop in Sub-Saharan Africa and, with rice and wheat. It is one of

the three most important cereal crops in the world (IITA, 2006). Maize is a widely adopted crop, capable of

producing during the appropriate season in almost part of the world where farming is done (Akande and Lamidi,

2006). Maize is high yielding, easy to process, readily digested, and cheaper than other cereals. Every part of the

maize plant has economic value: the grain, leaves, stalk, tassel, and cob can all be used to produce a large variety of

food and non-food products (IITA, 2006).

Maize originated from Central America, notably Mexico, from where it spread to other parts of the world. It was

introduced into Nigeria in the 16th

century by the Portuguse (Future Harvest, 2004). The crop is being cultivated in

the rainforest and derived savannah of Nigeria, with an annual production of about 5.6 million tons. The country’s

maize crop covers about 1 million hectare out of 9 million hectares it occupied in Africa (Okporie, 2000). In

Nigeria, the crop is known and called by different vernacular names depending on locality (Obi, 1991).

Maize is represented by many varieties, some producing in as little as 70 days, others needing up to 9 months to

reach maturity. Landraces, improved high yielding, pest and disease resistant varieties of maize have been

developed (Uguru, 2005).

Before a crop variety is adopted, its yield potential in the target environment has to be evaluated. Hence the

objective of this work were to evaluate the yield potentials of eleven varieties of maize from China, IITA/Nigeria

and CRI Ghana, using Ikomwhite as a local check in Abakaliki agricultural area of Southeastern Nigeria. This was

with the view to identify high yielding genotype(s) for possible introduction and incorporation into breeding

programmes.



43

Utobo, E.B et al.,: Continental J. Agricultural Science 4: 42 - 47, 2010

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe evaluation trial was carried out at in the Teaching and Research Farm of the Department of Crop Production and

Landscape Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources Management, Ebonyi State University,

Abakaliki, which falls within the humid forest zone of Southeastern Nigeria during the 2008 growing season. The

maize varieties used, source of collection and their seed colours, are presented in Table 1.

The experiment was conducted as one way analysis of variance laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design

(RCBD) with four replications. The experimental field measured 46.25 m long by 24 m wide, giving a total plot size

of 1,110 m2. Flat beds which were manually tilled were used. Each replicate consisted of eleven plots, which

correspond with the eleven varieties, giving a total of forty four (44) test plots. Each plot consisted of one bed,

measuring 5 m x 3.75 m. Each bed was divided into five rows. There were 20 plants per row, making a total of 100

plants per plot. Distance between two plots was 0.5 m and plant spacing within the row was 25 cm with rows spaced

75 cm apart.

The treatment comprised of eleven varieties of maize. Seeds were sown at the rate of 2 – 3 per hill and thinned to

one plant per hill at 10 – 15 days after seeding (DAS). Seeds were supplied where seeds fail to germinate four (4)

days after planting (DAP). Mixed granulated Nitrogen – Phosphorous – Potassium (NPK) 20:10:10 fertilizer at the

rate of 350 kg/ha was applied as basal in split doses. First dose (150 kg/ha) was applied three (3) weeks after

planting (WAP) and the second dose (200 kg/ha) during the onset of tasselling. Cotrazine selective herbicide was

sprayed two days immediately after sowing. Weeds were controlled manually using hoes as often as necessary to

keep the plots free from weeds.

Data were collected on the following on-farm agronomic characters: plant height (cm), ear height (cm), days to 50

% tasselling, days to 50 % silking, number of tassels; and off-farm agronomic characters: cob length (cm), cob

circumference (cm), yield (t/ha), 100 - seed weight at 15.5 % moisture content (gm) and kernel density at 15.5 %

moisture contents (gm).

Statistical analysis of data was based on the procedure for Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) for oneway analysis of variance (ANOVA) as outlined by Steel and Torrie (1980). The square root transformation method

was used to transform data where zero values were obtained. Separation of treatment means for statistical significant

effect was by the F-LSD procedure according to Obi (2001). F-LSD test was done at 5% probability level.

