lec an2 sem2 trantescu 2009

ANUL IISEMESTRUL II

LIMBA ENGLEZĂ CONTEMPORANĂENGLISH SYNTAX. THE COMPOUND AND COMPLEX

SENTENCE

Lect. univ. dr. ANA TRANTESCU

ENGLISH SYNTAX. THE COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCE

UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVAFACULTATEA DE LITERESPECIALIZAREA: ROMANA / LIMBA STRAINAINVATAMANT LA DISTANTA

PROGRAMA ANALITICADisciplina: LIMBA ENGLEZA CONTEMPORANA

ENGLISH SYNTAX. THE COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCESpecializarea: Romana- engleza ID

Anul II Semestrul IITitularul disciplinei: lector dr.Ana-Maria Trantescu

I. OBIECTIVE:Cursul îşi propune:

- Să ofere studenţilor cadrul teoretic necesar pentru o corectă analiză a structurilor sintactice specifice frazelor prin coordonare şi subordonare.

- Să dezvolte capacitatea studenţilor de a folosi diferite structuri sintactice în funcţie de necesităţile comunicării.

- Să îmbine judicious cunoştinţele teoretice cu cele practice, cadrul theoretic fiind completat de exemple pertinente şi de un număr adecvat de exerciţii.

II. TEMATICA1. Classification of sentences2. Nominal Clauses3. Relative-Attributive Clauses4. Adverbial Clauses5. Direct and Indirect Speech

III. EVALUAREA STUDENTILOR: examen scrisIV. BIBLIOGRAFIE: 1. Bădescu, A., Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Stiintifica, Bucureşti, 1963.2. Bantaş, A., Elements of Descriptive English Syntax, TUB, Bucureşti, 1977.3. Budai, L., Gramatica engleza, Teorie si exercitii, Editura Teora, Bucureşti, 1997.4. Gălăţeanu, G., Comişel, E., Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Didactică şi pedagogică,

Bucureşti, 1982.5. Leviţchi, L., Preda, A., Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed, Ştiintifică, Bucureşti, 1967.6. Murar I, Pisoschi C., Trantescu A.M., Essentials of English Syntax. The Simple

Sentence. Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2008.

2


7. Murar I., Ana-Maria Trantescu, Pisoschi C., Descriptive English Syntax. Theory and Practice. Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2008.

8. Şerban D., English Syntax, volume one, Bucureşti, 1982.9. Ştefănescu, I., Lectures in English Morphology, TUB, Bucureşti, 1978.10. Quirk R., Greenbaum S., Leech G., Swartvick J., A Grammar of Contemporary

English, London, Longman, 1972.11. Thomas A., Martinet A. A Practical English Grammar, Oxford University Press,

London, 1969.

3


TEMATICA:

1. Classification of sentences2. Nominal Clauses3. Relative-Attributive Clauses4. Adverbial Clauses5. Direct and Indirect Speech

Introduction to Descriptive English SyntaxThe purpose of a descriptive syntax of the English language is to identify and

present the main patterns and structures of expression in contemporary English.Syntax is that branch of linguistics which describes the phenomena of the

contemporary language in point of relations between words and their correct arrangement in units of expression apt to reflect logical units and patterns.

Therefore, while morphology studies words and their changes in various situations and contexts, syntax describes the situations and contexts themselves, the relations between words, deriving the principles, the rules and the patterns governing the arrangement of morphological elements as part of independent or connected sense-units.

As these units are meant not only for writing but also (or rather mainly) for oral expression, it is but natural for syntax to go hand in hand with some aspects of suprasegmental phonetics such as sentence stress rhythm, emphasis and intonation.

As a matter of fact, given the progress of the sciences connected with communication and of the interdisciplinary subjects, the term syntax has come to be used – together with the term grammar – in order to indicate the rules for the specific arrangement of elements in various arts: poetry, prose, stylistics. Thus, syntax can be seen as a set of principles, rules and indications governing the best arrangement of elements in the structure of communication.

Among the various disciplines and branches of linguistics, syntax aims at offering the most adequate structures for the communication of people’s thoughts. That is why, many of the notions and terms employed in syntax (as part of the grammar of a language or of all languages) are so closely connected with logic and philosophy; some of them are not only the counterparts of notions and terms in those sciences but even identical with them.

Since linguistics and psycholinguistics have proved that human thoughts are not articulate – that is, they do not take a definite form – until they are embodied in words (even before they are uttered aloud or set down on paper), the concatenation between thinking and its materialized forms no longer requires demonstration. Hence the interpenetration between logic (as the set of rules governing correct thinking and reasoning) and grammar (or rather syntax, which recommends the best models for the arrangements of words – we may say ordinance – in such a way as to facilitate the best expression of thoughts).

4


Since the basic syntactical units are called sentences, the syntactical subunits are necessarily called parts of the simple sentence (or clauses in the case of compound or complex sentences).

Naturally, classification attaches much importance to criteria of form, but content preserves its importance in syntax too, as it is the essence of the communication which matters and that is what syntactical relations indicate (also with assistance from phonetics and punctuation).

Grammarians who analyse the deep structure of the communication have proved that it may be expressed aloud or in writing in different and sometimes dissimilar surface structures. That is why the same trend of the communication may appear in the form of a declarative, of an apparently exclamation, the most obvious example being that of requests or invitations which are most politely formulated as questions.

UNITATEA 1. Classification of SentencesCriteria of Classification Compound Sentences Complex Sentences

Obiective. Studenţii vor fi capabili să :1. Să enumere criteriile de clasificare a propoziţiilor.2. Să identifice tipurile de coordonare.3. Să recunoască elementele ce introduc o propoziţie subordonată.4. Să identifice criteriile de clasificare ale propoziţiilor subordonate.

Timp de studiu : 2 ore.

1.1. Criteria of ClassificationSince speech and writing are the expression of articulate thinking, utterances and

written sentences will be the materialized forms of thoughts.Articulate thoughts (in the field of logic) find their expression in sentences or

propositions (terms which have their origin in the same field of logic) and take the oral form of utterances (in suprasegmental phonetics). Language and its component elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, grammatical rules, structures, patterns, etc.) are the materials and means employed by human beings in order to embody their thoughts.

The oral and written expressions of human thoughts are part and parcel of communication and may express different trends or purposes of communication, and on the other hand may assume a variety of forms. That is why the traditional manner of classifying notions – in point of content and in point of form – assumes the following aspects when we differentiate the linguistic expressions of thoughts:

Classification in point of trend or purpose of communication (therefore a matter of content);

Classification in point of structure (of communication) or of composition (therefore a matter of form);

5


Classification in point of status or grammatical dependence.The first classification proceeds from the trend or essence or content of

communication because it is more general than the other classifications. The discrimination of sentences according to the purpose/ intention/ attitude of the speaker or writer is essential and can apply to all the subdivisions separated under the incidence of the other classifications. Long, extended, elliptical etc. sentences or clauses are all declarative or exclamatory, etc. From the point of view of trend or purpose of communication – which means semantic as well as logical and psychological content – sentences are normally divided into: Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory.

So, it is a matter of the fundamental attitude which the speaker/writer adopts towards his/her communication. R. Quirk et al (1972: 387), as well as other linguists, consider that any communication – even statements (Declarative Sentences) does reflect or reveal an attitude or modality.

The second classification, the formal one, refers to the way thoughts are expressed, whether destined for utterance or for writing. The classification in point of structure/composition/form distinguishes three main types of sentences:

The Simple Sentence which expresses just one thought at a time, by means of one predicate between two punctuation marks that are destined for separating thoughts – or between two conclusive pauses in the speech chain, indicating the beginning of a new utterance and its end.

The Compound Sentence (the word “compound” is employed in the sense of homogeneity/ similarity/ coordination/ equality) that is a thought which includes more units than one, placed on an equal footing. In syntactical terms, the English compound sentence corresponds to the notion of frază (compusă) prin coordonare that is a sentence made up of two or more clauses (= propoziţii coordonate), which discharge the same function and are connected between them with or without the help of coordinating conjunctions.

The Complex Sentence involves the notion of "complex" in the sense of diversity/non-homogeneousness/inequality/ subordination of the various component elements. In purely syntactical terms, it corresponds to the Romanian frază (compusă) prin subordonare that is a unit of thinking made up of one ore more main/principal clauses (= propoziţii principale) and one or more subordinate clauses (= propoziţii secundare/subordonate).

Sentences can also be classified in accordance with their status (of dependence or independence) or in point of grammatical dependence, that is in terms of their position as regards other syntactical units. This classification is rather intricate, because it brings into play all three types of sentences classified in point of structure, or rather simple sentences as such (or independent clauses, as part of a compound sentence) and the non-homogeneous components of a complex sentence: the subordinator(s) and the subordinated.

It is in fact a matter of government, of equality or of juxtaposition and the difficulties increase when it comes to equating the various classes in other languages (cf. in this respect the points on terminology in the table below).

6


In point of status or degree of grammatical dependence, sentences are classified into:

Independent Sentences (isolated); Independent Clauses (as part of a compound sentence); Main/principal/head Clauses (in complex sentences); Governing Clauses (as part of a complex sentence, in case there are two or

more levels of subordination); Subordinate/Secondary Clauses (as part of Complex sentences).Independent Sentences are in fact simple sentences, their name differing only

according to the angle from which they are viewed.It is ten o’clock.I have to go to the airport.

If linked by conjunctions, independent sentences become (more or less) independent clauses (in case of coordination, as part of a compound sentence – e.g.: It is ten o’clock and I have to go to the airport), while in the case where they are placed in a hierarchy, they turn into main clauses, subordinate clauses proper or governing clauses – e.g.: It is ten o’clock and so I have to go to the airport, unless I want to be late again.

Independent Clauses are the complete elements or units which are brought together in a closer connection as part of the speech chain, without, however, being dependent upon each other or upon anything else in point of meaning or of grammatical status; their independence can at any time be proved, through replacing commas or coordinating conjunctions by full stops, without their full sense being altered.

Main Clauses, also called Principal or Head Clauses, are elements that rank first in the hierarchy established as part of a complex sentence, that is they have in their subordination both secondary/subordinate clauses and governing clauses, in case the latter are present. While subordinate clauses display great variety, main clauses are limited in their variability, being usually statements, although questions, imperatives or, less frequently exclamations occasionally do appear as main clauses.

Governing Clauses have the intermediate position, i.e. they have the ambivalent/hybrid nature of governed and governing at the same time, when the stratification within the complex sentence is more diversified. They behave as subordinates to the main clause(s) while governing the subordinate clause(s) proper, e.g.

He said that he would return the book when he finished it. Subordinate or Secondary Clauses are an indispensable element of complex

sentences: the very notions of "complex sentence" (= heterogeneous, unequal) and of main clauses are impossible without the existence of subordinate elements.

Their government by main or governing clauses is the principal area where the rules of sequence of tenses manifest themselves.

The comparison with Romanian, inevitably requires a perfect understanding of the equivalence of terms presented in the following table. This summarizes in fact all the above1:

11 Andrei Bantaş, Descriptive English Syntax, p. 89.

7


Romanian Englishpropoziţie independentă/simplă independent/simple sentence propoziţie independentă coordonată(în cadrul unei fraze compuse prin coordonare)

coordinated independent clause(as part of a compound sentence)

propoziţie principală(în cadrul unei fraze compuse prin subordonare)

main/principal/head clause(as part of a complex sentence)

propoziţie secundară/subordonată (idem) subordinate/secondary clause (idem)

propoziţie regentă (idem) governing clause (idem)frază (compusă) prin coordonare compound sentencefrază (compusă) prin subordonare complex sentencelocuţiune gramaticală grammatical phraseExpresie Idiom, idiomatic phrase

1.2. Compound Sentences

Just as a phrase may be simple or complex, depending on whether it is composed of one word or more than one, a sentence may be simple (i.e. consists of a simple clause) or complex, the complex sentence consisting of more than one clause. The relationships between the clauses of a sentence are of two kinds: a) coordination, b) subordination.

Coordination (or conjoining) is the process of forming compound sentences by joining or uniting two or more sentences of equal rank. In most cases, coordination is achieved by means of coordinating conjunctions, or coordinators (sometimes called syndetic coordination), but in some cases the conjunctions may be absent altogether (asyndetic coordination).

From the point of view of the logical relations between two clauses forming a compound sentence, coordination can be subdivided into: copulative, disjunctive, adversative, consecutive, causative.

Copulative coordination is achieved by means of the following conjunctions: and, as well as, nor, neither, not only...but also, both...and, neither...nor. When two or more clauses are coordinated, repeated elements, which are therefore redundant, are ellipted (deleted) from all but one of the clauses:

- if two ore more coordinated sentences have identical subjects, the subject of the second (third, etc.) sentence is usually deleted, e.g. He1 went into the shop (he1) bought a tie and (he1) paid for it at the cash desk.

- if the predicates in the coordinated sentence contain the same auxiliary, it is deleted (ellipsis is usually anaphoric, with realized items in the first of a series of clauses).

e.g. They were married in 1960, (they were) divorced in 1970, and (they were) reconciled in 1972. I’ve been waiting and (I’ve been) wondering where you are.

8


- an identical head verb of a VP can be deletede.g. John has written a poem and Bob (has written) a novel.- the compound sentence may be reduced to only one sentence with a compound

constituent, e.g. John will come later and Mary will come later – John and Mary will come

later.The conjunction and coordinates sentences as well as their constituent parts. As

well as linking two main clauses, and can link subordinate clauses. e.g. He asked to be transferred because he was unhappy and

(because) conditions were far better at the other office.The conjunction and denotes merely a relation between the clauses, the second

clause being a pure addition to the first.e.g. John was tired and hungry.However, the conjunction has certain other semantic implications:

- adversative (and = but), e.g. I could have helped him and I didn’t. He promised to come and he didn’t.

- the second clause is a consequence or result of the first. This entails that the order of the clauses also reflects chronological sequence (and = therefore), e.g. He heard an explosion and phoned the police. She was talking too much and we left.

- the second clause is chronologically sequent to the first but without any implication of a cause-result relationship (and = then)e.g. She washed the dishes and (she) dried them. I wrote the letter and he posted it.

