UNIVERSITATEA SPIRU HARET

FACULTAEA DE STIINTE JURIDICE, ECONOMICE SI ADMINISTRATIVE

PROGRAM DE STUDIU: DREPT

AN UNIVERSITAR:

2016 – 2017

NOTE DE CURS

LIMBA ENGLEZĂ II

Anul I, semestrul 2

Lector univ dr. Ana Munteanu

Obiectivele generale ale disciplinei:

Dobândirea competenţei orale şi competenţei scrise în limba engleză;

Achiziţionarea fondului lexical de specialitate si a structurilor gramaticale corecte;

Integrarea cunoştinţelor şi a deprinderilor lingvistice şi de interpretare în diferite situaţii de comunicare;

Prin audierea, însuşirea problemelor dezbătute şi prin promovarea acestui curs, cursanţii vor fi capabili:

- să-şi dezvolte abilităţile de comprehensiune orală şi scrisă;

- să-şi însuşească vocabularului de specialitate din domeniul dreptului, în limba engleză;

- să reacţioneze în mod adecvat la diferite tipuri de texte şi contexte;

- să identifice ideile centrale ale unui text scris sau oral;

- să recunoască referinţele culturale din textele studiate, să realizeze comparaţii;

- să selecteze şi să sintetizeze informaţia necesară dintr-un text dat;

- să aplice în mod practic cunoştinţele de gramatică dobândite în cadrul cursului;

- să identifice şi să corecteze greşelile frecvente de ortografie şi gramatică;

- să-şi dezvolte vocabularul de specialitate;

- să exprime şi să argumenteze propriile opinii în mod corect, fluent şi coerent în limba engleză;

- să înveţe cum să vorbească cu colegii, cu un avocat, cu un judecător, etc.;

- să descopere modalităţi de integrare cu succes într-o echipă.

Cuprins

I. Legal English II. Grammar III. Exercises IV. Bibliography V. Exam subjects

I. Legal English (Engleza juridica – limbaj de specialitate) UNIT 1 STUDENT FIRST AMENDMENT CASE

UNIT 2 CONTEMPT OF COURT OR VIOLATION OF FREEDOM OF THE PRESS?

UNIT 3 THE ROLE OF FEDERAL COURTS IN BALANCING LIBERTIES AND SAFETY

UNIT 4 UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION: AMENDMENTS

UNIT 5 DISCLOSURE OF CLASSIFIED INFORMATION

UNIT 6 HEALTH CARE FRAUD

UNIT 7 IDENTITY THEFT

UNIT 1 STUDENT FIRST AMENDMENT CASE

Student First Amendment Case Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier

Students enrolled in the Journalism II class at Hazelwood East High School were responsible for writing and editing the school's paper The Spectrum. Two of the articles submitted for publication in the final edition of the paper contained stories on divorce and teenage pregnancy. The divorce article featured a story about a girl who blamed her father's actions for her parents' divorce. The teenage pregnancy article featured stories in which pregnant students at Hazelwood East shared their experiences. To ensure their privacy, the girls' names were changed in the article. The Journalism II teacher felt that the subjects of these two articles were inappropriate. He concluded that journalistic fairness required that the father in the divorce article be informed of the story and be given an opportunity to comment. He also stated his concerns that simply changing the names of the girls in the teenage pregnancy article may not be sufficient to protect their anonymity and that this topic may not be suitable for the younger students. As a result, he prohibited these articles from being published in the paper. Because there was no time to edit the paper if it were to go to press before the end of the school year, the teacher eliminated the entire pages on which these articles were written. The student authors then brought suit to the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri, alleging that their First Amendment rights to freedom of speech had been violated. The U.S. District Court concluded that they were not. The students appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, which reversed the ruling, stating that the students' rights had been violated. The school appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which granted certiorari.

Notes:

U.S. District Courts = are the trial courts of the federal court system. Within limits set by Congress and the Constitution, the district courts have jurisdiction to hear nearly all categories of federal cases, including both civil and criminal matters. Every day hundreds of people across the nation are selected for jury duty and help decide some of these cases. There are 94 federal judicial districts, including at least one district in each state, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Three territories of the United States - the Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands - have district courts that hear federal cases, including bankruptcy cases.

U.S. Court of Appeals = the 94 U.S. judicial districts are organized into 12 regional circuits, each of which has a United States court of appeals. A court of appeals hears appeals from the district courts located within its circuit, as well as appeals from decisions of federal administrative agencies.

certiorari = an order of a superior court directing that a record of proceedings in a lower court be sent up for review.

I. Make sure you understand the meaning of the words and expressions in column A by matching them with their Romanian equivalent in column B:

1. to submit an article for publication = a. a proteja anonimatul cuiva 2. to feature (stories) (of publications) = b. a afirma (fără dovezi), a pretinde 3. to state one’s concerns = c. a aproba centiorari (vezi nota) 4. to protect one’s anonymity = d. (despre publicaţii) a evidenţia, a pune

în prim plan (povestiri) 5. to prohibit an article from being published =

e. a face un apel/recurs la o instanţă superioară

6. to go to press (of an article) = f. a înainta un articol spre publicare 7. to allege = g. a audia apeluri/recursuri 8. to appeal to = h. a-şi exprima îngrijorarea 9. to reverse a ruling = i. (despre un articol) a merge/a fi trimis

la tipar 10. to grant centiorari = j. un proces verbal al procedurii judiciare 11. to hear appeals = k. a interzice publicarea unui articol 12. a record of proceedings = l. a anula o sentinţă judecătorească

UNIT 2

Contempt of Court or Violation of Freedom of the Press?

Branzburg v. Hayes

Petitioner Branzburg, a reporter at the Courier-Letter in Louisville, Kentucky, wrote two articles for his paper concerning drug use in Kentucky. The first article, written in 1969, focused on drug use in Jefferson County. Among other things, it contained a photograph of hashish held in the hands of an unidentified person. In 1971, Branzburg wrote an article on drug use in Frankfort, Kentucky. As sources for this article, he spoke with several marijuana users. As a condition for cooperating with Branzburg, his sources requested that they not be identified.

When published, both of these articles came to the attention of law enforcement personnel. In each instance, Branzburg was called to testify before a grand jury concerning his knowledge of the drug activities reported in his articles. The prosecutors in charge of these grand jury proceedings ordered him to name his sources. Branzburg refused on the grounds that the Freedom of the Press Clause of the First Amendment protects the confidentiality of a journalist's sources. These cases were heard by Kentucky judges, who disagreed and held that Branzburg had to name his sources. Branzburg appealed these decisions.

The 1969 article gave rise to the case, Branzburg v. Hayes. The 1971 article gave rise to the case Branzburg v. Meigs. After moving through the Kentucky court system, the U.S. Supreme Court agreed to hear these two cases, which it consolidated under the name Branzburg v. Hayes.

I. Say whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F); when the sentences are false, correct them:

1. Branzburg’s sources allowed the journalist to use their initials only. ___

2. Branzburg’s sources accepted to cooperate with the journalist provided that they were not identified. ___

3. If Branzburg’s articles had not been published, he wouldn’t have been summoned to appear in Court. ___

4. Branzburg was called to Court to be investigated in the two cases of drug use. ___

5. The prosecutors ordered Branzburg to reveal the names of his sources. ___

6. Branzburg refused to name his sources on the grounds that they were important public figures. ___

7. The journalist invoked the Sixth Amendment in order to protect the confidentiality of his sources. ___

UNIT 3

The Role of Federal Courts in Balancing Liberties and Safety

During times of uncertainty and national crisis, often there is a conflict between liberties and safety. Sometimes liberties must yield to safety. Other times, safety must yield to liberties. The goal of the law is to find the appropriate balance between liberty and safety.