RESULTS

The mean square values for the on-farm and off-farm agronomic characters are presented in Table 2. Highly

significant difference (p<0.01) were observed among the maize varieties for plant height (cm), ear height (cm), days

to 50 % silking, number of tassels and yield (t/ha) and, difference on days to 50 % tasseling, and kernel density at

15.5 % moisture contents (gm) were significant (p<0.05). Conversely, there were no significant difference among

the varieties for cob length (cm), cob circumference (cm) and 100 – seed weight at 15.5 % moisture contents (gm).

The mean for the on-farm agronomic characteristics of the eleven maize varieties are shown in Table 3. Highly

significant (p<0.01) responses for all the maize varieties evaluated were recorded except days to 50 % tasselling thatwas significant at 5 % level of probability. The plant and ear heights ranged from 137.20 to 179.50 cm and 26.10 to

52.40 cm respectively. The Normal corn CAU 541 variety recorded the highest plant height (179.50) while ND 160

China Agric University II produced the lowest (137.20 cm). As regards to ear height, Ikomwhite produced the

highest ear height (52.40 cm) while ND160 China Agric University II had the lowest ear height of 26.10 cm.

Number of days to 50% tasseling and silking varied from 52.50 to 57.50 and 64.00 to 75.00 respectively. Oba 98

hybrid being the earliest to flower (52.50 days) and Normal corn CAU 541 taking longer period to flower (57.50

days). As regards to days to 50% silking, Obasuper II Hybrid took the longest number of days of 75.00 to silks

while High oil corn CAU 4515 and, ND 160 China Agric University I had the least number of days to silk (64.00

days).



44


Table 1. Source of Collection and Seed Colours of the 11 Maize Varieties

S/no. Varieties Source of Collection Seed Colou

1. 26-517/618 China Yellow

2. Jinghai 5 China Yellow3. Normal corn CAU 541 China Yellow

4. High oil corn CAU 4515 China Yellow

5. ND160 China Agric University I China Yellow

6. ND160 China Agric University II China Yellow

7. Oba 98 Hybrid IITA/Nigeria White

8. Obasuper I Hybrid IITA/Nigeria White

9. Obasuper II Hybrid IITA/Nigeria Yellow

10. Obatamkpa CRI Ghana White

11. Ikomwhite Nigeria White

Table 2. Mean Square Values for the On-Farm and Off-Farm Agronomic Characteristics of Eleven Maize Varieties

∗∗- Plant height (cm), Ear height (cm), Days to 50% silking, Number of tassels (p<0.01)

∗ - Days to 50% tasselling, cob circumference (cm), Yield (kg/ha) (p<0.05)

ns- not significant

On-farm Agronomic Characters Off-farm Agronomic characters

Source

of variation

DF Plant

Height (cm)

Ear

Height (cm)

Days to

50%

Tasselling

Days to

50%

Silking

Number of

Tassels

Cob

Length

(cm)

Cob

Circumferen

ce (cm)

Yield

(t/ha)

Block 3 635.34 323.50 74.818 46.67 20.515 30.49 1.223 0.2795

Treatment 10 823.66∗∗ 347.92∗∗ 13.523∗ 83.25∗∗ 59.518∗∗ 23.06ns

3.368ns

2.0159

Error 30 82.47 66.28 4.802 19.13 4.948 11.31 1.600 0.4282



45


Table 3. Mean For On-Farm Agronomic Characteristics of Eleven Maize Varieties

Varieties

Plant Height (cm) Ear Height

(cm)