- the first clause is a condition of the second (and = if)e.g. Give me some money and I’ll help you escape. Work hard and you’ll win the contest. (= If you work hard, you’ll win.)The other coordinating conjunctions give variety or the right emphasis to

copulative coordination:Both...and is used for the coordination of two sentences having the same subject

or for the coordination of two subjects having the same predicate, e.g. He both speaks and writes three foreign languages. Both Peter and Ann have won prizes.Not only...but (also): the correlative not only can be found either in non-initial or

in initial position. When not only is placed in initial position the subject-auxiliary inversion is obligatory.

e.g. They not only broke into his office and stole his books but (also) tore up his manuscripts. – Not only did they break into his office and steal his books but also tore up his manuscripts. Not only did he deny his responsibility, but he also had the cheek to lay the blame on us.

9


Neither...nor raises a very interesting problem since it formally resembles the disjunctive either...or, while semantically it negates the conjunction, meaning both (not-x)...and (not-y)

e.g. She didn’t eat and she didn’t drink – She neither ate nor drank anything.

The correlative conjunction neither...nor behaves in colloquial speech like and as regards concord. Thus, Neither he nor his wife have arrived is more natural in colloquial speech than Neither he nor his wife has arrived, the form recommended by traditional grammars. As R. Quirk and his colleagues point out, this preference reflects notional concord in that logical ’neither x nor y’ can be interpreted as a union of negatives: ’both (not-x) and (not-y)’ (R. Quirk et al, 1972: 384). The correlative nor is usually followed by subject-auxiliary inversion when both subject and auxiliary are present.

e.g. Mary was neither happy nor was she sad. Neither Peter wanted the responsibility nor did his wife. (though if the

predicates in the two clauses are identical, the more usual form would be Neither Peter nor his wife wanted the responsibility).

Nor and neither can be used without being a correlative pair. They are used when the first sentence is negative and require subject-auxiliary inversion.

e.g. He did not come to the symposium, neither/nor did he send in the paper. He did not know, nor could he guess the reason for her absence.The role of copulative coordination can be achieved by some other connectors

such as: in addition, moreover, furthermore, likewise, besides, again, then. They imply that the addition is something emphatic or important. Stylistically, they are characteristic of a more formal, written style.

e.g. I did not like the house, moreover it was too high-priced. First I visited my friend, then I left the town. The house is almost new; again/ besides/ furthermore/ likewise/ moreover, it is in excellent condition. He came late; in addition he hadn’t done his homework.The parts of a compound sentence may also be joined asyndentically i.e. without

any conjunction. Asydentic coordination is always marked by a comma or a semicolon. The copulative conjunction and may always be inserted.

e.g. The sun was breaking out; the sound of the mill seemed cheery again; the granary doors were wide open. (G.E.)Disjunctive coordination presupposes a choice or an alternative between two

clauses. It is achieved by means of the conjunctions or, else, or else, otherwise, either...or.

Or allows ellipsis of the subject if, in the clause it introduces, the subject is co-referential with that of the preceding linked clause:

I may see you tomorrow or (I) may phone later in the day. As well as linking two main clauses, or can link subordinate clauses, e.g. I wonder whether you should go and see her or (whether)

10


it is better to write to her.There are some situations when disjunctive coordination links three or even more

clauses, the disjunctive relation being less obvious: You may either read a magazine, listen to the records, or watch TV.

In addition to indicating an alternative, as in e.g. You can boil yourself an egg or you can make some sandwiches, or may imply a negative condition: e.g. You must be gentle with him (the pony) or you’ll find him troublesome. (C.D.) (the implication can be paraphrased by the negative conditional clause ’If you are not gentle with him’). The addition of either to the first clause is more explicit in excluding the combination of both alternatives e.g. You can either boil yourself an egg or you can make some

sandwiches. Either do it properly or (else) don’t do it at all. Either he is a rogue or he is a fool. Adversative coordination combines two opposing or contrasting statements. It is

achieved mainly through the conjunctions but, yet, whereas, while, nevertheless, only, still, however, all the same, none the less or nonetheless, on the other hand. e.g. The engine is very old; still it works very well.

She speaks highly about him; all the same I don’t trust him. Reading is easy; on the other hand writing is difficult.

I’ve ordered the beer but it hasn’t come. Tom was good at arithmetic, yet he was never given full marks. One of the statues was of marble, whereas the other was a wood carving. Some people waste food, while others haven’t enough.It may rain, nevertheless we will start on the trip. He makes good resolutions only he never keeps them.

Consecutive coordination introduces an inference, conclusion, consequence, result of the previous part. It is achieved mainly with the help of the conjunctions so, therefore, hence, thus.

There was no one there, so I went away. I forgot to return the magazine, hence his displeasure. But this is not to be a regular autobiography, therefore I now pass a space of eight years in silence. (C.B.)Other connectors with consecutive meaning are: then, consequently, accordingly. e.g. Singapore lies very near to the equator, consequently the weather is very hot.

They broke the rules; so/ therefore/ accordingly/ consequently they were punished.

Causal / Explanatory coordination adds an independent clause explaining the preceding statement. It is represented only by the conjunction for. The causative meaning is not felt as strong as that of its subordinating counterparts (because, etc.).

e.g. The days were short for it was September. You should ask more of him for he can do more.

11


They left in a hurry, for it was already late. You had better close the window, for it is rather cold.

1.3. Complex SentencesOne of the main devices for linking clauses together within the same sentence is

that of coordination, already discussed in Chapter II. The second major device, that of subordination will be the main concern of this chapter.

While coordination is the linking together of two or more elements of equivalent status (rank) and function, subordination is a non-symmetrical relation, holding between two clauses x and y, in such a way that y is a constituent or part of x. Diagrammatically, the difference is as in

x x yI like John and John likes me I like John y because John likes me

coordination subordination

A second difference is that a coordinate relationship may have more than two members, while only two members enter into the relationship of subordination: we may call them the superordinate/ main clause, e.g. x in the diagram, and the subordinate/dependent/ embedded clause, e.g. y in the diagram. A main clause is one that can stand alone, i.e. is not dependent on another clause. A clause can be subordinate by being able to replace an NP or an adverbial in the main clause, taking over its syntactic functions: it can function as subject, object, or adverbial of the main clause. Thus, complex sentences are formed by letting one sentence function as a part, as a constituent of another.

The device of subordination enables us to organize multiple clause structures. Each subordinate clause may itself be superordinate to one or more other clauses, so that a hierarchy of clauses, one within another may be built up, sometimes resulting in sentences of great complexity.

Subordinate clauses may be recognized by one or more of the following characteristics: a) they are optional elements, e.g. they can be deleted:

e.g. Jane was preparing breakfast while her husband slept.b) they can precede or follow the main clause or be inserted in it:

e.g. They trudged on, although they were overcome by fatigue. When night fell, they collapsed into an exhausted heap. These men, who had eaten nothing all day, were angered by their leader’s inefficiency.

c) they are marked by certain introductory elements: conjunctions, wh-elements;d) they may contain non-finite verb forms.

Subordinate clauses may suffer important modifications of form: as a consequence of embedding, their sentential status is destroyed to a lesser or greater

12


extent, so that a formerly independent sentence tends to become more and more 'nouny' in its structure and properties:a) That Tom gave the letter to Ann surprised us all.b) For Tom to have given the letter to Ann surprised us all.c) Tom giving the letter to Ann surprised us all.d) Tom’s giving the letter to Ann surprised us all.e) Tom’s giving/ gift of the letter to Ann surprised us all.

As we move down from that-clauses (example a) to deverbal nominals proper (ex. e), the constituents lose their sentential features and acquire nominal features instead: such a scale is called a squish. Choice of the dependent type – whether the subordinate clause is a that-clause, an infinitive or a gerund – largely depends on the syntactic and sometimes semantic features of the matrix predicate (the term predicate is here used as a cover term for verbs and predicative adjectives).

Formal indicators of subordinationOn the whole, subordination is marked by some signal contained in the

subordinate clause. Such a signal may be of a number of different kinds:a) subordinating conjunctions (subordinators) are perhaps the most important formal

devices of subordination:- simple subordinators: after, although, as, because, before, if, however, like, once,

since, that, till, until, when(ever), where, wherever, whereas, while;- compound subordinators: in that, so that, in order that, such that, except that, for all

that;In some cases of compound subordinators, that is optional. Subordinators ending with

optional that are: now (that), providing (that), provided (that), supposing (that), considering (that), granting (that), seeing (that);

- as far as, as long as, as soon as, insofar as, so far as, insomuch as, according as, sooner than, rather than, as if, as though, in case;

- correlative subordinators: if...then, although...yet/nevertheless, as...so, more/-er/less...than, as...as, so...as, such...as, such...that, no sooner...than, whether...or;

b) wh-elements are markers of subordination in interrogative wh-clauses, in relative wh-clauses and in concessive clauses:

I don’t know who came / when he came. The book which he bought seems interesting. Wherever you may go you won’t find a better job.c) the relative pronoun that is a subordination marker in relative clauses: The book that I bought seems interesting.d) inversion: subject-auxiliary inversion is a marker of subordination in some

conditional clauses where the operator is had, were, should: e.g. Had I known more I should have refused the job. Should you see him tell him about the meeting.

e) the absence of a finite verb form is effectively an indication of subordinate status, since non-finite and verbless clauses occur only in subordinate clauses:

Being tired he went to bed early. = As he was tired went to bed early.

13


Classification of subordinate clausesSubordinate clauses may be classified according to two criteria: Structural type, i.e. in terms of the elements they themselves contain; Function, i.e. the position they have within the complex sentence.Structural classificationAnalyzing clauses according to their structural type we arrive at two types of

clauses:a) Finite clauses i.e. clauses containing a finite verb

e.g. I’ll come when I am ready. When I opened the door I saw the postman.

b) Non-finite clauses i.e. clauses containing a non-finite form e.g. Opening the door I saw the postman.

The finite clause always contains a subject as well as a predicate. In contrast, the non-finite clause always has the ability to do without a subject, although in many kinds of non-finite clauses a subject is optional. The three classes of non-finite verbal construction serve to distinguish three classes of non-finite clauses:i. infinitive: - without subject: e.g. The best thing would be to tell everybody; - with subject: e.g. The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.ii. -ing participle: - without subject: e.g. Leaving the room he tripped over the mat; - with subject: e.g. His aunt having left the room, Tom declared his love for Celia.iii. -ed participle: - without subject: e.g. Covered with confusion, I left the room; - with subject, e.g. The job finished, we left the room.

When the subject of participial clauses is expressed, it is often introduced by the preposition with,

e.g. With the tree growing/grown tall, we get more shade.The absence of the finite verb from non-finite clauses means that they have no

distinction of person, number or modal auxiliary. That subject and finite verb form can be omitted is a hint that their meaning should be recoverable from the context. It is possible to postulate certain missing forms, normally a form of the verb BE, and a pronoun subject having the same reference as a noun or pronoun in the same sentence. Consider the following non-finite clause:

Once appointed commander, he took the measures expected of him.One might insert a pronoun subject and a form of the verb be: Once (he had been) appointed commander, he took the

14


measures expected of him.When no referential link can be discovered with a nominal in the context, an

indefinite subject somebody/something may be supplied: To be an administrator is to have the worst job in the world. ("For someone to be...")A non-finite clause in which the subordinating conjunction is retained is called an

abbreviated clause. c) Verbless clauses are clauses containing no verbal element at all but nevertheless capable of being analyzed in terms of subject, object, predicative or adverbial. A verbless clause, apart from being verbless, is also (like the non-finite clause) commonly subjectless; it therefore takes the ellipsis of clause elements one stage further than the non-finite clause. Once again, the omitted finite verb can generally be assumed to be a form of the verb BE, and the subject, when omitted, can be treated as recoverable from the context,

e.g. Whether right or wrong, he always comes off worst in argument (= whether he is right...).Verbless clauses can also, on occasion, be treated as reductions of non-finite clauses, e.g. Too nervous to reply, he stared at the floor (= Being too nervous to reply...)

Functional classificationSubordinate clauses may perform any syntactic function within the complex

sentence: they may function as subject, object, predicative or adverbial of the main clause. On the basis of these functions, there emerges a classification similar in some ways to the functional classification of smaller units (words and phrases) as noun phrases, adverbials etc. Thus, the functional organization of the complex sentence parallels that of the simple sentence: simple and complex sentences are isomorphic. But, although the functions of subordinate clauses are similar to those of the parts of the sentence, subordinate clauses cannot be identified with these parts of the sentence. By means of subordinate clauses we may express our thoughts in a more complete, detailed manner. Compare the following:

He was exhausted for want to sleep. He was exhausted because he had not slept the whole night.

AUTOEVALUARE:Exercise 1. Insert the proper conjunctions, conjunctive pronouns, conjunctive

adverbs, relative pronouns or relative adverbs:1. It was almost ten o'clock ... we heard the sounds of wheels. 2. Don't open the door ... the train stops. 3. Hardly had I reached the station ... the train started. 4. ... I had walked the whole way home, I came home late. 5. The man raised the lantern a little higher, ... he might see the stranger's face. 6. Close the window ... the child should catch cold. 7. You speak so fast ... it is difficult to follow you. 8. We talked ... we talked in old days. 9. A body will never change its place ... moved, and ... once started will move ... stopped. 10. ... you see him tell him to ring me up. 11. We have both changed ... we left school. 12. Please, write ... I dictate. 13. ... you ask me, I will tell you. 14. This boy is taller ... you

15


are.15. ... breakfast was completed, there was a knock at the door.16. ... you go past the post, will you drop these letters in ? 17. What have you been doing ... I saw you last? 13. I shall not forget that summer ... I live. 19. There is not a man alive ... could do it half so well as you. 20. The paradox ... made everybody laugh belongs to G. B. Shaw. 21. Take such measures ... seem to you necessary. 22. The thought ... he may have fallen ill worries me. 23. They did nothing ... he came. 24. Can you tell me ... road leads to the station? 25. I've forgotten ... she gave it to. 26. I wonder ... she married. 27. Tell him ... you think it is necessary for him to know. 28. ... you can't type any better than this, you had better not type at all.29. Don't go away ... I come back. Then you can go ... you like.30. We must go, ... it is late. 31. He acted ... he were displeased with our offer. 32. ... the supplies arrive in time, all will go well. 33. ... the river were not so deep, we could cross it. 34. The night was ... dark ... we lost our way. 35. ... she is late, shall we wait for her? 36. ... the night was pitch dark, we continued our way. 38. I saw you yesterday ... you were one block away.