One of the most important means for ensuring this balance, as well as one of the most important means of protecting individual liberty in general, is the writ of habeas corpus. A writ of habeas corpus allows persons who believe that they have been wrongfully imprisoned to challenge the legality of their confinement. To do so, a person must petition a court to issue the writ. If the writ is issued, the court directs the person who is holding the petitioner in confinement (usually a jailor) to bring the prisoner into court and to explain the grounds for the petitioner's detention. If, after hearing both sides, the court finds that the grounds for the confinement are illegal, the petitioner is released.

The writ of habeas corpus came about as a result of the English Habeas Corpus Act of 1679, 31 Car. 2, c. 2. By the time of the American Revolution, the writ was cherished to such an extent by American colonists that it was the only British judicial writ (legal command) to be specifically mentioned in the U.S. Constitution (Article I, Section 9). Due to its role in protecting liberty, the writ of habeas corpus is known as the Great Writ.

Although they hailed it as the Great Writ, the framers of the Constitution also realized that there may be times when its application is inappropriate, for example, during times of national crisis. In pertinent part, Article I, Section 9, of the Constitution deals with this situation by saying, "The privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it."

Despite the fact that on rare occasions throughout United States history this writ has been suspended (most notably by President Lincoln during the Civil War), it has served its purpose and, even during times of war and national crisis, provided a means for those who felt that they were unjustly imprisoned to challenge the legality of their

confinements. For example, in Ex Parte Milligan (1866), Lamdin Milligan, a civilian, used the writ to successfully challenge the legality of his confinement following a conviction by a military tribunal during the Civil War. Likewise, in Ex Parte Endo (1944), Mitsuye Endo successfully used the writ to challenge the internment of persons of Japanese ancestry during World War II.

In the cases mentioned above, the courts have had the difficult task of weighing the rights of individuals with the right of the state to protect itself during times of national emergency. Whether the issue is unjust imprisonment, restrictions on free speech, or the loss of property rights, it was the role of the courts to try to arrive at a conclusion that balanced both liberties and safety.

Note: Habeas Corpus = a writ ordering a person to be brought before a court or judge, esp. so that the court may ascertain whether his detention is lawful

I. Extract from the text above the English equivalents for the following Romanian words and expressions:

a fi băgat la închisoare pe nedrept = ________________________________ a contesta legalitatea = _________________________________ a înainta o petiţie către Curte = ___________________________ a emite o hotărâre/ordonanţă judecătorească = _______________________ a-şi atinge scopul = __________________________ a cântări/evalua = _____________ a ceda (în faţa/în favoarea) = ______________ limitarea libertăţii de expresie = ________________________________ pierderea drepturilor de proprietate = _______________________________

II. Match the Latin legal terms in column A with their English explanatory definitions in column B:

1. (writ) capias (mandat de aducere)

a. ‘do not leave the country’ interdiction addressed to a debtor that is being prosecuted;

2. (writ) Habeas Corpus b. 'because of lack of care': decision wrongly made by a court (which does not therefore set a precedent);

3. (writ) certiorari c. 'after the event'; 4. quid pro quo d. a writ directing a sheriff or other officer to arrest a

named person; 5. ne exeat regno e. 'reason of the law': the principle behind a law;

6. nolle prosequi f. 'in fact': as a matter of fact; 7. per incuriam g. 'on its own' or 'alone'; 8. per procurationem (per pro)

h. a writ ordering a person to be brought before a court or judge, esp. so that the court may ascertain whether his detention is lawful;

9. de facto i. 'one thing for another': action done in return for something done or promised;

10. ex post facto j. with the authority of /on behalf of; 11. locus standi k. an order of a superior court directing that a record

of proceedings in a lower court be sent up for review.

12. ratio legis l. 'do not pursue': power used by the Attorney-General to stop a criminal trial;

13. per se m. 'place to stand': right to be heard in a court;

UNIT 4

United States Constitution: Amendments Amendments to the Constitution of the United States of America

Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the several states, pursuant to the Fifth Article of the original Constitution

Amendment IV [Annotations]

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Amendment V [Annotations]

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Amendment VI [Annotations]

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

Amendment VIII [Annotations]

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Amendment IX [Annotations]

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

I. Find in the text above the synonymous words and expressions for the followings:

1. to approve officially = _____________________

2. personal belongings = _____________________

3. notorious, shocking = _____________________

4. showing a document = ____________________

5. to determine definitely = __________________

6. obligatory = _____________________

7. to cause to suffer/afflict (with) = ____________

8. act of bringing someone to court to answer a charge = ________________

9. list of charges given to a grand jury, asking them to indict the accused = _________

10. taking possession of smth = ______________

11. to interpret the meaning of words or of a document = ________________

12. to speak contemptuously of/to damage the reputation of = _____________

UNIT 5

Disclosure of Classified Information

One of the only ways that the general public learns about the activities of its government

is through the leaking of classified information to the press. The news about the NSA's

eavesdropping programs and the CIA's alleged "black sites" was leaked to the press,

which put the leaker at risk of being prosecuted for grave national security violations.

The federal government takes these leaks seriously and has vowed to prosecute any

person who has disclosed or has possessed classified information.

Receiving or obtaining classified information is covered by section 793. In order to

convict an individual for the unlawful possession of classified information, the

government must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that:

the defendant possessed certain enumerated information, which he knows has been

obtained contrary to law;

the defendant received it from any person or any source;

the information related to the national defense and

the information was received for the purpose of obtaining information respecting

the national defense with intent or reason to believe that the information is to be

used to the injury of the United States, or to the advantage of any foreign nation.

The punishment for a violation of section 793 is a fine, imprisonment for up to 10 years,

or both.

Section 798 covers disclosure of classified information. To convict a person for

disclosing classified information, the government must prove beyond a reasonable doubt

that:

the defendant provided classified information to another person;

that person was not authorized to receive the classified information;

the classified information concerns the nature, preparation, or use of any code,

cipher, or cryptographic system of the United States or any foreign government; or

concerns the design, construction, use, maintenance, or repair of any device,

apparatus, or appliance used or prepared or planned for use by the United States or

any foreign government for cryptographic or communication intelligence

purposes; or concerning the communication intelligence activities of the United

States or any foreign government; or is obtained by the processes of

communication intelligence from the communications of any foreign government,

knowing the same to have been obtained by such processes;

and the defendant knows that the information is to be used to the prejudice of the

United States, or for the benefit of any foreign government to the detriment of the

United States

The punishment for a violation of section 798 is a fine, imprisonment for up to 10 years,

or both.

I. Check whether you are familiar with the new vocabulary, by choosing the right version:

1. In the sentence The news about the NSA's eavesdropping programs, to eavesdrop means:

a) to let one’s ears drop;

b) to listen secretly to the private conversation of others;

c) to whisper secrets to someone’s ear.

2. In the sentence The federal government has vowed to prosecute, to vow means:

a) to pledge, promise, or undertake solemnly;

b) to pronounce a vowel;

c) to take a solemn oath.

3. In the sentence The government must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that, beyond any reasonable doubt means:

a) giving someone the benefit of the doubt;

b) beyond any suspicion of guilt;

c) almost certain proof needed to convict a person in a criminal case.

4. In the phrase obtaining information respecting the national defense, respecting means:

a) regarding, concerning;

b) obeying, not violating;

c) showing or having respect for.

5. In the sentence To convict a person for disclosing classified information, to disclose information means:

a) to make information known;

b) to receive money in exchange of information;

c) to look for more information.