Days to 50%

Tasselling

Days to

Silking

26-517/618 168.50 36.10 54.80 65.50

Jinghai 5 145.10 30.40 57.00 65.50

Normal corn CAU 541 179.50 44.20 57.50 74.00

High oil corn CAU 4515 163.70 39.30 56.00 64.00

ND160 China Agric University I 156.10 35.60 55.50 64.00

ND160 China Agric University II 137.20 26.10 56.50 65.50

Oba 98 Hybrid 179.40 51.80 52.50 70.50

Obasuper I Hybrid 170.00 44.90 53.50 73.00

Obasuper II Hybrid 171.60 46.80 53.00 75.00

Obatamkpa 177.00 50.00 57.30 65.50

Ikomwhite 174.30 52.40 53.00 74.50

Mean 165.70 40.70 56.00 68.80

F-LSD(0.05) 16.80∗∗ 7.70∗∗ 3.00∗ 6.30∗∗

∗∗

- Plant height (cm), Ear height (cm), Days to 50% silking, Number of tassels (p<0.01)∗ - Days to 50% tasselling (p<0.05)

Table 4. Mean For Off-Farm Agronomic Characteristics of Eleven Maize Varieties

Varieties

Cob

Length (cm)

Cob

Circumference (cm)

Yield

(t/ha)

100- Seed Wt a

15.5% M.C. (gm

26-517/618 20.00 17.00 0.24 5.80

Jinghai 5 21.30 17.10 1.07 5.40

Normal corn CAU 541 22.50 18.70 0.63 4.90

High oil corn CAU 4515 25.80 16.70 0.84 4.40

ND160 China Agric University I 24.90 18.00 1.33 5.20

ND160 China Agric University II 20.70 17.30 0.27 5.50

Oba 98 Hybrid 22.20 19.30 2.44 5.70

Obasuper I Hybrid 19.10 35.10 1.76 5.60

Obasuper II Hybrid 25.30 19.30 1.85 5.80 Obatamkpa 23.50 17.40 1.49 5.60

Ikomwhite 25.80 18.40 0.53 5.80

Mean 22.80 17.90 1.13 5.40

F-LSD(0.05) ns ns 0.9449∗∗ ns

∗∗ - Yield (t/ha) (p<0.01), ∗ - Kernel Density at 15.5% Moisture Content (M.C) (p<0.05), ns- not significant



46


Number of tassels produced varied significantly (p<0.01) among the maize varieties. Obasuper II hybrid had the

highest number of tassels of 16.50, followed by Obatamkpa (16.30), while the China variety, 26-517/618 was

the lowest (6.50).

The mean off-farm agronomic characteristics of the eleven varieties of maize are shown in Table 4.

There were no significant differences among the maize varieties for cob length and cob circumference. High

corn oil CAU 4515 had a moderate cob length of 25.80 cm while Oba-super I produced the best Cob

circumference of 35.10 cm.

Mean grain yield was statistically significant (p<0.01) among the maize varieties. Oba 98 hybrid had the highest

grain yield (2.44 t/ha) followed by Obasuper II hybrid (1.85 t/ha) and 26-517/618 had the lowest (0.24 t/ha).

However, IITA/Nigeria hybrid maize varieties and the CRI Ghana variety Obatamkpa were statistical the same.

There were no significant differences among the maize varieties for 100-seed weight at 15% moisture contents

while kernel density at 15% moisture contents was statistically significant (p<0.05) among the maize varieties

evaluated. Obasuper II hybrid had the highest weight of 1.25 gm, which was statistically similar with that of ND 160 China Agric University II, Oba 98 hybrid, Oba-super I hybrid, Obatamkpa and Ikomwhite.

DISCUSSION

The result of the field evaluation trial showed that differences among the 11 maize varieties were highly

significant on plant and ear heights (cm), days to 50% silking, number of tassels and yield (t/ha) (p<0.01), and

significant on days to 50% tasselling and kernel density at 15% moisture contents (gm) (p<0.05). These varyingcharacteristics may be due to inherent genetic constituent that is peculiar to each variety. According to Obi

(1991), Uguru (2005) and, Akande and Lamidi (2006), different characteristics are controlled by different gene

action and so behave differently in a given environment.