Exercise 2. Join the sentences which make up a pair. Use both coordinating and subordinating relative words:1. I did not recognize the hotel where I found accommodation. I asked a policeman.2. I spoke very clearly. I didn’t speak very carefully. 3. The teacher explained the theory several times. At last we could understand.4. A fief broke into the house. He stole some money. The lady of the house caught him. …did he give back the money… paid for the window …he had broken.5. She advised him to go away for a week. He fell ill before the departure. 6. We will ask John to carry out his job. John couldn’t have cared less.7. The pupil was idle about his exam preparation. He seemed not to want to pass it. 8. We had our car repaired last month. Now it doesn’t work.9. He wants things to remain like that for some time. We should keep everything secret.10. Have them accept the wages. We can negotiate some bonuses.11. The prosecution intended to have him convicted for murder. The judge found him not guilty.

Exercise 3. Built sentences of your own with where and when introducing: Subject Clauses, Predicative Clauses, Object Clauses, Attributive Clauses, Adverbial Clauses of Place, and Adverbial Clauses of Time.

Exercise 4. Finish these sentences with clauses of the kind asked for. Use the necessary conjunctions:1. You won’t manage …. (condition) 2. She’s late … (reason)3. They are pleased ……(concession).4. …(time) you can stay in a hotel.5. The bank granted him a loan …….(purpose).

16


6. It was such a big surprise for everybody ……. (result).7. They returned home ……..(comparison).

BIBLIOGRAFIE: 1. Bădescu, A., Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Stiintifica, Bucureşti, 1963.2. Bantaş, A., Elements of Descriptive English Syntax, TUB, Bucureşti, 1977.3. Budai, L., Gramatica engleza, Teorie si exercitii, Editura Teora, Bucureşti, 1997.4. Gălăţeanu, G., Comişel, E., Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Didactică şi pedagogică,


Sentence. Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2008.7. Murar I., Ana-Maria Trantescu, Pisoschi C., Descriptive English Syntax. Theory and

Practice. Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2008.8. Şerban D., English Syntax, volume one, Bucureşti, 1982.9. Ştefănescu, I., Lectures in English Morphology, TUB, Bucureşti, 1978.10. Quirk R., Greenbaum S., Leech G., Swartvick J., A Grammar of Contemporary


London, 1969.

UNITATEA 2. Nominal ClausesSubject Clauses Predicative Clauses Object Clauses

Obiective: Studenţii vor fi capabili să:1. Să cunoască regulile de folosire a modurilor şi timpurilor în propoziţia subiectivă.2. Să cunoască regulile de corespondenţă a timpurilor în completiva directă.3. Să identifice diferenţele de folosire între indicativ şi subjonctiv în propoziţiile

subiectivă şi completivă prepoziţională.


The principles of the functional classification are most clearly exhibited by the category of nominal clauses, or clauses having a function approximating to that of a noun phrase. Just as noun phrases may occur as subject, object, predicative, appositive, so every nominal clause may occur in some or all of these functions:

Subject: Whether we need it is another matter.Object: I don’t know whether we need it.Predicative: The problem is whether we need it.Appositive: That question, whether we need it, has not yet been considered.

17


2.1. Subject ClausesThe Subject Clause discharges the same role in the complex sentence as that of a

subject in a simple sentence or in a clause, i.e. the subject clause performs the function of a subject of the main clause. Compare:

Your talk was interesting. What you said was interesting.

2.1.1.Introductory elements. The subject clause may be introduced syndetically (by means of formal markers) or asyndetically (no markers)

a) syndetically, by means of:- conjunctions: if, that, whether

e.g. If I agree with you is another matter. That she is still alive is a consolation. Whether he will come is doubtful.

- pronominal wh-elements: who, which, what, whoever, whatever, whichevere.g. Who will do the job is still a question. (who has a definite meaning ‘the person

who’). What is worth doing is worth doing well. Whoever breaks the law deserves a fine (whoever is used with a universal meaning ‘anyone who’). In present-day English whoever has taken over, in many contexts, both universal and

definite meanings: Whoever told you that was lying (whoever = ‘the person who’, ‘anyone who’).

- adverbial wh-elements: when, where, why, how e.g. Where he is at present still obsesses me.

How the book will sell depends on the author.b) asyndetically e.g. 'Come to see me' is what he told me on his departure.2.1.2.The Position of Subject ClausesThe subject clause may have initial position (especially in literary style) or non-initial

position:e.g. Whether he will come is doubtful.

Who her mother was and how she came to die in that forlornness were questions that often pressed on Eppie’s mind. (G.E.)

That he didn’t understand was evident. What she loved best in the world just then was riding. (J.G.)

The subject clause may undergo extraposition, i.e. it is moved to the end of the sentence. The empty NP position left after extraposition is filled by the introductory pronoun it (which becomes the normal subject of the sentence), e.g. It was evident that he didn’t understand.

It is doubtful whether he will come.The operation of extraposition generates sets of syntactic synonyms. Sentences with

the subject clause in initial position are formal in style, while those with the extraposed subject clause are informal in style and are, by far, the more common and widespread.

18


Unlike subject clauses introduced by that which are more frequent when extraposed, those introduced by what are frequent in initial position.

2.1.3.Classes of words that trigger a Subject ClauseThe presence of certain adjectives, nouns, verbs in the main clause requires the use of

a subject clause:a) adjectives; most of them are evaluative adjectives expressing some comment of

the speaker on the state of affairs given in the clause: amazing, apparent, astonishing, bad, certain, definite, doubtful, essential, evident, funny, good, gratifying, helpful, important, incredible, likely, marvellous, obvious, odd, plain, possible, probable, strange, sure, surprising, uncertain, unlikely.

They occur in the pattern: IT+BE / SEEM / APPEAR + Adj. + That-Clause e.g. It is strange that he did so badly.

It is unlikely that he will come. That he did not have any chance was clear to anyone.

b) nouns, mostly from the same semantic field as the adjectives above: amazement, certainty, doubt, evidence, idea, miracle, mystery, pity, problem, shame, shock, surprise, wonder, etc. They occur in the pattern:

IT+ BE / SEEM + Noun +That-clause e.g. It’s a pity that you can’t join us.

It’s really a wonder that he didn’t cause a traffic accident. It’s really a mystery how he managed to raise all that money. That he could do such a thing was a shock for his mother.

c) verbs: - intransitive verbs: appear, come about, happen, seem, turn out e.g. It seems that he has changed his mind.

It so happens that I am busy throughout the week.- transitive verbs of psychological state: alarm, amaze, anger, annoy, astonish, astound, baffle, bother, charm, comfort, displease, disgust, embarrass, frighten, intrigue, irritate, madden, please, relieve, satisfy, surprise, tempt, etc. The Direct Object is [+ animate] and the whole sentence expresses the reaction of this animate participant to the fact reported in the subject clause.

e.g. It intrigues me that nothing better came out of it. 2.1.4. Constraints upon the moods and tenses in Subject Clauses:a) the Indicative Mood is used in the Subject Clause after the adjectives: apparent,

certain, clear, evident, likely, marvelous, obvious, plain, true, and after the nouns: a fact, secret, wonder; - a Present Tense in the main clause is followed by any tense in the Subject Clause:

e.g. It is certain that he has been/ was/ will be here. It’s true that some of us haven’t got enough training. It’s certain he’s working on an experiment. It is likely that they will build a new road.

19


- a Past Tense in the main clause is followed by a Past Tense or a Past Perfect in the Subject Clause:

e.g. It was clear that Tom had left earlier. It was obvious that everything had been settled.

b) The Subjunctive Mood is used in the Subject Clause after:- the adjectives: appropriate, advisable, compulsory, desirable, essential, fitting, imperative, important, inevitable, natural, necessary, normal, obligatory, right, recommendable, urgent, vital, etc. The verb in the Subject Clause is in the Analytic Subjunctive (with the auxiliary should):

e.g. It is absolutely necessary that he should come, too. It is important that they should be announced. Is it necessary that I should answer that question? (T.H.)In American English as well as in the official (juridical, political) and elevated style the Synthetic Subjunctive I (the same form as the short infinitive) is preferred:

e.g. It is absolutely necessary that they come too. It is imperative that they send the goods immediately.

- after the adjectives likely, possible, probable the verb in the Subject Clause is in the Analytic Subjunctive (may/might + Infinitive) when the sentence is in the affirmative. In the interrogative and negative the auxiliary should is used:

e.g. Is it possible that he may/might arrive tomorrow. It is probable that more visitors may visit the exhibition on Sunday. It is likely that it may rain tonight. Is it possible that he should know so little? It is not likely that we should get through our work today.

c) After words expressing psychological reactions such as the verbs alarm, amaze, irritate, the adjectives amazing, disgraceful, gratifying, odd, strange, surprising, unthinkable, the nouns pity, shame, surprise, the verb in the Subject Clause is in the Indicative Mood or in the Analytic Subjunctive: the Indicative is used when reference is made to an actually existing state of things; the Subjunctive stresses the subjective reaction, emotional attitude of the speaker (the Subjunctive is used when the idea or the feeling is emphasized).

e.g. It is surprising that he is resigning (the resignation itself is an assumed fact). It is surprising that he should resign (the very idea of his resigning is surprising). It is odd that he denies the facts. It is odd that he should deny the facts.2.1.5. Reduction of Subject Clauses to Non-finite forms:a) an infinitival phrase: the Subject clause may be reduced to a construction with a

to-infinitive or a for-NP-to infinitive (it seems to be used in preference to the that-clause in both British and American English)e.g. It is wise of you to go there (cf. It is wise of you that you should go there).

20


It is important for both drivers and pedestrians to obey the traffic rules. (cf. It is important that both drivers and pedestrians should obey the traffic rules). It is so kind of you to have come. It is the custom for guests to be received with bread and salt in Romania. It is important for you to read the book. For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable.

When the main clause contains an intransitive verb such as appear, happen, seem, an adjective such as certain, sure, unlikely, the derived non-finite construction usually assumes the following form:

e.g. It seems that Bill has won the prize – Bill seems to have won the prize.

It is certain that Tom will carry out his intentions – Tom is certain to carry out his intentions. The derived sentence is obtained by applying the rule of Raising: this rule moves the subject of the subordinate clause into the main clause where it becomes the subject of the sentence (a Nominative + Infinitive construction).

b) a gerundial phrasee.g. It’s no use crying over spilt milk. It’s no good your bothering about things.

It is certainly an awful nuisance having to wait another hour for the train. Living near the office is an advantage for him.

2.2. Predicative ClausesThe predicative clause discharges the same function in the complex sentence as that

of the predicative in a simple sentence. The link verb is in the main clause. The predicative clause together with the link verb forms a compound nominal predicate to the subject of the main clause.

2.2.1. Introductory elementsHaving the same formal characteristics as subject clauses, predicative clauses usually

share the elements that can introduce them. The predicative clause may be introduced:a) syndetically, by means of

- conjunctions: that, whether, if, as if e.g. The trouble is that I forgot the address.

You look as if you didn’t care. (J.G.)- pronominal wh-elements: who, what, which e.g. That was exactly what I thought.- adverbial wh-elements: where, when, why, how e.g. Home is where your friends and family are. That is why I never call on him.

b) asyndetically: the predicative clause is separated from the main clause by a comma

e.g. The truth is, I have never heard the name before.

21


2.2.2. Classes of words that trigger a Predicative ClauseThe predicative clause is used in sentences when the main clause consists of: a

subject expressed by an abstract noun (assumption, claim, fact, idea, problem, question, reason, statement, etc.) + a copulative verb: be, seem, look.

e.g. The assumption is that things will improve. The problem is not who will go, but who will stay. She recognized that he had charm and her fear was that he had too much. (J.G.)2.2.3. Sequence of tenses in Predicative ClausesA PRESENT TENSE IN THE MAIN CLAUSE IS FOLLOWED BY ANY TENSE IN

THE PREDICATIVE CLAUSE, e.g. The question is if they are/ were/ had been at home.A Past Tense in the main clause is followed by: Past Tense (simultaneity). Past

Perfect (anteriority), Future in the Past (subsequence), e.g. That was exactly what I thought. The alternative was that they would start at seven. The real problem was that they would show up at four.

In clauses introduced by as if Subjunctive II (Past) or III (Perfect) is used: e.g. He knew what suffering was like and this man looked as if he were suffering. (J.G.) The room looked as if it had not been lived in for years. (O.W.)2.2.4. Reduction of Predicative Clauses to Non-finite forms:A Predicative clause can be reduced to:

a) an infinitival phrase e.g. His intention was to say nothing about it.b) a gerundial phrasee.g. Our main problem was finding time to do the work.

2.3. Object ClausesThe object clause has the function of an object to the predicate of the main clause.

There are three types of object clauses: Direct Object Clauses, Indirect Object Clauses, Prepositional Object Clauses.

2.3.1. Direct Object ClausesThe direct object clause discharges a role similar to that of a direct object in the

simple sentence, being in fact an extension of the group of words which can normally express the direct object. e.g. They know the facts.

They know that the scheme is impracticable.

2.3.1.1. Introductory elements: Given their function and structure so closely connected with that of other nominal clauses, i.e. subject clauses, Direct Object Clauses may be introduced in practically the same way as subject clauses:a) syndetically, by means of:

22


- conjunctions: that, if, whether e.g. I told him that he was wrong.If and whether can introduce interrogative clauses, the result being an indirect

question or a dependent alternative question (with the correlative or). e.g. I don’t know if/ whether what shops are open. I don’t know whether it will rain or be sunny.