UNIT 6

Health Care Fraud

Health care fraud is a serious crime which is investigated by the FBI's Financial Crimes

Section [hereinafter FCS]. The mission of the FCS, in the FBI's words, "is to oversee the

investigation of financial fraud and to facilitate the forfeiture of assets from those

engaging in federal crimes." The FCS is divided into four sections, one of which is the

Health Care Fraud Unit [hereinafter HCFU]. The HCFU oversees investigations that

target individuals and organizations who defraud the public and private health care

systems. Among the activities that are investigated by the HCFU are:

billing for service not rendered

billing for a higher reimbursable service than performed (also known as

"upcoding")

performing unnecessary services

kickbacks

unbundling of tests and services to generate higher fees

durable medical equipment fraud

pharmaceutical drug diversion

outpatient surgery fraud, and internet pharmacy sales.

The HCFU estimates that fraudulent billings to health care programs comprise between 3

to 10 percent of total health care expenditures. Furthermore, the HCFU has noticed that

the most significant trend in recent health care fraud cases is "the willingness of medical

professionals to risk patient harm in their schemes. Current fraud schemes consist of

traditional schemes that involve fraudulent billing, but also incorporate unnecessary

surgeries, diluted cancer drugs, and fraudulent lab tests." In exchange for kickbacks,

some patients will willingly undergo "unnecessary and unwarranted medical procedures

to generate fraudulent claims and profits."

A person charged with a health care fraud can be punished by

a fine, imprisonment for not more than 10 years, or both.

If the violation results in serious bodily injury that person can be punished by

a fine, imprisonment for not more than 20 years, or both.

If the violation results in death, that person can be punished by

a fine, imprisonment for any term of years or for life, or both.

Note: long compound text reference words are specific to formal, legal style; for those who are not familiar with these terms, here is a short list of examples, with their definition and Romanian translation:

hereinafter = stated later in this document = menţionat în continuare (într-un document)

herein = in this document = aici, în acest document hereby = in this way or by this letter = prin aceasta, în felul acesta hereunder = under this heading or below

this phrase = mai jos

henceforth = from this time on = de acum înainte, în viitor notwithstanding = in spite of = deşi, cu toate acestea

UNIT 7

Identity Theft

Identity theft is one of the fastest growing crimes in the world. The news has been filled with stories about how personal data have been compromised from certain personal information aggregators. The ITADA [Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act of 1998] amended the fraud chapter of title 18 of the United States Code to create a new crime prohibiting the unlawful use of personal identifying information, including, but not limited to, names, social security numbers, and credit card numbers. Identity fraud involves the misappropriation of another person's personal identifying information. Criminals use this information to establish credit in their name, run up debts on another person's account, or take over existing financial accounts. The ITADA directed the Sentencing Commission to "review and amend the Federal sentencing guidelines and the policy statements of the Commission, as appropriate, to provide an appropriate penalty for each offense under section 1028 of title 18.

One of the most common method of stealing identities is through the theft of credit card

numbers or Personal Identification Numbers [hereinafter PINs]. This method is covered

by 18 U.S.C. § 1029, which uses the unfortunate terminology of "access devices."

The Crime It is a crime to do any of the following ten offenses listed in section 1029(a):

knowingly, and with intent to defraud, produce, use, or traffic in one or more

counterfeit access devices;

knowingly, and with intent to defraud, traffic in or use one or more unauthorized

access devises during any one-year period, and, by doing so, obtain anything of

value aggregating $ 1,000 or more during that period;

knowingly, and with intent to defraud, possess fifteen or more devices which are

counterfeit or unauthorized access devices;

knowingly, and with intent to defraud, produce, traffic in, have control or custody

of, or possess device-making equipment;

knowingly, and with intent to defraud, effect transactions, with 1 or more access

devices issued to another person or persons, to receive payment or any other thing

of value during any 1-year period the aggregate value of which is equal to or

greater than $ 1,000;

without the authorization of the issuer of the access device, knowingly, and with

intent to defraud, solicit a person for the purpose of either: offering an access

device, or selling information regarding or an application to obtain an access

device;

knowingly, and with intent to defraud, use, produce, traffic in, have control or

custody of, or possess a telecommunications instrument that has been modified or

altered to obtain unauthorized use of telecommunications services;

knowingly and with intent to defraud use, produce, traffic in, have control or

custody of, or possess a scanning receiver;

knowingly use, produce, traffic in, have control or custody of, or possess hardware

or software, knowing it has been configured to insert or modify

telecommunication identifying information associated with or contained in a

telecommunications instrument so that such instrument may be used to obtain

telecommunications service without authorization; or

without the authorization of the credit card system member or its agent,

knowingly, and with intent to defraud, cause or arrange for another person to

present to the member or its agent, for payment, 1 or more evidences or records of transactions made by an access device.

I. Check the meaning of the following words and expressions by choosing the right version:

1. In the sentence The ITADA amended the fraud chapter of title 18 of the United States Code… , to amend means:

a) to alter or revise (legislation, a constitution, etc.) by formal procedure;

b) to make someone pay a certain amount of money exacted as a penalty;

c) to judge (something) with disapproval; censure.

2. In the sentence Identity fraud involves the misappropriation of another person's personal identifying information…, to misappropriate means:

a) to have as one's property/to own;

b) to appropriate for a wrong or dishonest use/to embezzle or steal smth;

c) to give (a person) wrong directions or instructions.

3. In the sentence Criminals use this information to run up debts on another person's account…, to run up debts means:

a) to get rid of one’s debts by running;

b) to pay back one’s debts;

c) to amass/accumulate or incur debts.

4. In the sentence Criminals use this information to take over existing financial accounts., to take over means:

a) to cancel the validity of/ abolish;

b) to assume the control or management of;

c) to examine/ investigate smth for accuracy.

5. In the phrase to provide an appropriate penalty for each offense…, penalty means:

a) a handicap awarded against a player or team for illegal play, such as a free shot at goal by the opposing team, loss of points, etc;

b) loss, suffering, or other unfortunate result of one's own action, error;

c) a legal or official punishment, such as a term of imprisonment.

II. Grammar

THE NOUN

According to countability, nouns can be:

I. Countable, when they can be counted (they have a singular and a plural form) and can be used with the indefinite article (a, an) with the singular form or with many, few, several with the plural form. Singular countable nouns cannot be used alone.

e.g. The bird is nice. (not: Bird is nice.)

II. Uncountable, when they cannot be used in the plural or with the indefinite article, but can be used with much, little.

Uncountable nouns can be used alone.

e.g. The pollution is dreadful today. Pollution is awful.

Some nouns can be countable in one meaning and uncountable in another.

e.g. paper (hârtie/ziar)

Paper is expensive nowadays. / I've got an evening paper.

I. COUNTABLE NOUNS [C]

Countable nouns have two forms: singular and plural. The plural of countable nouns:

most nouns add "-s" to the singular form: a boy - two boys 1z1 a map - two maps /s/

Spelling rules: 1. if the singular form of the noun ends in "-ss, - s, -se, -ch, -sh, -x, -z" we add "-es" /izl

to that form:

a glass - two glasses a rose - two roses a dish - two dishes a box - two boxes

2. some nouns ending in "-o" add "-es", others add "-s":

a potato - two potatoes a hero - two heroes a Negro - two Negroes BUT a photo - two photos a radio - two radios

3. some nouns ending in "-f, -fe" substitute "-ves" for "-f, -fe": a calf - two calves; a loaf - two loaves a half – two halves; a wife – two wives a life – two lives; a leaf – two leaves

BUT a roof – two roofs a dwarf – two dwarfs a chief – two chiefs a proof – two proofs

4. nouns ending in a consonant followed by "-y" change "-y" into "-i" and add"-es": a party - two parties

a story - two stories

some countable nouns have irregular plurals: a man - two men a woman - two women a child - two children an ox - two oxen a foot - two feet a goose - two geese a tooth two teeth a mouse - two mice a louse - two lice a deer - two deer a sheep - two sheep a spacecraft - two spacecraft a species - two species a fish - two fish ! fishes = different species of fish a fruit - two fruit ! fruits = different varieties of fruit

some countable nouns come from Greek or Latin; their plural is different from the usual one in English:

Datum – data

Symposium – symposia Phenomenon – phenomena Criterion - criteria Axis – axes Crisis - crises

II. UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS [U]

Uncountable nouns have only one form. They often refer to:

- substances: coal, coffee, flour, ice, sand, sugar, water - human qualities: courage, cruelty, honesty, patience - feelings: anger, happiness, hope, joy, pride - activities: help, sleep, work - abstract ideas: freedom, fun, luck

1. singular invariable nouns, which take a verb in the singular, are: concrete uncountable nouns: bread, meat, luggage, baggage, furniture,

money, equipment e.g. The money is on the table. (Banii sunt pe masa.)

abstract uncountable nouns: advice, happiness, homework, housework, information, knowledge, music, nonsense, progress, peace

e.g. Her advice is always good.. (Sfaturile ei sunt întotdeauna bune.) proper nouns: Mary, The Netherlands, The Danube

e.g. The Danube flows into the Black Sea.

nouns ending in "-s": news, measles, mumps, athletics, cybernetics, economics, ethics, gymnastics, informatics, optics, mathematics, physics, cards, billiards, darts

e.g. This news is good. (Aceste veşti sunt bune.)

To express quantity of uncountable nouns, we can use: much, little, piece, item, bar, loaf, slice, gramme, pound, kilogram, etc.:

a piece of news - o veste/ştire an item of information = o informaţie a bar of soap = un săpun a loaf of bread = o pâine a slice of bread = o felie de pâine a gramme of sugar a kilogram of flour

2. plural invariable nouns, which take a verb in the plural: - these nouns refer to single items that have two linked parts:

nouns referring to clothes or other things people wear: (sun)glasses, jeans, pants, pyjamas, trousers, tights, shorts, slacks, knickers;

nouns referring to tools or other things that people use: binoculars, compasses(the drawing instrument), nutcrackers, pincers, scissors, scales, tongs:

- proper nouns: The Alps, The Carpathians, The Highlands - other "pluralia tantum": barracks, clothes, customs, contents, manners, means,

wages, stairs, savings, surroundings - substantivized adjectives: the rich, the poor, goods - unmarked plurals: cattle, infantry, people, police

e.g. The police are here.

When we want to refer to one article of dress or instrument, we can use the word pair:

a pair of trousers / scissors ...

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

- refer to a group of people or things.

e.g. army, audience, committee, community, company, council, crew, enemy, family, flock, gang, government, group, herd, jury, press, public, staff, team...

With collective nouns we can use either a singular verb or a plural verb. We choose the singular form of the verb if we think of the group as a single unit, when they are used generically. We choose a plural form of a verb if we think of the group as a number of individuals, when reference is made to the component elements.

e.g. Her family is large. (Familia ei este mare) / Her family are at home. (Ai ei / membri familiei ei sunt acasa.)

CASE OF NOUNS: THE GENITIVE

1. the analytical genitive with the preposition “of” is used with neuter nouns or with long noun phrases.

e.g. the leg of the table; the wife of the man you have met

2. The synthetical genitive with "’s” added to the singular form of the noun or to irregular plurals, and " ' " added to regular plurals or to proper nouns ending in "-s".

e.g. the boy's car; the man's results; the children's performance; the students' answers; Dickens' works

The synthetical genitive is used with:

- nouns denoting persons or other beings: e.g. Mary's car; the dog's tail

- nouns denoting measurement, time, space, quantity, value: e.g. a two months' holiday; yesterday's newspaper; a life's work; a mile's drive; a pound's weight; five dollars' worth.

- geographical names or places: e.g. England's weather

- collective nouns: e.g. the firm's investment

- some phrases connected with nature (nouns that can be personified): e.g. the ocean's roar; the day's heat

- some words followed by "sake": e.g. for peace's sake; for order's sake

THE ARTICLE

1. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

The English definite article is “the”. It is pronounced /ðə/ in front of the words that start with a consonant and /ði/ in front of the words that start with a vowel. “The” is used

with nouns already mentioned or known to the listener/reader: e.g. There is an English student in our University. She met the English student. ( The student we have previously talked about)

with nouns followed by a prepositional phrase, a relative clause, or an apposition.

e.g. The parcel from Sibiu arrived yesterday.

This is the student who handed your papers in. Mr Smith, the doctor, is a Welshman. with nouns considered unique:

e.g. You can join the International Conservation Scouts.

The sun rises in the east.

with singular nouns, talking about the class in general e.g. The cow is a useful animal.

before an adjective in the superlative degree e.g. That is the oldest tree in town.

with nouns converted from adjectives, denoting a class, nationality or an abstraction e.g. We should help the poor.

The English are nice people.

The good is usually forgotten.

with proper nouns in the plural, denoting a family e.g. The Smiths are here.

with proper nouns denoting countries (if they represent a union, or if they are in the plural) e.g. I would like to visit the United States.

with proper nouns denoting groups of islands, chains of mountains, deserts, oceans, seas, rivers e.g. I have never been to the Black Sea.

We saw the Thames and the English Channel last year.

with proper nouns denoting hotels, shops, institutions e.g. We'll stay at the Hilton (hotel).

with proper nouns denoting ships, trains, planes e.g. Have you ever seen the Queen Mary sailing?

with proper nouns denoting newspapers and magazines e.g. He reads the Observer.

in phrases e.g. to tell the time, by the way, to play the fool, on the whole

2. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE

The English indefinite article is “a/an”. It is written “a” and pronounced /ə/ in front of the words that start with a consonant and “an” /ən/ in front of the words that start with a vowel.

The indefinite article is used:

with a singular countable noun which is indefinite. Either we don’t know which one, or it doesn’t matter which one. e.g. Can I have a banana?

with professions. e.g. Tom Cruise is an actor.

She’s a research psychologist.

to mean “each/every” in phrases. e.g. once a day/week/hour

ten kilometres an hour

3. THE ZERO ARTICLE

It has no written or spoken form.

The zero article is used:

with proper nouns denoting persons, continents, countries, regions, towns, mountains, lakes, capes, buildings, streets, bridges, months, festivals, days of the week, magazines and periodicals. e.g. Tom visited Oxford Street and Waterloo Bridge last year.

with uncountable nouns or plural nouns used in a general sense: e.g. Oil is lighter than water.

Chopsticks are used a lot in Japan.

with nouns like bed, church, college, hospital, prison, school, university, work:

e.g. What time do you go to university? Tom is at work.

with nouns denoting meals and seasons: e.g. He has breakfast at seven. Winter is coming.

with nouns denoting languages: e.g. Tom speaks German.

in phrases: day by day, in bed, at home, by sea, by car/bus/plane/etc., on foot, at sunset, to be in trouble, by mistake, in silence, watch television/TV, (be) on television/TV

THE VERB

English tenses have two elements of meaning: time and aspect. Time refers to when, and aspect refers to how the speaker sees the event.

Time : Present / Past / Future Aspect : Simple / Continuous / Perfect The simple aspect describes an event which is permanent, complete, habitual, or a simple fact. The continuous aspect describes an event which is temporary, incomplete, or in progress.

The perfect aspect describes an event which relates to two different times. The event is completed at an indefinite time before another time.

English has two voices: an active voice and a passive one.

THE AUXILIARY VERBS

TO BE, TO DO, TO HAVE are called auxiliary verbs because they help to form tenses, being combined with the infinitive, the present participle or the past participle.

TO BE helps to form the continuous aspect and the passive voice.