As regards to maturity, the entire varieties proved to be late maturing because the earliest maturing varieties

took about 64 days to silking. According to Fajemisin (1985), varieties that took more than 50 days to silking is

a late maturing maize variety while those below 50 days to silking is early maturing type.

In terms of yield attributes, all the maize varieties differed significantly from each other. Oba 98 hybrid had the

highest grain yield (2.44 t/ha) while ND160 China Agric University II produced the lowest yield (0.27 kg/ha).

Obi (1991) reported that maximum yield of maize for improved varieties is about 3.5 t/ha and 0.6 to 1.2 t/ha for

local varieties.

In comparison with the result obtained, it could be deduced that some varieties are improved types and have the

ability of performing well in this agro-ecological zone of the Country. Also, Kim et al. (1993), Ajibade and

Ogunbodede (2000) and, Akande and Lamidi (2006), demonstrated that normal maize hybrid varieties were

known to be superior to other maize varieties in yield potentials.

CONCLUSION

The results clearly showed promising potential grain yield for the hybrid maize varieties with Oba 98 hybridproducing the highest grain yield, followed by Obasuper II and Obasuper I.

The uniform medium sized ears are very important for the farmer to market their products to the factories andagain Oba 98 is the front liner in this respect, giving the highest number of medium sized ears. The varieties

High oil corn CAU 4515, ND 160 China Agric University I and Obasuper I can be harvested at an earlier period

than other varieties.

Following these observation, it is quite reasonable to conclude that the variety Oba 98 hybrid is better than all

other varieties in both yield and quality but can be substituted with Obasuper II, Obasuper I and Obatamkpa inthe descending order. Further trials are needed with increase in fertilizer application and improved cultural

practices to confirm the desirable characteristics of the varieties.




REFERENCES

Ajibade, S.R. and Ogunbodede, B.A. (2000). AMMI analyss of maize yield trials in south western Nigeria. Nigr.

S. Ganet., 15: 22-28.

Akande, S.R. and Lamidi, G.O. (2006). Performance of quality protein maize varieties and disease reaction in

the derived Savanna agro-ecology of South West Nigeria. Institute of Agricultural Research and Training,

Obafemi Awolowo University, moor plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria. 1-4 pp.

Fajemisin, J.M. (1985). Status of Nigeria production technology in self-sufficiency. Paper presented at NAFPP

3rd

Joint Workshop, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. 7-938 pp.

Future Harvest, (2004). 35 years in the making high protein, high yielding corn to prevent malnutrition among

millions. www.futureharvest.org

IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture), (2006). Maize overview. In:

Research to Nourish Africa. www.iitaresearch.org

Kim S.K., Fajemisin, J.M., Fakorede, M.A.B. and Iken, J.E. (1993). Maize improvement in Nigeria – Hybrid

performance in the Savanna zone. In: Fakorede M.A.D., Alofe, C.O. and S.K. Kim (eds). Maize improvement,

production and ultilization in Nigeria. Maize Association of Nigeria. 15-39 pp.

Obi, I.U. (1991). Maize: It’s agronomy, diseases, pest and food values. Optimal Computer Solutions Ltd.

Enugu, publishers. 76 Agbani Road Enugu, Nigeria, XXVIII + 206 pp.

Obi, I.U. (2001). Introduction to factorial Experiments for Agricultural, Biological and

Social Science Research (2nd Ed.). Optimal International Ltd., Enugu, Nigeria. Pp. 92.

Okporie, E.O. (2000). Development of high quality green maize (Zes mayz L.) varieties under acid soil

conditions of Southeastern Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to the University of Nigeria. XIV+192

pp.

Steele, G.D. and Torrie J.H. (1980). Principles and procedures of Statistic. A Biometrical

approach 2nd Edition. Hillbook Company Inc., New York, 633pp.

Uguru, M.I. (2005). Crop Genetics and Breeding. (Revised) Epharata Press, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. 113pp.




Utobo, E.B.

Department of Crop Production and Landscape Management, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria.Email: [email protected]

vol 4 - cont j. agric sci-2010

Documents