I don’t care if your car breaks down or not. Only whether can be directly followed by or not, e.g. I don’t care whether or not your car breaks down. But not:* I don’t care if or not your car breaks down. - pronominal wh-elements: who, which, what, whoever, whatever

e.g. The captain decides who shall form the team. I can’t imagine what made him do it.When the wh-element is governed by a preposition, there is a choice between

constructions with the preposition in initial or final position. e.g. He couldn’t remember on which shelf he kept it (formal). He couldn’t remember which shelf he kept it on (informal).- adverbial wh-elements: where, when, why, how e.g. I should like to see where you live, Jon. (J.G.) Few people know how difficult the work has been.

b) asyndetically: the conjunction that is usually deleted leaving a 'zero that-clause' after verbs such as believe, hear, hope, imagine, know, remember, say, see, suppose, tell, think, understand, that is after verbs frequently used in constructions with object clauses. The deletion of that is normal in informal speech, when the clause is brief,

e.g. I know he was wrong. I hear he is leaving. I hope you’re feeling better today. In contrast, the need for clarity forbids the omission of that in long or expanded sentences. Any parenthetic material between the verb of the main clause and the subject of the that-clause is likely to block deletion, as in the following sentence:

He had hoped, in a moment of optimism, that the committee would look favorably on our case.

The conjunction that is never used after I wish, I’d sooner, I’d rather, e.g. I wish he were here.

She wants to fly but I’d rather she went by train.

2.3.1.2. Classes of verbs that trigger a Direct Object ClauseThe Direct Object clause is required by the following transitive verbs: accept,

acknowledge, affirm, announce, answer, appreciate, confess, declare, deduce, demand, deny, desire, discover, doubt, dream, estimate, expect, explain, fancy, feel, figure (out), find, forget, gather, guess, hear, imagine, imply, infer, know, learn, like, love, observe, own, plan, postulate, predict, prefer, presume, profess, pronounce, propose, prove,

23


provide, realize, recall, reckon, recollect, recommend, remark, state, suggest, suppose, teach, testify, think, understand, wonder, write, etc.

2.3.1.3. The position of Direct Object Clauses Direct Object Clauses are usually placed after the main clause

e.g. He did not quite know what she meant. (A.J.C.)Sometimes, for stylistic reasons (to render more emphatic), the Object clause can be

found in initial position e.g. I thought I saw something. What it was I don’t know. (H.G.W.)After verbs such as consider, find, make, owe, put, take, think, the Direct Object

clause is anticipated by the introductory pronoun IT. The construction occurs in three patterns.i. V + IT + That–clause,

e.g. I take it that she gives her consent.ii. V + IT + Adjective + That–clause, e.g. I think it wrong that he didn’t go there. I made it clear that I was dissatisfied. iii. V + IT + PO + That–clause, e.g. I owe it to him that I am a teacher.

2.3.1.4. Tenses and Moods in Direct Object Clauses Object Clauses undergo certain changes in their form to show their dependence on

the main clause, to show the temporal relation (simultaneity, anteriority, subsequence) holding between the actions of the main and subordinate clause:a) The Present, the Present Perfect in the main clause may be accompanied by any

logical tense in the Object Clause. e.g. I wonder where you found it. (H.G.W.) Don’t you understand what has happened in the country? (J.Al.) I hope it will not inconvenience you. (C.D.) I have often thought that life is short. (C.D.) Mary thinks her brother came last night. I know she has posted the letter. I suppose he is here. She knows John will come tomorrow. The Future in the main clause may be accompanied by any logical tense (except Future) in the Object Clause. e.g. I’ll only tell what I know. I shall try to describe what I saw there. I will tell him that I need his help tomorrow morning.

b) The Past Tense in the main clause is accompanied in the Object Clause by:- another Past Tense for simultaneous actions or states, e.g. He did not know what tears were. (O.W.) He thought he saw the curtain move. (C.D.)

24


I supposed he was there. However, the Present instead of the Past Tense is used in the Object Clause if it expresses assertions whose validity exceeds the moment of speaking, that is assertions referring to general or universal truths, e.g. The pupils were taught that the earth is round, or assertions referring to lasting, prolonged situations, e.g. I was told that he is near sighted. I realized that he is a German.- the Past Perfect for previous (anterior) actions or states, e.g. I knew she had posted the letter. Mary thought her brother had come the night before. He flew back and told the prince what he had seen. (O.W.) Harris asked me if I’d ever been there (J.K.J.)- the Future in the Past for subsequent actions or states, e.g. Everyone assumed that he would some day return. (J.Al.)

She knew John would come the following day. He predicted correctly that there was going to be a stock market crash. He called her up one day and said that he and his wife were coming to New York.

But the Future instead of the Future in the Past is used in the Object Clause if it expresses assertions whose validity exceeds the moment of speaking, that is assertions referring to general or universal truths, e.g. We were told that the atomic energy used in science shall change the face of the earth. (general truth)

Type of action Tenses in the main clause

Tenses in the Object Clause

Anteriority Present/ Present Perfect/ Future

Present Perfect

Past Tense/ Past Perfect Past PerfectSimultaneity Present/ Present Perfect/

FuturePresent Tense

Past Tense/ Past Perfect Past TenseSubsequence Present/ Present Perfect Future

Future Present TensePast Tense/ Past Perfect Future in the Past

There are some other constraints on the moods in the Object clauses:a) When the verb in the main clause expresses a request, recommendation or order, such

as agree, arrange, ask, demand, desire, insist, move (= suggest, propose), order, propose, recommend, regret, require, settle, suggest, the Subjunctive mood – the

25


Analytic form with should in British English, or the Synthetic form (in American English or in formal style) – is employed in the Object Clause e.g. He demands that new solutions should be sought. I insist that you should write more carefully. Mr. Dombey proposed that they should start. (C.D.) The people all over the world demand that nuclear weapons be banned. I move that the meeting adjourn (L.C.) Ivory insisted that he be present. (A.J.C.) He recommended that the article be printed.In colloquial English the verbs propose, recommend, suggest may be followed by the Indicative mood (present or past tense).

that Mr. Smith should go (normal) e.g. He proposes that Mr. Smith go (AE or formal style)

that Mr. Smith goes (colloquial).b) After the verb wish in the main clause, the verb in the Object clause is in the

Subjunctive Mood: - the Synthetic Subjunctive II (coinciding in form with the simple Past Tense) is

used to express regret or present unreality: e.g. I wish he were / was here (‘I’m sorry he isn’t here’). I wish I were ten years younger. I wish Lucy was my sister. (G.E.) The verb wish in the main clause can be put into the Past Tense without changing the form of the Subjunctive in the Object Clause,

e.g. He wished he knew (‘He was sorry he didn’t know’).- the Subjunctive II Past (coinciding in form with the Past Perfect Tense) is used to

express regret for an action not performed in the past. e.g. I wish he hadn’t gone (‘I’m sorry he went’). How I wish I had been aware. (T.H.) I wish you had not put yourself to so much trouble. (A.J.C.) The verb wish in the main clause can be put into the Past Tense without changing the form of the Subjunctive in the Object Clause: He wished he had taken her advice (‘He was sorry he hadn’t taken it’).- the Analytic Subjunctive with the auxiliary would to express desire for a future

action or a polite request: e.g. I wish you’d come and see us oftener. (J.G.) I wish you would not talk like this, papa. (J.C.) I wish the rain would stop for a moment. (S.M.) I wish you would speak louder.

2.3.1.5. Reduction of Object Clauses to Non-finite formsa) An infinitival phrase: the finite verb in an Object Clause can be turned into an

infinitive when the subject of the main clause is co-referential with that of the Object Clause

26


e.g. I don’t know what I should do – I don’t know what to do. He was explaining how I / one should start the motor – He was explaining how to start the motor. After verbs of mental perception such as believe, consider, feel, find, guess, judge, know, suspect, think the Direct Object clause can be transformed into an Accusative + Infinitive construction: the subject of the subordinate clause is moved, ‘raised’ into the main sentence where it becomes the Direct Object of the sentence: e.g. I consider that he is a very sensible man. – I consider him to be a very sensible man. I thought that he was an excellent choice. - I thought him to be an excellent choice. The choice of the that- clause or the infinitive construction (Accusative + Infinitive) – with or without be-deletion – depends on semantic factors and to a certain extent on stylistic ones, that- clauses being preferred in informal style and Infinitive constructions in more formal language. e.g. I consider that he is clever – I consider him (to be) clever. With verbs of physical perception – feel, hear, notice, see, watch – the infinitive construction is acceptable only when the verbs refer to immediate physical perception; when they refer to mental perception a that-clause should be used. Compare I saw that he hit the cat – I saw him hit the cat. (saw- physical perception) I saw / felt that he disliked the cat – *I saw him dislike the cat. (saw - mental perception) For a number of verbs – offer, promise, swear, threaten, vow – the infinitive constructions are possible only if there is identity of the two subjects. Compare: He1 promised me that he1 would get (me) the money

to get the money. He promised me that I would get the money

* to get the money In the second pair of sentences *He promised me to get the money the reduction to an infinitive construction is not possible because the subject of the subordinate clause should be co-referential with the subject of the main clause and not with the object of the verb promise.

b) a gerundial phrase: e.g. He admitted that he had made the same mistake again – He admitted having made the same mistake again. Do you mind my / me making a suggestion? I don’t like his ringing us up so often.

2.3.2. Indirect Object ClausesIndirect Object Clauses are an extension on the plane of the complex sentence of

an indirect object in a simple sentence.

27


Indirect object clauses are introduced by relative conjunctive pronouns: who(m), what, whoever, who(m)ever, whatever, whichever governed by the preposition to:

e.g. He told the story to whoever would listen. Give the ticket to who(m)ever you like. He gave the wrong interpretation to what(ever) I said.

2.3.3. Prepositional Object ClausesPrepositional Object Clauses discharge the same function as prepositional objects

in simple sentences, therefore occurring after a number of prepositions which are required by certain verbs.

2.3.3.1. Introductory elements:- conjunctions: that, whether e.g. It all depends on whether he will come or not.- pronominal wh-elements: who/whom, what, whoever/ whomever, whatever,

whichever, e.g. They couldn’t agree on who should tell him the bad news. They were interested in what he was saying. Think of what you are doing. Don’t place too much confidence in whoever flatters you. They all laughed at what she said.

- adverbial wh-elements: when, where, why, how e.g. There are many theories as to why the partridge is disappearing.

It all depends on how you are feeling.The deletion of the prepositionThe preposition is always omitted when the clause is introduced by the

conjunction that:- intransitive verbs such as admit of, complain of, decide on, depend on, hope for,

insist upon, worry about, etc., take a prepositional object in free variation with a that-clause,

e.g. He complained of unfair treatment – He complained that he had been treated unfairly.

The preposition is not deleted if the Object that-clause is anticipated by the empty pronoun it, e.g. Depend upon it that there is some mistake. (J.A.) He insisted upon it that I was wrong.

- there is a large group of transitive verbs that combine with a Direct Object (usually expressed by a [+ animate] NP) and a Prepositional Object; the latter alternates with a that-clause: advise NP of, assure NP of, convince NP of, inform NP of, notify NP of, persuade NP of, warn NP of/against, etc.

e.g. He informed her of our willingness to help. He informed the manager that he was willing to work overtime.

2.3.3.2. Tenses and Moods in Prepositional Object Clauses In Prepositional Object Clauses the rules concerning the sequence of tenses are applied

that he was right.

28


e.g.We agreed upon it that there had been a misunderstanding. that he would apologize.

When the verb in the main clause expresses a psychological state (be sorry/surprised/astonished/amazed/disappointed) the verb in the subordinate clause is either in the Indicative Mood or in the Analytic Subjunctive (with should). The Indicative Mood suggests that the whole sentence is a statement of fact (a report of a reaction or evaluation) while the Subjunctive Mood stresses the subjective reaction of the speaker.

e.g. I am surprised that your wife objects. I am surprised that your wife should object.

Thus, after these constructions in the present tense, we can have a) Present Indicative or should + Infinitive for simultaneous actions:

I’m amazed that he comes here in June.that he should come

b) Present Perfect/Past Tense or should + Perfect Infinitive to express an anterior action:I’m amazed that he has come/came.

that he should have come.If the verb in the main clause is in the Past we have in the Prepositional Object

Clause:a) Past Tense or should + Infinitive for simultaneity:

I was amazed that he came in June. he should come

b) Past Perfect or should + Perfect Infinitive for anteriority:I was amazed that he had come in June.

he should have comeI was sorry she had changed her job.

she should have changed In all these cases, the difference between the sentences with the Subjunctive and those with the Indicative is the difference conveyed by the two moods: Subjunctive and Indicative. In the forms with the Subjunctive the very idea is stressed, the evaluation of a possible event, while in the forms with the Indicative the actual fact is expressed (the description of a real, actual event).

2.3.3.3. Reduction of Prepositional Object Clauses to Non-finite forms A Prepositional Object Clause may be reduced to a gerundial phrase:

- a simple construction when the subject of the main clause is co-referential with that of the Prepositional clause.

e.g. I am tired of being treated like a child. He insisted on seeing you.

- a complex construction: the subject of the subordinate clause assumes the form of the genitive or the object case (in informal style), e.g. I’m surprised at his/ John’s making that mistake. I’m surprised at him/ John making that mistake.

AUTOEVALUARE:

29


Exercise 1. Identify the subordinate clauses and their grammatical function:1. She confesses her love story to whoever is about.2. Their marriage depends on whether their parents are willing to help them.3. They’re not sure whether she’ll be successful with her new part. 4. The team knew that their chances were scanty and God only could still work miracles.5. Never has she paid attention to whatever he says.6. The kid always tells lies to whoever he meets on his way back home.7. She was told that solitude was hard to stand for people like her. 8. I’m afraid she’s unhappy.9. That he left town no one knew.10. He could hardly know what he was talking about.11. He’s glad she’s here.12. They are such pious people that they give food and money to whoever comes to their

place. 13. They were not certain that she would accept their suggestion. 14. His men told us that he was in the hands of a savage tribe.15. The question is where she made such a deep impression.

Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences supplying subject, object or predicative clauses:1. I’d like to know ……………………. 2. I’m not sure …………………. 3. Tell me where …………………………. . 4. She didn’t tell me why ………………… . 5. I can’t explain how ……………………………. . 6. It all depends on how …………….......….. . 7. He suggested that ………………….. . 8. He is certain ….......…………………… . 9. I wondered ………………… . 10. My friend insisted …..........……. . 11. I don’t care …………. . 12. The captain ordered ……………... 13. She was uncertain ……………. . 14. I’m glad …………………… . 15. He dreamed …………… . 16. It seems that ……………….……. . 17. What ……………………… surprised everybody. 18. Where ………… is unknown. 19. We did not realize that ……………………. . 20. The question is how …………………… . 21. How ………………. is what puzzles me more.

Exercise 3. Rewrite each of the following sentences with that clauses starting with the words given:1. People have completely different opinions about this phenomenon. That is my

experience. It’s ………………………………..

2. We may get there in time. It’s certainly possible.It’s ………………………………..

3. My husband completely forgot about my birthday which upset me. The fact …………………………

4. New members have to buy the first round. It’s an old tradition.It’s ………………………………..

5. The new manager would make radical changes. That is what people believed.

30


It ………………………………..6. She still believes in Santa Claus, which I find ridiculous.

I find it ……………………………………..7. They will finish in time. That was their answer.

Their ………………………….8. The company runs at a loss. That is the truth.

The truth ………………………….

Exercise 4. In each group below, cross out any sentences that are not correct:1. a. Paul gave the impression that he hates pop music.

b. That he hates pop music is well known.c. He was talking about that he hates pop music.d. The thing is that he hates pop music.e. She was certain that he hates pop music.f. He explained that he hates pop music.g. The thing that he hates is pop music.

2. a. He explained that he had been held up.b. She excused that she was late.c. That he was late was really inexcusable.d. His excuse that he got lost in the crowded town was not accepted.e. It wasn’t that surprising that she was late.f. The fact of the matter was they were both late.g. The fact that neither was on time for the meeting was extremely annoying.

Exercise 5. Translate into English:1. Ne-a spus că trenul va întârzia cu o jumătate de oră din cauza furtunii. 2. Ştiam că nu este în stare de nimic şi nu se poate întreţine singur. 3. Nu cred că va ieşi curând din această încurcătură în care s-a băgat singur. 4. Îmi dau seama că am greşit mult, având încredere în acei oameni. 5. Încă de pe atunci ştia că apa fierbe la o sută de grade. 6. Mi-a răspuns că nu este în măsură să ne dea nici o explicaţie pentru ceea ce s-a întâmplat şi a refuzat să facă orice alt comentariu. 7. Insistară ca vasul să fie încărcat imediat. 8. Ştiu că nu e un om pe care îl poţi înşela uşor. 9. Îţi sugerez să te mai gândeşti înainte de a lua o hotărâre. 10. Au cerut creşterea salariilor şi o primă de Crăciun. 11. Te sfătuiesc să-şi păstrezi impresiile pentru tine. 12. Problema era că nu luase în considerare toate detaliile. 13. I-am sugerat să-şi găsească altă slujbă dar nu m-a luat în seamă. 14. Eram surprinsă că ei se comportă astfel.

Exercise 6. Complete the sentences with a noun clause and state the function of the clause you have added.

1. He said that he ……………..........................……….. .2. The fact ………………………… is now generally known.3. My brother rarely succeeds in achieving what ……………….. .4. What ………………………….. is of a direct concern to everybody.

31


5. I wanted to discover how ………….......……......……………… .6. The man told his wife where ………………………....……… .7. What …………………….. is less important then what you do.8. I asked the doctor if …………………….................……………..9. The lawyer deplored the fact …………......………………....…… 10. It is clear that ……………………………………...............……….11. It was generally agreed that …………………………..........…….12. His argument is that …………………………….........……………13. Your idea that ………………………….. will probably prove very unpopular. 14. It seems that …………........................................……………….. 15. That ………………………………. is almost unconceivable.16. Is it true that …………….............................………………….. ?17. Exactly how ………………..............……. will never be known.18. He then remembered why ……….................………………… .






London, 1969.

UNITATEA 3. Relative-Attributive Clauses

Restrictive/Defining Relative Clauses Non-Restrictive/Non-Defining Relative Clauses Appositive Attributive Clauses Introductory Emphatic Sentences (Cleft Sentences)

Obiective: Studenţii vor fi capabili:

1. Să recunoască elementele introductive ale propoziţiilor relative.2. Să recunoască caracteristicile propoziţiilor relative restrictive şi descriptive.3. Să reducă o propoziţie relativă la o construcţie impersonală.

32


Timp de studiu: 3 ore.

Relative clauses act as modifiers of NPs. They are therefore functionally parallel to attributive adjectives or phrases. Compare:

People who speak English. – English speaking people.There are two types of relative clauses: those which are essential to the meaning of

the sentence (Restrictive Relative Clauses) and those which merely add some information (Non-restrictive Relative Clauses).

3.1. Restrictive/ Defining Relative Clauses A Restrictive Relative Clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence because it helps to identify the subject or another nominal part of the sentence – the antecedent – and, therefore, cannot be omitted without losing the clarity of the sentence.

3.1.1. Introductory elements:- relative pronouns: who, which, that, as e.g. My brother who lives at Leeds is younger than my brother who lives in London. This is the picture which caused such a sensation. The bus that goes to the station stops at this corner. He gave me the same answer as he had given the day before. - wh-adverbs: where, when, why can replace the relative pronouns, as in the following examples: e.g. The store in which I buy groceries is across the street. The store where I buy groceries is across the street. Sunday is the day on which we usually watch TV. Sunday is the day when we usually watch TV.

The selection of the relative pronounRelative pronouns are not interchangeable in general; which specific relative pronoun

is used depends on several factors:- the selectional features of the antecedent and of the replaced noun; - the syntactic function of the replaced noun; - certain other features such as particular syntactic combinations, euphony. The selectional features of the antecedent The choice of the introductory element (who, which, or that) depends on the following

features of the antecedent: [ human]: who is selected for [+human] nouns, which stands for [–human], while

that for [ human]. e.g. The man whom / that I knew no longer works here. The car which / that I hired broke down after five miles.[ definite]: that is preferred when the antecedent is determined by a superlative, an

ordinal numeral or when the antecedent is expressed by an indefinite pronoun (all, everything, nothing, anybody, anything).

33


e.g. It was the hottest place that I had ever been in. (J.K.J.) Was there anybody that they thought would suit? (C.D.) All that glitters is not gold. Which was the first steamship that crossed the Atlantic?The syntactic function

Syntactically, who and which can be used for the three functions subject (who, which), object (whom, which), possessive (whose, of which); that can express two functions only: subject and object; it cannot be preceded by a preposition.

e.g. This is the man who told us about it (subject). I don’t like the people whom you invited to the party (object). The voice that spoke was cold and cruel. (O.W.) (subject)

When she sees the damage that you have done she will be furious. He is a man whose judgement you can trust (possessive). The house whose windows are broken is unoccupied.The form whose is extensively used with a possessive value to refer to a [-human]

antecedent as well. Not all writers are happy about using whose when the antecedent is [–human], while the form of which sounds rather formal: The house the windows of which is broken is unoccupied. That is why, some grammarians (see Hornby, A Guide to patterns and Usage in English, p. 170), suggest that in such cases it is preferable to avoid the use of whose and of which and to resort to a prepositional phrase that takes the place of the clause, e.g. The house with broken windows is unoccupied.

Euphony Euphony can play a role in the choice of the relative pronouns. Thus, that is preferred

after interrogatives and exclamatory who, though not necessarily if the relative is separated from the antecedent. Similarly, the demonstrative pronoun that tends to be followed by which rather than that,

e.g. Who that ever came into personal contact with him could help loving him? Who was it now that/ who had done that? I use the word not in the present state but in that which it had in the 17th

century.

3.1.2. Asyndetic Relative Clauses In spoken English many relative clauses are introduced asyndetically, which can be interpreted as an ellipsis of the relative pronoun. Such clauses introduced asyndetically are sometimes called contact or unconnected relative clauses. The deletion of the relative pronoun depends on its function in the sentence. The pronoun can be deleted when it discharges the function of:

- direct object, e.g. The lawyer (whom) I consulted gave me some useful advice. The book (which) I lent you belongs to my brother. That’s all I know.

The room I shared with lieutenant Rinaldi looked out on the courtyard. (E.H.)

34


I devoured the books they lent me. (C.B.) If there is anything I can do for you I’m always at your service.(J.G.)

- indirect or prepositional object: deletion is possible if the preposition is moved to the end of the sentence. e.g. Who is the man to whom you are talking? – Who is the man you were talking

to? This is the book about which I was telling you – This is the book I was

telling you about. This is the hotel in which I stayed last month. - This is the hotel I stayed in

last month. There are cases when it is not possible to move the preposition to the end of the sentence. This is particularly true of the prepositions which are felt as being derived from other parts of speech such as round, during, concerning, regarding, except.

e.g. This is the plan regarding which he called her – *This is the plan (which) he called her regarding.

The preposition cannot be moved to the end of the sentence when the antecedent is expressed by a very abstract noun, such as time, place, manner, e.g. That is the day on which he left – *That is the day (which) he left on. Alternatively, if that is used – and this is by far more common case – the preposition is dropped; the relative pronoun that is also dropped more often than not. e.g. This was the day (that) he left.

The sea was very rough the day we crossed the Channel. That’s not the way I do it (cf. The way in which I do).

The reason he comes here is unknown (cf. The reason for which he comes here is unknown).

Alternatively, words denoting place, time, reason (not manner) can be followed by corresponding relative adverbs (where, when, why). e.g. This was the place where he went.

This was the time when he arrived. This was the reason why he did it.After words denoting manner (way) that is used: This was the way that he did it.

- the relative pronoun cannot be omitted when it is subject e.g. The man who told me this refused to give his name.

Nevertheless, the relative pronoun functioning as subject may be deleted in sentences opening with it is, there is. The ellipsis of the relative pronoun was very frequent in Middle and Early Modern English. Nowadays it is a feature of colloquial and careless speech:

e.g. There’s two or three of us () have seen strange sights.(W.S.) There’s somebody wants to see you. This is the only one there is (cf. This is the only one that exists).R.Quirk et al (1972: 867) give a summary of the introductory elements (syndetic and

asyndetic) of the Restrictive Relative Clauses:The man who / that stayed in the new hotel.

35


The table that / which stayed in the new hotel.

The man whom / that / Ø / I saw.The table that / Ø / which I saw.

The man at whom I glanced.The table at which I glanced.

The place where / at which / that / Ø I tried out the new car.The time at which / that / Ø / when I tried out the new car.

The reason why / that / Ø I tried out the new car.The way that / Ø / in which I tried out the new car.

3.1.3. Transformations involving Restrictive Relative ClausesRelative Clauses constitute an important source for other modifiers (premodifying

and postmodifying constructions): what happens is that finite relative clauses are turned into non-finite clauses or prepositional phrases, going through a process of partial nominalization whereby they obligatorily lose the tense constituent and optionally the aspect constituent. a) Adjectives: Restrictive Relative Clauses may be condensed through ellipsis to the form of an adjective,

e.g. Plays which are controversies – Controversial plays. We apply Relative Clause reduction (i.e. the reduction of the relative pronoun + auxiliary), e.g. Plays controversial and then a rule called Modifier Shift, which moves the adjective in pre-nominal position, e.g. Controversial plays. b) Prepositional phrases: Prepositional phrases are derived from Relative Clauses and represent a very common type of NP postmodification. The full range of prepositions is involved:

e.g. Passengers who are on board this ship – Passengers on board this ship. A man who has a tall hat on. – A man with a tall hat on. The girl who is near Fred. – The girl near Fred.

I asked for the best book on the subject (cf. I asked for the best book that can be found on the subject)

c) Non-finite forms: -ing participles: when the verb of the finite Relative Clause is in the continuous aspect, both the relative pronoun and the auxiliary be are omitted:

e.g. The man who is waiting in the hall is a friend of mine – The man waiting in the hall is a friend of mine.

But –ing in postmodifiers is not always a reduction of a continuous form: there are a large number of cases where an –ing postmodifier cannot correspond to a continuous form in the Relative Clause. Thus, stative verbs which cannot have the progressive in the finite verb phrase, can, nevertheless, appear in –ing postmodifiers.

36


e.g. Anyone who wishes to leave early may do so – Anyone wishing to leave early may do so.

He is talking to a girl resembling Jane (cf. ...who resembles Jane; ... *who is resembling Jane).

-ed participles: when the verb in the Relative Clause is in the passive voice the relative pronoun and the finite form of be are usually omitted

e.g. The goods that were ordered last month have not arrived yet. - The goods ordered last month have not arrived yet.

All the coins (which were) found on this site must be handed to the police. - infinitives: are also obtained from the reduction of a Relative Clause especially when the antecedent is determined by superlatives, ordinal numerals, or when the Relative Clause contains modal verbs,

e.g. The last man who left the ship was the skipper → The last man to leave the ship was the skipper.

The Romans were the first who made coloured glass → The Romans were the first to make coloured glass. The procedure which must / should be followed →

The procedure to be followed.The antecedent need not be the subject of the Relative Clause, it may be its direct or

even its prepositional object, so that the infinitive clause has a distinct subject expressed in the surface structure (introduced by for).

e.g. A place that we should visit – A place for us to visit – A place to visit.If the relative pronoun is a prepositional object and the preposition precedes the

pronoun, it is possible to retain the relative in the infinitival modifier. e.g. This is a convenient tool with which you can work – This is a convenient tool with which to work. - This is a convenient tool to work with.

3.1.4. Sequence of tenses in Restrictive Relative Clauses: Restrictive Relative Clauses allow freedom of general logic to govern the tenses, without any influence of the tense constraints, e.g.

For she sang of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (O.W.) But the bolts I had screwed up some days before stopped him. (H.G.W.) Next spring I will bring you back two beautiful jewels in place of those you have given away. (O.W.)

3.2. Non-restrictive/Non-defining Relative Clauses

Non-restrictive (or Non-defining) Relative Clauses are not essential to the meaning of the sentence: the clauses give additional, but not essential information. Unlike Restrictive Relative Clauses, they can be omitted without causing confusion. Also unlike Restrictive Clauses they are placed between commas or dashes. Non-restrictive clauses are far less common than restrictive clauses. They are found in formal writing, but seldom in speech.