TO DO helps to form the interrogative form, the negative form and the interrogative - negative form of the present tense simple and past tense simple.

TO HAVE helps to form the perfect aspect.

THE ACTIVE VOICE

PRESENT TENSE SIMPLE

Basic form:

affirmative: S + V ; S (IIIrd person singular) + V-s e.g. I eat (grapes in fall).He eats plums in the morning.

Spelling rules:

1. if the verb ends in "-ss, - s, -ch, -sh, -x, -z" we add "-es" /izl to that form at the third person singular:

e.g. to wash he washes

to watch he watches

2. verbs ending in a consonant followed by "-y" change "-y" into "-i" and add"-es" at the third person singular:

e.g. to try she tries

to spy he spies

interrogative: Do + S + V? Does + S (IIIrd person singular) + V?

e.g. Do you understand?

Does your mother work in a hospital?

negative: S + do + not + V S (IIIrd person singular) + does + not + V

e.g. I do not know what to say.

She does not like reading.

PRESENT TENSE CONTINUOUS

S = subject (remember that a sentence should have a subject) V = verb, the infinitive form of the verb

Basic form:

affirmative: S + to be + V-ing e.g. I am writing now.

You are dreaming now.

He is watching TV now.

Spelling rules: 1. final mute “e” is normally dropped before the “–ing” inflection.

e.g. to behave behaving

to shave shaving

2. final base consonants are doubled before “–ing” when the preceding vowel is stressed and spelled with a single letter.

e.g. to admit admitting

to prefer preferring

3. in bases ending in “ie”, the ending turns into “y” before “-ing”. e.g. to die dying

to lie lying

to tie tying

interrogative: To be + S + V-ing? e.g. Are you drinking water?

Is your daughter teaching English this year?

negative: S + to be + V-ing e.g. He is not sleeping now.

PRESENT TENSE SIMPLE / CONTINUOUS BASIC CONTRASTS

Present Tense Simple generally refers to:

•Facts that are always true: e.g. Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.

•Habits: e.g. British people drink a lot of tea.

•States: e.g. I don’t like gangster films.

Other uses of present simple:

Making declarations (we usually use state verbs): e.g. I hope you’ll come to my party.

I bet you don’t know the answer!

Headlines. These are written in a ‘telegram’ style, and references to the past are usually simplified to present simple:

e.g. Ship sinks in midnight collision.

Instructions and itineraries: e.g. First you mix the ingredients.

On day three we visit Bucharest.

Summaries of events (plots of stories, films etc, and summaries of historical events): e.g. May 1945: The war in Europe comes to an end.

Historic present in narrative and ‘funny stories’. In informal speech, it is possible to use the ‘historic present’ to describe past events, especially to make the narration seem more immediate and dramatic.

e.g. She goes up to this man and looks straight into his eyes.

Present Tense Continuous generally refers to

actions which are actually in progress at the moment of speaking. e.g. The teacher is talking to us.

actions which can be generally in progress but not actually happening at the moment of speaking. e.g. I’m learning to drive.

temporary actions e.g. I’m staying in a hotel until I find a flat.

Complaints about bad habits e.g. They’re constantly having parties until the early hours of the morning.

Other possible adverbs are: always, continually, and forever.

With verbs describing change and development e.g. More and more people are giving up smoking.

There are a number of verbs which cannot be used in the continuous aspect. These verbs usually refer to:

Mental states: believe, doubt, expect, forget, hope, imagine, know, realise, recognise, regret, remember, suppose, think (that), understand

Likes and dislikes: admire, dislike, hate, like, love, want, wish Possession: belong to, contain, have, include, own, possess Appearance: appear, look like, resemble, seem Being: be, consist of, depend, exist Perception: hear, see, smell, taste

Some verbs have a stative meaning and a different active meaning. Verbs describing opinions and feelings tend to be state verbs.

e.g.

•Jack is noisy. • Jill is being noisy.

• Tom has a Porsche. •We are having an interesting conversation!

• This fish tastes awful! • I am just tasting the soup.

• This bag weighs a ton! • We are weighing the baby.

• It depends what you mean. • I am depending on you.

• I think you’re right. • Be quiet! I’m thinking.

PAST TENSE SIMPLE

Basic form:

affirmative: S + V-ed/V2 e.g. Our departments worked with the government to formulate policies.

Spelling rules:

1. verbs ending in a consonant followed by "-y" change "-y" into "-i" and then add"-ed":

e.g. to try I tried

to spy he spied

2. final mute “e” is dropped before the “–ed” inflection. e.g. to behave behaved

to shave shaved

3. final base consonants are doubled before “–ed” when the preceding vowel is stressed and spelled with a single letter.

e.g. to admit admitted

to prefer preferred

interrogative: Did + S + V ? e.g. Did your lawyer communicate clearly and persuasively both orally and in writing?

negative: S + did + not + V e.g. Unfortunately, lawyers did not show integrity in relationships.

The short form of did not is didn’t.

Past simple generally refers to:

Completed actions e.g. She arrived at Kennedy Airport at 2 o’clock yesterday morning.

Habits e.g. Every morning Tom went to the park.

States e.g. In those days, Daria didn’t like reading.

PAST TENSE CONTINUOUS

Basic form:

affirmative: S + was/were + V-ing e.g. I was writing at this time yesterday.

You were dreaming at 6.30 a.m. yesterday.

He was watching TV when his friend called him.

see the ‘Spelling rules’ under the affirmative form from Present Tense Continuous.

interrogative: Was/were + S + V-ing? e.g. Were you drinking water when I phoned you?

Was your daughter teaching English in September?

negative: S + was/were + V-ing e.g. He was not sleeping while the teacher was explaining.

Mary wasn’t working in a restaurant when I was living in London.

Past continuous generally refers to:

•Actions in progress (often interrupted by events) e.g. She was drinking her tea at this time yesterday.

While I was learning, the phone rang.

•Background description in narrative •Changing states

e.g. The engine was making more and more funny noises.

•Repeated actions – criticism e.g. When David was at kindergarten, he was always crying after his mother.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE SIMPLE

Basic form:

affirmative: S + to have + V-ed/V3 e.g. The aim has been to make the new Code more relevant and accessible to all civil servants.

interrogative: to have + S + V-ed/V3? e.g. Have you failed the test?

negative: S + to have + not + V-ed/V3 e.g. I haven’t done my homework yet.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE CONTINUOUS

Basic form:

affirmative: S + to have + been + V-ing e.g. She’s been living in the US for over a year now.

interrogative: to have + S + been + V-ing? e.g. How long have you been waiting for me?

negative: S + to have + not + been + V-ing e.g. I haven’t been doing my homework since 3.20 am.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE SIMPLE / CONTINUOUS BASIC CONTRASTS

We use both the present perfect continuous and the present perfect simple to talk about something that started in the past and which affects the situation that exists now. The difference is that the present perfect continuous focuses on the activity or event which may or may not be finished. The present perfect simple, however, focuses on the effect of the activity or event, or the fact that something has been achieved.

e.g. She’s been driving for 3 years now.

We have driven all the way here without a break.

Sometimes the difference between them is simply one of emphasis.

e.g. I’ve been following their discussions with great interest. (emphasizes the activity; that is, my following their discussions)

I’ve followed their discussions with great interest. (emphasizes the result; I may now react to what was said or decided)

PRESENT PERFECT / PAST SIMPLE BASIC CONTRASTS

•We use it to talk about something that happened in the past, but we don’t specify precisely when it happened.

e.g. A French sportsman has broken the record for running backwards.

•We use it when we want to indicate that something happened at a specific time in the past.

e.g. She arrived at Otopeni Airport at 2 o’clock this morning.