37


e.g. Your student, whose name I can never remember, has just come. Given that a Non-restrictive Relative Clause makes an additional assertion, it is plausible to assume that Non-restrictive Relative Clauses are derived from coordinated sentences. The evidence in support of this derivation of Non-restrictive Relative Clauses is their synonymy with coordinated sentences

e.g. Even John, who is a friend of mine, left early – Even John left early and he is a friend of mine.

3.2.1. Introductory elements of Non-Restrictive Relative ClausesNon-restrictive Relative Clauses are introduced by:

- relative pronouns: who, which. These pronouns are distributed according to the features of the antecedent: who for [+animate] antecedents, which for [–animate] antecedents.

e.g. John, who is going 16, wants to become an actor. The Shannon, which is the largest river in the British Isles, rises in the North of Ireland and flows to the Atlantic.Syntactically, the pronouns can be used to express the functions of subject (who, which), object (whom, which), possessive (whose, of which), e.g.

Jane Austen, whom the English regard as one of their greatest novelists, seldom moved far from her native village. This pen, which I bought two months ago, leaks badly. Mr. Green, whose wife teaches English, is himself a teacher of English. This encyclopedia, of which the second volume (or: the second volume of which) is missing, is out of date.

- adverbs: where, when, e.g. Waterloo, where Wellington defeated Napoleon, is a small village near

Brussels. In those days, when steam engine was unknown, textile mills were worked by the water of the rivers.

Unlike Restrictive Relative Clauses, Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses cannot be introduced asyndetically, i.e. the relative pronoun cannot be omitted.

3.2.2. Sentential Relative ClausesA Non-Restrictive Relative Clause may refer not to a single noun as antecedent but to

a whole clause or sentence. Sentential Relative Clauses are introduced by which (in such cases the relative pronoun may be equivalent to 'and this', 'and it').

e.g. He has to work on Sundays, which (= and this) he does not like. He missed the train, which annoyed him very much. After that things improved, which surprised me.

3.3. Appositive Attributive ClausesThe Appositive Attributive Clause conveys more or less essential information being

appended to a non-significant, semantically irrelevant noun such as assumption, belief, doubt, fact, feeling, idea, impression, notion, opinion, problem, question, reason, thought.

38


3.3.1. Introductory elements:- conjunctions: that, whether, if, e.g. There is no denying the fact that he has made great progress lately. Your assumption that things will improve is unfounded.

Harry was alarmed at the notion that his friend was about to leave him. (W.M.T.)

The similarity to Restrictive Relative Clauses can sometimes cause ambiguity, since that can function as either a relative pronoun or a conjunction. Consider the following sentence: A report that he stole was ultimately sent to the police. In this sentence two readings are possible depending on the possibility of interpreting the antecedent report as a concrete object or as an abstract one: in one interpretation that he stole is a Restrictive Relative Clause (‘a report/book which he stole’), in another that he stole is appositive (‘the report/ rumour was’).

- adverbs: where, when, why, how, e.g. I have no idea where you can find her. My original question why he did it at all has not been answered. I have not the faintest notion when he’ll come.Appositive attributive clauses are never joined asyndetically.

3.3.2. Mood constraints in Appositive ClausesAfter the nouns recommendation, demand, request, suggestion, wish, the Analytic

Subjunctive (expressed by should) is used in the Appositive clause: e.g. His suggestion that we should go to the cinema was accepted.

The thought that his adored daughter should learn of that old scandal hurt his pride too much. (J.G.) The demand that pupils should be grounded in the reading and writing of English led Edinburgh to the establishment of preparatory schools. His recommendation that the patients should take this medicine was strictly followed.

3.3.3. Non-finite forms: an infinitival phrase,e.g. My ambition to be an actor has never been fulfilled.

3.4. Introductory Emphatic Sentences (Cleft Sentences) An Introductory Emphatic Sentence (or Cleft Sentence) is a special construction which gives emphasis (focal and thematic prominence) to a particular element of the sentence. It is made up of two parts:

- a main clause introduced by the empty pronoun IT (‘introductory emphatic IT’) + the verb BE (usually in the Present or Past singular) + the element on which the focus/emphasis falls;

- a Restrictive Relative Clause introduced by the pronoun who, which, sometimes that or introduced asyndetically. The pattern is:

39


IT + BE + FOCAL/EMPHASIZED ELEMENT + RELATIVE CLAUSE This construction may emphasize any part of the sentence except the predicate (which is emphasized by means of the verb to do): - Subject as focus:

It was she who stopped the car.(J.G.) Old Jolyon spoke: it was he who had started the discussion. (J.G.) But it is not I altogether that am to blame. (T.H.) It is not improvements which are necessary but a complete revolution.

- Object as focus: It is not only the famous men whom we honour. You are wrong; it’s not Sarah I hate.

- Adverbial as focus: When the prepositional object or the adverbial modifier (expressed by a noun or pronoun with a preposition, adverb, etc.) is given emphasis, the subordinate clause is introduced by that.

e.g. It was in his dealings with children that the best side of his personality manifested. (J.G.) (prepositional object)

It was on the beach, close down by the sea, that I found them. (C.D.) (adverbial modifier of place)

It was only the following morning that she noticed the disappearance of that photograph. (J.G.) (adverbial modifier of time)

AUTOEVALUARE:Exercise 1. Join the following pairs of sentences and state whether you have

written defining or non-defining clauses. (Both are possible in several cases):1. I have read all his books. They are about the sea.2. He has written some books about the sea. I have read them all.3. You will marry a certain man. He will be tall, dark and handsome.4. Is that book interesting? I mean the one Joanna gave you.5. Tokyo has a low crime rate. It is, incidentally, one of the largest cities in the world.6. She trusted only one man. He was called Hector.7. Some people can live happily alone. He envied them.8. Let us raise our glasses to a man. From his early efforts this large business has grown.9. That man will return to Egypt. He has drunk the waters of the Nile.10. My uncle was called a coward. He had served bravely in the war.

Exercise 2. Identify and analyse the attributive clauses:1. The man I spoke to yesterday continued to complain about burying his life in this part

of the country.2. His wife, to whom he has been married for about three months, refused to come with

him.3. The reason why he crept between the two bushes so as to reach the hollow linden-tree

remained unknown to her.4. He had no idea of what his elder brother had decided to do with his old bike when he

came back from his holiday.

40


5. I lost my purse on the same street as you did.6. He was the last person to follow them on their way to that dangerous region.7. I’ve got a pretty good idea of what to do next.8. They knew nothing about the source whence the money was coming.9. A very important aspect, that they would never accept her proposition, should have

been considered. 10. Everybody says that he is very stubborn, a fact which surprised nobody.11. The question whether the suggestion was to be accepted or not interests all the

members of the staff.12. He gave a stupid answer, which fact annoyed his parents.

Exercise 3. Translate into English:a)1. Răspunse dând din cap, ceea ce era nostim pentru el. 2. Ea este femeia pentru care el a acceptat oferta.3. Terasa pe care se îngrămădea lumea să vadă spectacolul dădea spre parcul de

distracţii.4. Scorpia de femeie pe care avea s-o suporte ani la rând era sora vecinei lui.5. Aceea a fost ziua în care s-a hotărât totul.6. Întrebarea de ce unii vin la serbare prea devreme sau prea târziu e inutilă.

b) O luam atunci înapoi spre casă şi, ducând în braţe minunata povară, aveam sentimentul că în realitate sunt un om fericit şi că suferinţa mea e o iluzie, o himeră pe care ar trebui s-o alunge; puteam trăi astfel o mie de ani şi muri liniştit. Altceva, o bucurie mai mare nu există pe pământ, restul e nerozie. Acasă, însă, ne întâmpina mama ei, care mi-o smulgea literalmente din braţe şi punea stăpânire pe ea: că n-am văzut că fetiţa a obosit? Ce, am de gând s-o omor, aşa cum i-am spus când am auzit că e însărcinată cu ea? Cred eu că a uitat sau că o să uite vreodată aceste cuvinte? O să i le spună fetiţei când s-o face mare, să ştie şi ea ce tată a avut şi cât de mult a dorit el să vie pe lume. Aveam atunci sentimental net că ea ghicea că sunt fericit şi vroia să nu fiu şi avea şi puterea s-o facă. De ce? mă întrebam. Ce rău îi făcusem? Totul se întuneca, nimic nu mai avea înţeles şi valul de singurătate urca iarăşi în mine cu o putere parcă mai mare.

(Marin Preda, Cel mai iubit dintre pământeni)BIBLIOGRAFIE: 1. Bădescu, A., Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Stiintifica, Bucureşti, 1963.2. Bantaş, A., Elements of Descriptive English Syntax, TUB, Bucureşti, 1977.3. Budai, L., Gramatica engleza, Teorie si exercitii, Editura Teora, Bucureşti, 1997.4. Gălăţeanu, G., Comişel, E., Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Didactică şi pedagogică,


Sentence. Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2008.

41


7. Murar I., Ana-Maria Trantescu, Pisoschi C., Descriptive English Syntax. Theory and Practice. Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2008.

8. Şerban D., English Syntax, volume one, Bucureşti, 1982.9. Ştefănescu, I., Lectures in English Morphology, TUB, Bucureşti, 1978.10. Quirk R., Greenbaum S., Leech G., Swartvick J., A Grammar of Contemporary


London, 1969.

UNITATEA 4. Adverbial ClausesAdverbial Clauses of TimeAdverbial Clauses of Purpose Adverbial Clauses of Condition

Obiective: Studenţii vor fi capabili:1. Să cunoască folosirea corectă a timpurilor în subordonata temporală.2. Să cunoască regulile de folosire a timpurilor şi modurilor în circumstanţiala de

scop.3. Să identifice tipurile de propoziţie condiţională şi să cunoască folosirea modurilor

şi timpurilor în acestea.


Adverbial clauses may be placed in various semantic categories such as place, time, manner, etc. These categories may be related to those for adverbial phrases in general and for prepositional phrases at the level of the simple sentence. Adverbial clauses are often commutable with prepositional phrases. Compare:

Because the soloist was ill they cancelled the concert. Because of the soloist’s illness they cancelled the concert.

Adverbial clauses, like adverbials in general, are capable of occurring in a final, initial or medial position within the main clause (generally in that order of frequency).

Adverbial Clauses of TimeThe adverbial clause of time discharges the same function as the adverbial

modifier of time at the level of the simple sentence.

Introductory elementsAdverbial clauses of time may be introduced by a number of connective adverbs

and conjunctions: after, as, before, once, since, till, until, when, whenever, whereas, while; as soon as, as/so long as, directly (that), hardly...when, scarcely...when, no sooner...than.

e.g. When the cat is away the mice will play. (Proverb) After she had finished her shopping she went to a snack-bar. Buy your tickets as soon as you can.

42


He sang as he worked. They ask for help whenever they need. I was reading while my brother was watching TV. So long as you are happy, I don’t mind. He recognized me directly he saw me. You can go now (that) you’ve finished. I will have done my homework by the time you come.

With till/until a dynamic verb in the main clause often has to be accompanied by a negative word:

e.g. He didn’t start to read until he was 10 years old. (in the negative sentence not...until means the same as not...before).

Sequence of Tenses in Adverbial Clauses of TimeAdverbial clauses of time are subject to many constraints as part of the set of rules

called the sequence of tenses, which can be summarized as follows:a) parallel (simultaneous) actions: the action of the verb in the temporal clause occurs at

the same time or during the action of the verb in the main clause. The parallel actions are indicated by:- the Present Tense or the Past Tense in the main clause followed by the same tense

– Present or Past – in the temporal clause,e.g. He comes here when (ever) he likes.

When I have some days off I go to the mountains. He came here when(ever) he felt like it. And the Giant’s heart melted as he looked out of the window. (O.W.) When I left for school this morning it was raining hard. He was writing a letter when his friend rang him up.

- the Future Tense in the main clause is followed by the Present Tense in the temporal clause:

e.g. I shall wait till the spring comes and then I shall pay him a visit. (O.W.) You will change your tone when you hear what has happened. (G.B.S.) He will come here when(ever) he thinks fit to do so.

- the Future in the Past is followed by the Past Tense in the temporal clause, e.g. He said he would come when he could. I told you I would call on you when I had some spare time.

b) Anterior (Prior) actions: the action of the verb of the temporal clause takes place before that of the main clause. Anterior actions are indicated by:- the Present or the Future Tense in the main clause is followed by the Present

Perfect in the temporal clause, e.g. You cannot stay here after what you have just said about my future husband.

(G.B.S.) You will speak when I have done. We’ll go to the pictures when we have finished our work.

- the Past Tense in the main clause is followed by the Past Perfect in the temporal clause,

43


e.g. The children were sent to bed when they had finished their meal. (J.Al.)

When he had sealed and stamped the envelope he went back to the window. (J.G.) After they had bought their tickets they entered the opera-hall and looked for their seats.

The Past Tense may be used instead of the Past Perfect in temporal clauses introduced by after, till, until if anteriority results from the context:

e.g. He didn’t leave until he (had) received a definite answer. He rang up all his friends after he (had) returned from his trip. After the Romans had gone/went away from Britain, the Anglo-Saxons crossed the North Sea and landed there.

- the Future in the Past is followed by the Past Perfect in temporal clauses, e.g. He promised he would come as soon as he had finished his work. I told him that I would leave as soon as I had got my diploma.

- the Present Perfect in the main clause is followed by the Past Tense in temporal clauses introduced by since:e.g. They have moved house three times since they got married.

I have been walking to work since my car broke down. I haven’t seen him since he left school.

When the two actions are parallel, the Present Perfect is employed in temporal clauses,e.g. I’ve lost a hundred and forty at cards since I’ve been down here. (W.M.T.)

We have made many friends since we have lived here.c) Subsequent actions: the action of the verb of the temporal clause takes place after that

of the main clause. Subsequent actions are indicated by: - the Past Tense or the Past Perfect in the main clause is followed by the Past Tense

in the temporal clause. The time relation is indicated by the conjunctions till, until, before, when:e.g. The film began/had begun before I reached the cinema-hall.

He left / had left before I came. When I got to the conference, the lecturer had already been speaking for an hour.

- the Past Perfect in the main clause is followed by the Past Tense in the temporal clause. The rule is applied in sentences containing the correlatives hardly...when, scarcely...when, no sooner...than (the adverbs hardly, scarcely, no sooner may be placed in front position with subject-auxiliary inversion):

MAIN CLAUSE TEMPORAL CLAUSEHardly + Past Perfect... when + Past TenseScarcely + Past Perfect... when + Past TenseNo sooner + Past Perfect... than + Past Tense

e.g. They’d hardly got on the train when it started. Jim had no sooner posted the letter than he remembered he hadn’t stamped it.

44


I had scarcely replaced the receiver when the telephone rang again. Hardly had they started the engine when it began to rain. They had no sooner got there, than the phone rang. No sooner had they got there than the phone rang.

Reduction of Adverbial Clauses of Time to Non-Finite Forms a) a participial phrase: the Adverbial Clause of Time may be reduced to a participial phrase when the subject of the main clause is co-referential with that of the subordinate clause: e.g. Turning the corner, the lorry hit the tree.

Having done my homework, I went to the cinema. Abbreviated –ing forms may follow the conjunctions when(ever), while, e.g.

He does a lot of reading when travelling by train. While waiting at the dentist’s I read a whole short story.

b) a gerundial phrase introduced by the prepositions after, before, on, in, e.g. When we opened the door we saw him. – (On) opening the door we saw him. While I was trying to open the door I burst the key. – In trying to open the door I burst the key. I switched off the lights before going to bed. After John’s/his passing all his exams, his friends came to celebrate.

c) a past participle preceded by after, before, once, since, when:e.g. Once published, the book caused a remarkable stir.

Some dogs become vicious when chained up.d) an infinitival phrase:

e.g. She grew up to be a successful actress. I awoke one morning to find the house in an uproar.

The sentences could be paraphrased by switching the relationship of subordination and using a when-clause: When I awoke one morning I found the house in an uproar. The restriction of infinitival phrases to final position suggests an analogy between these clauses – called clauses of “outcome” – and Clauses of Result which they resemble in meaning.e) Verbless clauses: In a clause of the type Subject + Be + Adverbial/ Predicative, the Subject + be can be deleted to form a verbless clause:

e.g. While still at school he wrote his first novel. When in doubt, leave out.

Adverbial Clauses of PurposeAdverbial Clauses of Purpose discharge the same function as Adverbial Modifiers of

Purpose in simple sentences. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose can express affirmative or negative purpose.

Clauses of Affirmative PurposeIntroductory elements

45


Clauses of Affirmative Purpose are introduced by the conjunctions so that, in order that, that (rarely used except in formal style).

Send the postcard immediately so that he can get it in due time. His brother lent him some money in order that he could buy that dictionary.

Tense and mood constraints The Adverbial Clause of Affirmative Purpose usually contains an Analytic Subjunctive formed by means of the modal auxiliaries will/would, can/could, may/might, shall/should. The choice of the auxiliary depends on two factors:

- the tense of the verb in the main clause: will, can, may, shall are used when the main verb is in the present, present perfect or future tense; would, could, might, should are used when the main verb is in the past tense.

- the introductory conjunction: so that may be followed by any auxiliary, in order that is followed by may, shall; while that is normally followed by may.

e.g. I’ll send the letter airmail so that he will / can /may get it right away. He wrote the notice in several languages so that the foreign tourists could understand them. I lent him the dictionary so that he might do the translation. Thirty copies of the book were bought so that each boy in the class should have one. I did it in order that everyone should be satisfied. The door of Scrooge’s house was open that he might keep an eye upon his clerk. (C.D.)

Clauses of Negative PurposeIntroductory elements

Clauses of negative purpose are introduced by the conjunctions so that, lest (formal), for fear that, in case (colloquial). So that is the only conjunction that admits a negative verb in the clause; the verb is affirmative after the other conjunctions.

I must give him a ring so that he won’t forget what to bring for the party.

Tense and mood constraints The Adverbial Clause of negative purpose usually contains an Analytic Subjunctive formed by means of the auxiliaries will / would, shall / should, may / might or the Indicative Mood. As with clauses of affirmative purpose, the choice of the auxiliary depends on the tense of the verb in the main clause and on the introductory conjunction: for fear that may be followed by any of the three auxiliaries, so that, lest and in case are normally followed by shall/ should.

e.g. He hid behind some bushes for fear that passers-by should see him. He didn’t turn on the light for fear that she might wake up. I didn’t tell him for fear that he would put the blame on me. Put out the candles, so that they shan’t see the light when I open the shutters. (G.B.S.)

46


I must give him a list so that he won’t forget what to buy. She dared not approach a window lest he should see her from the street. (C.D.) She was going on tiptoes lest she should disturb him. The Indicative Mood (simple Present or Past Tense) is used only in clauses

introduced by in casee.g. I’ll give him a list in case he should forget what to buy. I’ll give him a list in case he forgets what to buy.

Reduction of Adverbial Clauses of Purpose to Non-finite forms: The Adverbial Clause of Purpose may be reduced to an infinitival or gerundial construction, when the subject of the main clause is co-referential with that of the subordinate clause:

a) an infinitival construction when the subject is identical with that of the main clause:He went to the theatre so that he could see the new performance. – He went to the theatre to see the new performance.

The FOR-TO Infinitive construction is used when the subjects are different:He took his children to the theatre for them to see the new performance.

The infinitive can be preceded by so as, in order, to emphasize the idea of purpose:He went to the theatre so as / in order to see the new performance.

The infinitival construction can be reduced to a prepositional construction:They strove to get a new job - / They strove for a new job.

b) a gerundial construction preceded by the preposition for: The gerund is used to express the general purpose of things, while the infinitive is used when we are considering a particular purpose: A corkscrew is a tool for opening bottles. I’m looking for a corkscrew to open this bottle with.

Adverbial Clauses of ConditionThe Adverbial Clause of Condition has no correspondent on the plane of the syntax of

the simple sentence, condition being expressed with the help of a verb inside the clause.Conditional clauses state the dependence of one circumstance upon another. A

complex sentence containing a clause of condition is made up of two parts:- the subordinate clause of condition/ -if clause which refers to the condition which

would have to be fulfilled in order to make possible the action of the main clause;- the main clause which expresses the result or the effect of the condition.

Introductory elements:Subordinate Clauses of Condition may be introduced by means of the following

conjunctions: if, unless, on condition (that), provided (that), providing (that), suppose, supposing (that), so long as, in case. If is the most frequent conjunction; it can introduce all types of conditional clauses.

47


Types of Conditional Clauses Conditional clauses can be interpreted from two points of view:a) from the point of view of their relation to present reality, conditional clauses may

appear as:- real, i.e. not contradicting present reality- unreal, i.e. in contradiction with present realityb) from the point of view of the relation in time to the moment of speaking or

writing, conditional clauses may refer to three periods: future, present, past. The overlapping between these two points of view leads to three types of conditional sentences: Type I: Future–possible sentences; Type II: Present–unreal sentences; Type III: Past–unreal sentences. Type I: Future–possible sentences (Clauses of real or probable condition) Conditional clauses belonging to this type express a possible situation not contradicting present reality and they usually refer to a future or present period:

a) those referring to the future express a condition possible or real in a future moment. They include the Present Tense of the Indicative Mood in the Conditional Clause and Future Tense in the Main Clause.e.g. We’ll leave tomorrow if the weather is good.

You won’t be able to borrow books unless you get a reader’s card. Her father will beat her if she does not bring home some money. (O.W.)

The Present Perfect Tense is also used in the Conditional Clause e.g. Nobody will blame you if you have forgotten the author’s name. Unless he has done the work to my satisfaction I shall not pay him for it. “Well, Jon”, said Val, “if you’ve finished, we’ll go and have coffee”.(J.G.)b) Those referring to the present express general facts, statements of universal truths

and habitual reactions. They require the Present Tense of the Indicative Mood both in the Main and the Conditional Clause (Type 0: cause and effect). If you heat butter, it melts. If you put salt in water it dissolves. ”If you are going my way,” he said, “I can give you a lift”.(J.G.) If I make a mistake the teacher always finds it. If I make a promise, I keep it.

In this type of sentence the conjunction if, corresponds closely in meaning to when(ever).

Statements in this form commonly appear in factual discussions or explanatory (particularly scientific and technical) material. The tenses in both the Conditional and the Main clause are the same (Present or Past). Thus the last sentence may be written in the past tense with a similar correspondence between the verb forms in the two clauses:

If I made a promise, I kept it.

48


THE IMPERATIVE MOOD IS ALSO USED IN THE MAIN CLAUSE: e.g. If you meet him tell him to come back at once. Don’t come unless I tell you to come.c) Those referring to the past use the same tense – the Past Tense of the Indicative

Mood – both in the Main and the Conditional Clause. e.g. If she betrayed any agitation, he did not observe it. (C.D.) He made a mistake if he acted like that.

Some conditional clauses are in fact disguised temporal clauses referring to a past habitual action (the conjunction if is replaceable by when, since, whenever).

e.g. If he felt tired, he went for a walk.Centuries ago, if a man had fever, he usually died.

Besides the conjunction if, Type I – Conditional Clauses are introduced by provided (that), providing (that), on condition that, so long as, in case, unless.

Provided (that), providing (that), on condition that, so long as can replace if when there is a rather stronger idea of limitation or restriction (= if and only if)

e.g. I shall accept the offer provided (that) the terms are favourable. I’ll forgive you provided you tell the truth. I shall go on condition that you go too. So long as you return the book by Saturday, I will lend it to you with pleasure.

In case refers to possible future condition: e.g. In case I can’t come, I’ll send you a wire.Unless followed by a verb in the affirmative introduces negative condition. The

conjunction has the same meaning as if not but it is more emphatic. Compare: I won’t say anything if he does not bring up the matter himself. – I won’t say anything unless he brings up the matter himself. You need not meet him unless you like. (G.B.S.)If-clauses are like questions in that they imply uncertainty about the actual existence

of the circumstances referred to. Therefore they tend to contain non-assertive forms such as ever, any.

e.g. If you ever have any trouble let me know.Clauses introduced by unless, on the other hand, lay stress on the excluded positive

option, and so, they usually contain assertive forms: e.g. I won’t phone you unless something unforeseen happens.Type II: Present-unreal sentences (Clauses of unreal, improbable condition

referring to the present or future)They express an action which refers to an unreal, improbable situation in the present

or future. The verb in the Main Clause is in the Present Conditional (should or would + the short infinitive or could/might + the short infinitive when a corresponding modal meaning is implied). The verb in the Conditional Clause is in the Synthetic Subjunctive II, i.e. in the Past Subjunctive (equivalent to the Past Tense except for the verb to be which has the form were in all persons).

e.g. I wouldn’t do this if I were you.

49


I should be sorry if you thought ill of me. (S.M.) Perhaps if you explained a little more fully, I should comprehend better. (C.B.) If she went down again to Tom now, would he forgive her? (G.E.) If little Hans came up here and saw our warm fire and our good supper he might get envious. (O.W.) I should not dream of doing so if I were not your friend. I’d buy the coat if it were/was cheaper. (There is a growing tendency to use

was instead of the subjunctive form were if the subject is in the 1st or 3rd person singular). The Conditional Clause contains the modal verbs might, could. e.g. “I would not alarm you if I could avoid it”, rejoined Rose. (C.D.) If I could only have one flower I should have lilies of the valley”. (J.G.)Besides if, Type II- Conditional Clauses are frequently introduced by suppose,

supposing (that) to underline a hypothetical, improbable condition: e.g. Suppose you were a teacher, what would you do? Suppose / supposing your friends knew how you are behaving here, what would they think?Type III: Past-unreal sentences (Clauses of unreal / impossible condition

referring to the past)They express a hypothetical condition which has failed to be fulfilled. The verb in the

Main Clause is in the Perfect / Past Conditional (should/would + perfect infinitive or could/might + perfect infinitive). The verb in the Conditional Clause is in the Perfect Subjunctive or Past Subjunctive II (equivalent to the Past Perfect Tense).

e.g. If Mr. Reed had been alive he would have treated me kindly.(C.B.) It would have been terrible if any cloud had come across a friendship like ours.(O.W.) If I had been his brother, he could not have seemed more pleased to see me.(J.G.) She imagined so often what her life would have been like if her father could have loved her. (C.D.)Besides the well known types of conditional sentences there are two mixed types of

sentences of unreal condition:i. the condition refers to the past and the consequences refer to the present or future:

e.g. If you had taken your medicine yesterday, you would feel better now. If she had taken my advice, today she would be on good terms with her parents.

ii. the condition refers to no particular time and the consequences refer to the past: e.g. If he were not so absent-minded, he would not have mistaken you for your sister. If she were not so beautiful, he would never have married her.The tenses and moods used in Conditional sentences:

Type of clauses Tense/Mood in the Tense/Mood in the

50


main clause conditional clauseType I Real Conditiona) referring to the futureb) referring to the

presentc) referring to the past

Future IndicativePresent Indicative/ImperativePast Tense/Present Perfect Indicative

Present IndicativePresent IndicativePast Tense/Present Perfect Indicative

Type II – Present Unreal Condition

Present Conditional Past Subjunctive= Past Tense

Type III – Past Unreal Condition

Past Conditional Perfect Subjunctive (= Past Perfect)

Special constructions in Conditional Sentencesa) In the literary style the conjunction if can be omitted, with subject-auxiliary inversion. Inversion is never made in clauses of real condition (Type I), but is fairly often operated in clauses of unreal condition referring to the present (Type II) and in those referring to the past (Type III).- In subordinate clauses whose predicate contains an auxiliary (be, have) or a modal verb (could, might) in the past tense or past perfect if may be omitted with subject-auxiliary inversion. In such cases the Conditional clause is placed at the beginning:

e.g. If I were in your position I should apologize – Were I in your position I should apologize.

Were I in her place, it seems to me I should wish the earth to open and swallow me up.(C.B.) Had it ever occurred to me that such a suspicion would have entered your mind, I would have died rather than have crossed your life.(O.W.) Had she found Jane in any apparent danger, Mrs. Bennet would have been

very miserable.(J.A.)- When the verb in the subordinate clause is expressed by a notional verb, if may be omitted and the Analytic Subjunctive with should may be used:

e.g. If he came earlier we could go to the theatre – Should he come earlier we could go to the theatre.