•It suggests some kind of connection between what happened in the past, and the present time. Often we are interested in the way that something that happened in the past affects the situation that exists now.

e.g. I’ve washed my hands so I can eat.

•We use it for situations that existed for a period of time in the past, but not now.

e.g. When I was younger I learnt English.

The Pharaohs ruled Egypt for thousands of years.

If we are interested in when a present situation began rather than how long it has been going on for, we use the past simple. Compare:

e.g. I started to get the pains three weeks ago.

I’ve had the pains for three weeks now.

However, we also use the past simple to talk about how long something went on for if the action or event is no longer going on.

e.g. I stayed with my grandparents for six months. (= I am no longer staying there)

We can use either present perfect or the past simple to talk about repeated actions or events. If we use the present perfect, we often suggest that the action or event might happen again. Sometimes we emphasize this with phrases such as so far and up to now. If we use the past simple, it suggests that it is finished and won’t happen again. Compare:

e.g. Patrick has written 9 films and I think her latest is the best.

Patrick wrote 9 films before she was tragically killed in a car accident.

• In news reports, you will often read or hear events introduced with the present perfect, and then the past simple is used to give the details.

e.g. ‘The film star Jim Cooper has died of cancer. He was 68 and lived in Texas …’

• We can use both the present perfect and the past simple to talk about states. We use the present perfect to talk about a state that existed in the past and still exists now, and we use the past simple if the state no longer exists.

e.g. I have known him most of my working life.(I’m still working)

I knew him when we were both working in Rome.

PAST PERFECT TENSE SIMPLE

Basic form:

affirmative: S + had + V-ed/V3 e.g. Jill discovered that Tom had lied to her.

interrogative: had + S + V-ed/V3? e.g. Had you wanted to visit the gallery before you left Florence?

negative: S + had + not + V-ed/V3 e.g. Bill hadn’t wanted to retire at 60, but they persuaded him to leave.

PAST PERFECT TENSE CONTINUOUS

Basic form:

affirmative: S + had + been + V-ing e.g. She had been wearing high-heeled shoes, and her feet hurt.

interrogative: had + S + been + V-ing? e.g. Had they been riding when you met?

negative: S + had + not + been +V-ing e.g. Bill was arrested, even though he hadn’t been doing anything illegal.

PAST PERFECT TENSE SIMPLE / CONTINUOUS

BASIC CONTRASTS

Past perfect tenses in general refer to an event in the past which happens before another event in the past, where there is no time expression to make this clear.

e.g. By the time I got to the station, the train had left.

The contrasts between past simple and past continuous can be made in past perfect

tenses for events further back in the past.

e.g. While I had been talking on the phone, Jill had entered the room.

The whole place was deserted, but it was obvious that someone had been living there. They’d been cooking in the kitchen for a start, and they hadn’t bothered to wash the dishes.

USED TO

This often contrasts with the present. The contrast may be stated or understood.

e.g. I used to go swimming a lot (but I don’t now).

affirmative: e.g. She used to write to relatives in China, but she doesn’t anymore.

interrogative: e.g. Did girls use to go to school?

negative: e.g. I didn’t use to play football when I was 10.

WOULD

This is used to describe repeated actions, not states. It describes a habitual activity which was typical of a person.

e.g. Every week he’d buy his mother a bunch of flowers.

Used to would also be possible here.

Compare: I used to like cowboy films. / I would like cowboy films.

Would is not possible here.

Other situations:

- past situations e.g. Life in China used to be hard, particularly for women. Not ‘would be’

Also: live

- past states e.g. Mary used to be very beautiful.

Also: have, know, like, see, think etc.

UNFULFILLED PAST EVENTS

These describe events intended to take place, but which did not happen.

S + TO BE + GOING TO + V

e.g. I was going to phone you, but I forgot.

S + TO BE ABOUT TO + V

e.g. I was about to do it, but I started doing something else.

The contrasting past event is often understood.

e.g. How are you? I was going to phone you… (but I didn’t)

FUTURE TENSE SIMPLE

Basic form:

affirmative: S + will + V e.g. The children will enjoy seeing you again.

interrogative: Will + S + V? e.g. Will you come back this evening?

negative: S + will + not + V e.g. The meeting won’t start at 10.00 am.

FUTURE TENSE CONTINUOUS

Basic form:

affirmative: S + will + be + V-ing e.g. Next Friday, the President will be celebrating five years in power.

Tom will be taking up his place at university in July.

interrogative: Will + S + be + V-ing? e.g. Will you be coming to the concert?

negative: S + will + not + be + V-ing e.g. After the operation you won’t be doing any sport for a while.

It describes an event which will be happening at a future point.

e.g. Come round in the morning. I’ll be painting the kitchen.

FUTURE TENSE SIMPLE / CONTINUOUS

When we use the future continuous, we are often referring simply to some future event or action that has been previously arranged. However, we use the future simple, not the future continuous, to talk about such things as decisions that people have made, willingness to do things, inviting, promising, etc.

e.g. Ann will help us organise the party. (= she is willing to help)

Ann will be helping us to organise the party. (= a previous arrangement)

Will you come to the concert? (= an invitation)

Will you be coming to the concert? (= asking about a previous arrangement)

In some contexts the future continuous also sounds more polite than the future simple.

e. g. Will you be going to the shops later? If you go, could you get me some potatoes?

The future simple is also used to express an immediate decision.

e.g. I’ll take this one.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE SIMPLE

Basic form:

affirmative: S + will + have + V-ed/V3 e.g. By the time you get home I will have cleaned the house from top to bottom.

interrogative: Will + S + have + V-ed/V3? e.g. Will you have finished reading by 10.00 pm?

negative: S + will + not + have + V-ed/V3 e.g. The meeting won’t have started by 10.00 am.

We use the future perfect to say that something will be ended, completed, or achieved by a particular point in the future. It can also be used to express an assumption on the part of the speaker.

e.g. You won’t have heard the news, of course.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE CONTINUOUS

Basic form:

affirmative: S + will + have + been + V-ing e.g. On Saturday, we will have been living in this house for a year.

interrogative: Will + S + have + been + V-ing? e.g. Will you have been working in this company for 20 years next week?

negative: S + will + not + have + been + V-ing e.g. Next year I won’t have been working here for 10 years, but for 11.

We can use the future perfect continuous to emphasise how long something has been going on by a particular point in the future.

OTHER WAYS OF EXPRESSING FUTURITY

1. Present Tense Continuous We use the present continuous:

to talk about future activities and events that are intended or have already been arranged.

e.g. She’s making a speech at the conference next week.

To emphasise that we are talking about a definite arrangement, we prefer the present continuous.

e.g. We’re having a party on Sunday, 12th November. Can you come?

to talk about personal plans or predictions. e.g. I’m really exhausted. I’m just staying in to watch TV tonight.

2. Going to We use S + to be + going to + V:

to talk about future activities and events that are intended or have already been arranged.

e.g. We’re going to do some climbing in the Pyrenees.

When we talk about an intention to do something in the future, although no definite arrangement has been made, we prefer going to rather than the present continuous.

e.g. Before I go to China next year, I’m going to learn some Cantonese.

to talk about permanent future situations. e.g. People are going to live longer in the future.

to make or report predictions about activities or events over which we have no control, whose cause is present or evident.

e.g. I think it’s going to rain soon.

e.g. Look at that tree! It’s going to fall

3. Present Tense Simple We use the present simple to talk about future events that are part of some official

arrangement such as a timetable or programme.

e.g. Their plane arrives at 5.00 am.

The next meeting of the committee is on November 5th.

4. Be to S + to be to + V is used to talk about formal or official arrangements, formal

instructions, and to give orders. It is particularly common in news reports to talk about future events. We only use S + to be to + V to talk about things that can be controlled by people.

e.g. Children are not to be left unsupervised in the museum.

The European Parliament is to introduce a new law on safety at work.

If humans are to survive as a species, we must address environmental issues now.

5. Be about to, be on the point of S + to be about to + V and S + to be on the point of + V-ing refer to the next moment.

e.g. I think the play is about to start now.

Mary is on the point of resigning.

6. Be due to S + to be due to + V refers to scheduled times.

e.g. The play is due to start in five minutes.

INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH

Indirect/reported speech is the exact meaning of what someone said, but not the exact words. We do not use quotation marks. The word ‘that’ can either be used or omitted after the introductory verb (say, tell, suggest, etc.).

When direct speech is converted into indirect speech, various changes take place in the form of the clause. Theses changes concern the tenses used, the pronouns, and the adverbial modifiers of place and time, because a person’s words are often reported in a different time context, from the point of view of a different person, and in a different place.

The verb tenses remain the same in reported speech when the introductory verb is in the present, future or present perfect.

e.g. Tom says, ‘I’m handsome.’ Tom says (that) he is handsome.

Compare: say/tell

Say + no personal object e.g. Tom said he would read The Civil Code for the exam.

Say + to + personal object e.g. Tom said to us he would read The Civil Code for the exam.

Tell + personal object e.g. Tom told us he would read The Civil Code for the exam.

When the reported utterance is introduced by a verb in the past tense, the rules are the following:

Direct speech Indirect speech

Present tense simple Past tense simple

Present tense continuous Past tense continuous

Present perfect tense simple

Past perfect tense simple

Present perfect tense Past perfect tense

continuous continuous

Past tense simple Past perfect tense simple

Past tense continuous Past perfect tense continuous

Future tense simple Future-in-the-past simple

Future tense continuous Future-in-the-past continuous

Future perfect tense simple Future perfect-in-the-past

Future perfect tense continuous

Future perfect-in-the-past continuous

Imperative Long Infinitive (To - infinitive)

Modals: May

Can

Must

Shall

Will

Might

Could

Must/had to

Should

Would

Yes/no questions S + V-ed + if + S + V

Wh-questions S + V-ed + wh-word +

V

Reported questions are usually introduced with the verbs ask, inquire, wonder or the expression want to know.

In reported questions, the verb is in the affirmative. The question mark and words/expressions such as please, well, oh, etc. are omitted. The verb tenses change as in statements.

No change of the present tense occurs in the reported clause when the statement contains a natural law, a universal assertion, an eternal truth.

e.g. ‘Water freezes at 0Celsius.’

The teacher told them that water freezes at 0Celsius.

Adverbs or adverbial phrases of time and place also change to suggest remoteness from ‘here’ and ‘now’.

Direct speech Indirect speech

Here There

In this place In that place

Now Then

Today (on) that day

This … That …

Yesterday (on) the previous day /(on) the day before

Last … the previous …/ the … before

… ago … before

Tomorrow The following day/The next day

Next … The following …/The next …/The … after

Conditional clauses

Conditional clauses consist of two parts: the subordinate clause or the if-clause and the main clause. There are three main types of conditional clauses and various mixed types. Each type is used to express different real/unreal, present/past conditions, using certain pairs of tenses. There are also many exceptions from each type but students dealing with conditionals for the first time should simply concentrate on the basic rules that will be presented in the following chart:

Types If-clause Main clause Meaning

Type I Present tense simple If he is accused of manslaughter,

Future tense simple he will receive a life sentence. he will be prosecuted.

If they find hard evidence against him,

Present tense simple

If the defendant pleads guilty,

Present tense simple

If you get tired,

Modal verbs he must/should be sent to prison. Imperative take a break and then start again.

Real situation, present or future oriented

Type II Past tense simple/continuous

If I were you,

If he had more time,

If she did what her lawyer says,

would/ could/ should/ might + short infinitive

I would try the new procedure.

he could come to see me in Court.

she might have a chance to win the trial.

Unreal, hypothetic situation, present or future oriented, unlikely to happen

TypeIII Past perfect simple/continuous

If he had been innocent,

If they had published the article,

If I had known more about his intentions,

would/ could/ should/ might + have + past participle

he wouldn’t have hidden the murder weapon.

the girls’private lives would have been violated.

I could have helped him to be released on bail.

Imaginary situation, past oriented (regrets, unfulfilled plans, wishes to change the past)

Forms of the Infinitive:

short infinitive: discuss, work long/present infinitive: to discuss, to work present continuous infinitive: to be discussing, to be working perfect infinitive: to have discussed, to have worked perfect infinitive continuous: to have been discussing, to have been working passive infinitive forms: (to) be discussed, (to) have been discussed

FORMS of GERUND:

present gerund: killing, being killed (passive form) perfect gerund: having killed, having been killed (passive form)

and that Gerunds are used after: prepositions, verbs + prepositions, and certain categories of verbs and expressions that require the use of Gerunds, such as: detest, dislike, enjoy, hate, like, love, prefer, resent, begin, stop, finish, start, admit, appreciate, avoid, consider, deny, endure, fancy, forgive, imagine, involve, keep, mention, mind, practice, prevent, recollect, report, risk, suggest, and expressions: it’s no use/good, it’s (not) worth, there’s no point (in), feel like, can’t stand/bear, can’t help, be/get used to, be/get accustomed to, have difficulty (in), in favour of, look forward to, etc.

III. Exercises 1. Vocabulary

1. Here is a list of expressions and linking words that can be used in introducing arguments for or against:

To make general statements: As a general rule, By and large, Generally, In general, On the whole;

To make partially correct statements: Up to a point, To a certain extent/degree, To some extent/degree, In a sense/way, there is some truth in this, To a limited extent;

To resort to general opinion: It is popularly believed that, People often claim that, Some people argue that, It is widely argued that, Some people point out that, It is often alleged that, Many experts support/oppose the view that, Contrary to popular belief;

To counter-balance an argument: While it is true to say that… , in fact …..; The fact that … contradicts the belief/idea that …..; On one hand …, on the other hand…;

To introduce arguments for or against: One very convincing argument/point in favour of…/against…, A further common criticism of…, It could be argued that…, One/another/a further /an additional advantage/disadvantage of …, Another positive/negative aspect of…, We strongly support/oppose the view that…, We believe/claim/feel that this argument is incorrect/misguided, We agree/do not agree that/with.

2. Choose the correct version, looking the new words up in a good dictionary: 1. A person who steals money placed in his care. a) a forger b) an arsonist c) an embezzler d) a poacher 2. ................ means catching game birds, animals or fish without permission on somebody else’s property. a) hunting b) stealing c) trespassing d) poaching 3. A person who enters a building illegally, especially by force, in order to steal. a) a burglar b) a robber c) a hooligan d) a vandal 4. A person who steals money, etc from other people’s pockets, especially in crowded places. a) a thief b) a pickpocket c) a shoplifter d) a robber 5. The judge has pronounced .......................... of ten years’imprisonment. a) an accusation b) a punishment c) a sentence d) a conviction 6. The correct spelling for the English equivalent of the Romanian word – delapidator – is: a) imbezzler b) embezler c) embezzler d) embezller 7. He has been released from prison .................... and if he does not behave satisfactorily, he will be sent back. a) on probation b) on remission c) into custody d) on testing 8. There was no need for a trial, because the client decided to .................... and forgive the attacker.

a) serve his sentence b) appear in court c) drop all the charges d) commute his sentence 9. ............... means money paid by or for a person accused of a crime, as security that he will return for his trial if he is allowed to go free until then. a) Probation b) Bribe c) Bail d) Fine 10. A .................... is a lawyer who prepares legal documents, advises clients on legal matters and speaks for them in lower courts. a) solicitor b) prosecutor c) judge d) barrister 11. A person who takes people hostage for a ransom is called a ....................... a) hijacker b) bandit c) kidnapper d) rapist 12.The correct spelling for the English equivalent of the Romanian word – omor prin prudenţă – is: a) menslaughter b) manslother c) manslaughter d) manslauther 13. After ten hours, the Jury finally reached its …………….: the prisoner was guilty. a) sentence b) verdict c) point d) conclusion 14. A person who willfully gives a false statement while under oath, concerning a material matter in a judicial proceeding is said to commit .................. . a) slander b) bribery c) perjury d) treason 15. A ....................... is someone who testifies, especially in a court of law to events or facts within his own knowledge. a) registrar b) spectator c) witness d) friend

5. Match the new words and expressions in column A with their Romanian equivalents in column B:

A B

1. health care fraud a. a defrauda/înşela/escroca 2. to oversee the investigation b. a executa separat teste/servicii în vederea taxării

unor tarife mai mari 3. the forfeiture of assets c. serviciu rambursabil 4. to defraud d. taxări frauduloase 5. billing for service not rendered e. fraudă în cadrul sistemului medical 6. reimbursable service f. a fi supus unor proceduri medicale nejustificate 7. kickback g. lezare corporală gravă 8. to unbundle tests/services to generate higher fees

h. a supraveghea/controla investigaţia

9. outpatient surgery fraud i. mită/bani daţi contra unui serviciu 10. fraudulent billings j. confiscarea bunurilor 11. to undergo unwarranted medical procedures

k. fraudarea serviciilor operatorii pentru pacienţii externi

12. serious bodily injury l. taxarea unor servicii neprestate

2. Grammar

I. Fill in the gaps with the verbal constructions in the box to complete the following conditional clauses:

had let will return might have had had been sentenced fail

could get had announced made would ask may walk

3. 1. You ……………… free from this court if you promise to report to Illinois police station every Friday for the next three months.

4. 2. If you ……….. to do so, you will be given one warning. 5. 3. If you don’t meet this obligation, you ……………… to this court for a harsher

sentence. 6. 4. If you ……………….. us on time about your illness, we wouldn’t have

imposed a new prison sentence. 7. 5. If I were in your shoes, I ………………. my doctor to produce a medical

certificate, proving my medical condition. 8. 6. If your previous conduct had been better, you ………………………. a chance

to enjoy your freedom. 9. 7. If your probation officer …………….. us know about your state of health, we

could have helped you to receive proper medical care. 10. 8. If you …………… an appeal, you might have a chance to extend your

probation period. 11. 9. If your lawyer had more legal papers in your favour, you ……………… a

suspended sentence. 12. 10. If you ………………………. to 100 hour community work, you could have

served your sentence in less than three weeks.

V. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense, paying attention to the grammar rules used in conditional clauses; sometimes more versions can be accepted:

1. He ……………….. (be release) to the community if he accepts the home confinement program.

2. If the mayor ………….. (approve) the community service program for our town, we ………………. (have) an opportunity to change negative perceptions about offenders.

3. He wouldn’t have appeared before the clerk of the court if he ……………………… (not be summoned).

4. If an individual …………… (meet) the legal qualifications for federal jury service, he/she may stand a chance to be a member of a jury.

5. If the jury had attentively listened to the evidence and arguments of the respondent’s lawyer, they ……………………………… (vote) in his favour.

6. If a married couple …………….. (decide) to legally separate, the couple undergoes divorce proceedings.

7. If his wife had invoked ‘irreconcilable differences’ as the grounds of their divorce, she ……………………………. (get) to keep the house.

8. Even if the spouses mutually …………… (want) to get a divorce, the law ……………….. (prohibit) lawyers from representing both spouses.

9. If you have friends or relatives in your local area who have been divorced, they ……….. (refer) you to a lawyer appropriate for your situation.

10. If I ……… (be) accused of medical malpractice, I ……………………… (fight) for my rights.

VI. Choose the correct versions, paying attention to the use of verbal tenses, conditionals and modal verbs in conditional clauses:

1. If participants ……………. any problems with the monitoring equipment, they must notify officers immediately.

a) will experience b) experience c) experiences d) would experience

2. If the defendant has a prior criminal record, his sentence ……………… harsher.

a) will be b) is c) would be d) should be

3. A grand jury decides if there …… a probable cause to indict (accuse) individuals or corporations on criminal charges based upon the evidence presented.

a) will be b) has been c) is d) would be

4. If a person ………….. that he/she has been wrongfully imprisoned, he/she ……………. the right to challenge the legality of the confinement.

a) believe, will have b) will believe, may have c) believes, may have d) has believed, will have

5. If the writ of habeas corpus ……………….. , the prisoner will be brought into court.

a) will be issued b) is issued c) had been issued d) were issued

V. Choose the correct versions, using the forms of the Infinitive:

1. You had better .................... your crimes right now, when you still have a chance.

a) to confess b) confessing c) confess d) confessed

2. I would rather .......... the rest of my life in jail than confess to a crime I did not commit.

a) spend b) to spend c) spending d) spent

3. He made me .............. all my charges, threatening me with a gun.

a) to drop b) drop c) dropping d) to have dropped

4. He let me .............. which option was the best for my difficult situation.

a) decide b) deciding c) to decide d) being to

decide

5. Let’s ............. a short coffee break and will decide afterwards.

a) taking b) to take c) took d) take

IV. Bibliography

Bibliografie obligatorie:

Munteanu A., Limba engleză, Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine, Bucureşti, 2012. Hanga, Vladimir, Calciu, Rodica – Dicţionar juridic englez - român şi român- englez, ed. Lumina Lex, Bucureşti, 1994/2007. Rădulescu, Adina, A Practical English Handbook for Law Students, Ed. Fundaţiei România de Mâine, Bucureşti, 2006/9. (part I)

Bibliografie facultativă:

Barbu A., Chirimbu S., English Language for Daily Use, Bucureşti, Editura Fundatiei România de Mâine, 2006/2009. Bonner, M., Fuchs, M., Focus on Grammar. High intermediate, Longman, 2000. (p. 1-150). Brieger, N., Test Your Professional English: Law, Longman, 2003 (p. 1 - 46). Georgiana Gălăţeanu Fârnoagă, Sinteze de gramatică engleză – exerciţii şi teste de evaluare, Bucureşti, 1992. Levitchi, I., Gramatica limbii engleze, Editura Teora, Bucuresti, 1999. Prodromou, Luke, Grammar and Vocabulary for First Certificate, Longman, 2010. Ştefan R., Vasilescu R., Marcoci S., Beldea E., Come along, Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine, Bucureşti, 2005.

V. Exam subjects

Examenul la Limba engleza este oral. Subiectul testeaza capacitatea de intelegere a unui text de specialitate (de aceea va sugerez sa cititi cu atentie textele din capitolul Legal English din notele de curs sau textele din manualele recomandate la bibliografie) precum si capacitatea de a vorbi in limba engleza pe un subiect dat.

Exemplu:

Read and comment on the following text:

During times of uncertainty and national crisis, often there is a conflict between liberties and safety. Sometimes liberties must yield to safety. Other times, safety must yield to liberties. The goal of the law is to find the appropriate balance between liberty and safety. One of the most important means for ensuring this balance, as well as one of the most important means of protecting individual liberty in general, is the writ of habeas corpus. A writ of habeas corpus allows persons who believe that they have been wrongfully imprisoned to challenge the legality of their confinement. To do so, a person must petition a court to issue the writ. If the writ is issued, the court directs the person who is holding the petitioner in confinement (usually a jailor) to bring the prisoner into court and to explain the grounds for the petitioner's detention. If, after hearing both sides, the court finds that the grounds for the confinement are illegal, the petitioner is released.