Should the container explode, there would almost certainly be widespread danger.

b) Apart from the types of conditional clauses outlined above, there are some types involving special verb forms:- In Type I clauses the Synthetic Subjunctive I (equivalent to the short infinitive) is sometimes used instead of the Present Tense Indicative. This usage is mainly confined to very formal style (in elevated literary style, in legal or scientific contexts):

e.g. If your answer be what I almost dare to hope it is, it will shed a gleam of happiness upon my lonely way.(C.D.)

If any person be found guilty, he shall have the right of appeal.

51


If the production and stockpiling of atomic weapons be stopped, considerable sums of money will be released.

- In Type II and Type I clauses special constructions can be used to emphasize the hypothetical, suppositional nature of the condition (i.e. when the writer or speaker considers the condition highly improbable or wishes to imply that the action in the Conditional Clause, though possible, is unlikely to be fulfilled):

- were + to-infinitive occurs in Type II clausese.g. If I were to meet him I wouldn’t recognize him.

If it were / was to rain we should get wet. He felt that if he were to live a hundred years he never could forget. (C.D.)- should + infinitive occurs in Type I and Type II clauses (both with or without

inversion)e.g. If he should come, let me know (= if by any chance he comes).

If you should be offered the money would you accept it? If this machine should fail to give satisfaction, we guarantee to refund (the) purchase money. You will understand, sir, that if we should have the misfortune to hang you, we shall do it as a mere matter of political necessity.(G.B.S.)

- In conditional clauses willingness may be expressed by will or would which should not be considered as auxiliaries for the future tense, but as modal verbs, retaining their modal meaning, that of volition: will occurs in Type I clauses, would in Type I (= politeness) and Type II (= willingness) clauses.

e.g. If you will help me (= if you are so kind as to help me) we can finish in time. My mother would be very glad indeed if you would come too. (G.B.S.) My friend here and myself would be much obliged if you would tell us how you caught the trout up there.(J.K.J.) If any lady or gentleman would lend me a fiver I should be very much obliged indeed. (J.K.J.)

c) If only is an intensified equivalent of if, typically used in hypothetical clauses to express what the speaker wishes had happened or would happen

e.g. If only somebody had told us, we could have warned you. If only you had helped them, so many things could have been prevented.The subordinate clause introduced by if only nearly always precedes the main clause.

Sometimes, however, the main clause may be absent and the Conditional Clause stands on its own as a hypothetical wish.

e.g. If only it could always be spring! (J.G.) If only she were more careful! If only I hadn’t lost it! If only she would come back.

52


Instead of a sentence with a Conditional Clause, we sometimes have two coordinate clauses:

e.g. Spare the rod and spoil the child. (Prov.) (= If a child is spared punishment, it will be spoilt).

Give him an inch and he’ll take a yard.

Reduction of Conditional Clauses to Non-finite formsa) an –en participle, when the subject of the Conditional Clause is co-referential with

that of the main clause, e.g. Given time, he’ll make a first-class tennis player.

Taken in small amounts, it can do no harm.The participle may be introduced by the conjunctions if, unless e.g. If pressed, the button will start the alarm clock. She never writes letters unless compelled by circumstances.

b) an –ing participle: e.g. Judging by appearences, she must be telling the truth.

Taking all things into consideration, his life has been a happy one.c) an infinitival phrase:

e.g. To hear him speak (= if you hear him speak) you would think him a specialist.

It would hurt her to talk like that.

AUTOEVALUARE:

Exercise 1. Point out the adverbial clauses in the following sentences and state what kind they are.

1. Tell me their address, so that I may go and see them.2. The car was still where I had left it the day before.3. When we awoke, our parents had already left.4. Nobody blamed me as I blamed myself. 5. As it was already late, we stopped work for the day.6. Whatever it was it did not really matter.7. It was quiet all around, so quiet that you could trace the flight of a mosquito by its

buzz. 8. Do not disturb him unless something very important happens.9. Although we could see nothing, we distinctly heard the sound of falling water.10. The question is easier than I thought. 11. If I were you I wouldn’t sell the collection.12. He talked as if he were a specialist.13. The sooner you finish your work, the sooner you will go home.14. The change was so sudden that I was shocked and a little scared.15. You ought to write English as Marie does. 16. Wherever you may go, he will not forget you.17. Give him an inch and he’ll take a yard.

53


Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences supplying adverbial clauses of:a) place1. We met where ……………...............................................………… . 2. Begin to read where ………....................................................……. . 3. She shall have music wherever ….....................................……….b) time1. Write to me as soon as ……….........................................………… . 2. The moment ….............................…… they all rushed downstairs. 3. I’ll do it while …………...................................................……………. 4. You can stay as long as …...............................................……….. . 5. You’ll find the truth once ………..................................................... 6. I met him as ……............................................................................ . 7. She hasn’t written since ………..............................................……. .c) cause1. Since ………................................…… I’ll do my best to please her. 2. I can’t agree to it because …….................................……………… . 3. As ………………........................................ I think I will return later. 4. We must finish now, for ….....................................………………. . 5. As ……………..........................................……, you’d better leave. d) purpose1. Take your thick clothes lest …………....................................…… . 2. We didn’t move in case …….......................................................… . 3. We climbed higher so that …….............................………………… .

e) result1. I was so curious that …………..............................………………… . 2. It is so cold that …………...................................................……….. . 3. The wind was of such strength that …........................................…

f) comparison or manner1. He did it as well as …………......................................................….. 2. It is not so easy as …..............................................……………… . 3. She looked very excited as if …….....................................……… . 4. You look taller than ……….......................…….. . 5. The longer we walked the more …......................…….. . 6. They knew the place as though …….............................................. .

g) concession1. Even though ………………................….. I should not refused him. 2. No matter how ………...................……. we shall try our hand at it. 3. Tired as …………....................................…… he went on working.

h) condition

54


1. They will certainly be there in time provided ….......……………….. . 2. Should you ……………...................…….. you are always welcome. 3. If …………............……… I would be pleased. 4. Ellen would have come if ………............................................……… 5. Nobody would accept that job unless …………….....................…. 6. Had I known the truth ……………...............................…………….. .

Exercise 3. Reduce the following adverbial clauses:1. When he looked outside, he saw the police car.2. Because she didn’t feel very well, she sat down.3. After he had retired, Cecil decided to travel.4. I was really quite flattered at first, because I was asked to work with one of the

professors.5. Because it was barking loudly, the dog scared us.6. Before you leave, switch off the lights.7. He stood there, as if he was waiting for someone. 8. Although they are small, terriers are tough. 9. When it is seen from space, the Earth is blue.10. Though it had been broken, it still worked.11. While they waited in line for buses during a recent one-day train strike, London’s

commuters displayed remarkable patience with their struggling Underground.

Exercise 4. Translate into English:1. Unul dintre băieţi s-a desprins din grup şi s-a întors de unde a venit. 2. Doreau să ajungă la locul unde cetatea era susţinută de piloni de piatră, şi la lacul

limpede de unde aveau imaginea panoramică a întregii văi.3. Se opreau să se odihnească oriunde se putea.4. Cu atât mai devreme, cu atât mai bine.5. Nu vor fi fericiţi până nu vor avea un copil.6. Femeia rămase mult în întuneric până a venit nepotul ei să aprindă lampa. 7. A fost mult mai politicos decât m-am aşteptat. 8. Nu putea să fie la fel de docil ca şi ea.9. Mergeau încotro li se spusese.10. De îndată ce termină facultatea trebuie să-şi găsească o slujbă.11. După cum era de aşteptat, s-a supărat.12. Imediat ce ajunse acasă, se înfricoşă cumplit din cauza zgomotului care venea din

sufragerie.13. Nu puteau să treacă şi să mai zăbovească acolo câteva minute de teamă să nu întârzie

la recepţie. 14. Oricât de cinic este, păstrează-ţi cumpătul. 15. Tatăl ei i-a dat mai mulţi bani decât i-ai dat tu săptămâna trecută.16. Fiindcă turna cu găleata, abia puteam să vedem drumul.17. De câte ori se aduce discuţia despre filme vechi, este foarte entuziasmată. 18. Copila era atât de dezamăgită încât se aruncă în fotoliu şi începu să plângă.19. Dacă ceaţa s-ar ridica, am putea pleca mai departe.

55


20. În timp ce mergeau spre casă, ei nu ştiau că ceva se va întâmpla la căderea nopţii şi viaţa li se va schimba pentru totdeauna.

21. Dacă aş fi bănuit ceva, l-aş fi întrebat şi l-aş fi ajutat.22. I-am lăsat cartea deschisă ca să găsească mai uşor pasajul. 23. Vorbea de parcă era un om cinstit, cu o bună reputaţie.24. Atât de ciudat se comporta încât toţi îl priveau cu uimire.






London, 1969.

UNITATEA 5. Direct and Indirect Speech

Changes in the deictic categories Syntactic changes Free Indirect Speech

Obiective:

1. Să identifice schimbările categoriilor deictice ce au loc în procesul trecerii de la vorbirea directă la vorbirea indirectă.

2. Să identifice transformările sintactice în acelaşi proces.3. Să transforme diverse tipuri de propoziţii de la vorbirea directă la cea indirectă.


DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

When reproducing speeches and thoughts of other people or even one’s own previous statements, one may do it in two ways:

56


- by direct quotation: by repeating the original speaker’s exact words, called in grammars Direct Speech. Remarks thus repeated are placed between inverted commas, and a comma is placed immediately before the remark, e.g. He said, “I’ve lost my book.” She said, “I’ll see you tomorrow!” - by using special constructions, mainly subordinate clauses, i.e. direct object clauses, which reproduce the quoted words, without necessarily using the speaker’s exact words. This is called Indirect Speech or Reported Speech, e.g. He said he had lost his book. She said (that) she would see me the next day.

5.1. Changes in the deictic categories The most important structural modifications occurring in the conversion of direct speech into indirect speech concern the deictic categories (i.e. the orientational features of language) which relate an utterance to the given participants, to the time and the place of the utterance. Deictic categories include personal, reflexive, possessive, demonstrative pronouns, tenses, place and time adverbials. One or more of these deictic categories may be different in Indirect Speech sentences, as the latter may be produced by different participants at a different time and in a different place. There are also constraints regarding the tenses of the verb which are subordinated to the rules of the sequence of tenses in different Object Clauses. Consequently, the following types of changes are apt to occur:

5.1.1. The personal, possessive, reflexive and emphatic pronouns are shifted according to sense, e.g. first and second person personal pronouns may shift to the third person (except when the speaker is reporting his own words). e.g. Tom said to Mary, “You should have asked me first.” – Tom told Mary she should have asked him first.

The demonstrative pronouns denoting proximity (this, these) are replaced by the demonstratives denoting remoteness (that, those) e.g. He said, “She is coming this week” – He said that she was coming that week.

This and that used as adjectives usually change to the: e.g. He said, “I bought this book/these books for my sister.”- He said that he had bought the book(s) for his sister.

Changes affecting the adverbs refer mainly to those of definite time and to those of place. The adverbs and adverbial phrases denoting proximity are replaced by adverbs and adverbial phrases denoting a distancing effect: now – then, today – that day, yesterday – the day before/the previous day, the day before yesterday – two days before, last night – the previous night, last week – the previous week/the week before, a year ago – a year before, tomorrow – the next day/the following day, the day after tomorrow – in two days’ time, next week/year – the next/the following week, here – there. e.g. He said, “I saw Mary yesterday.” – He said he had seen Mary the day before.

57


He said, “Smith will be back tomorrow.” – He said Smith would be back the following day. The teacher said, “Tom, bring your paintings the day after tomorrow.” – The teacher told Tom to bring his paintings in two days’ time.But if the speech is made and reported on the same day these time changes are not

necessary. e.g. At breakfast this morning he said, “I’ll be very busy today.” – At breakfast this morning he said that he would be very busy today. 7:00 a.m. Radio-news report: Steel workers are planning a trade meeting tomorrow. – They said on the radio this morning that steel workers are planning a trade-union meeting tomorrow. (If the sentence is reported on the same day). But Peter the next day: They said on the radio yesterday that steel workers are planning a trade-union meeting today.

5.1.2. The most important changes take place in the verb phrase. Changes affecting the verb refer to the tense of the verb and occasionally the mood.

When the verb in the main or reporting clause is in the Present Tense, Present Perfect or Future Tense, statements may be reported without any change of tense

e.g. He says, “The train will be late.” – He says that the train will be late. Alice has said to Tom, “I’ll help you if I can” – Alice has told Tom that she will help him if she can. When the verb in the reporting clause is in the Present/Present Perfect/Future,

demonstrative adjectives, pronouns, adverbs remain unchanged in the reported clausee.g. Alice has said, “I’ll come here tomorrow.” – Alice has promised to come here

tomorrow. When the verb in the reporting clause is in the Past Tense, it is usual for the verb in the reported clause to be back shifted. In semantic terms, backshift may be explained as follows: the time of the original speech which is now for direct speech becomes then for indirect speech and all times referred to in the speech, accordingly, become shifted with respect to that point of orientation.

Direct Back ShiftedPresent becomes Past TensePast TensePresent PerfectPast Perfect

becomes Past Perfect

Future Tense becomes Future in the Past

a) Present Tense becomes Past Tense e.g. He said, “My father does not agree.” – He said that his father did not agree.

58


Tom said, “I have many friends.” – Tom said that he had many friends. He said to them “I’ve been very busy today.”- He said to them that he had been very busy that day. He said to them “How tired I am!” – He exclaimed that he was very tired. He said to them “Will you help me to solve this matter?” – He asked them if they would help him to solve that matter.Exceptions to backshift: bearing in mind that backshift is part of the natural temporal

distancing that takes place when we report what was said in the past, we should not be surprised that the rule of backshift can be ignored in cases where the validity of the statement reported holds for the present as much as for the time of utterance, i.e. the past:- when the reported clause expresses a repeated action

e.g. George said, “I go to the seaside every summer.” – George said that he went/ goes to the seaside every summer.

- when there is a statement of universal truth e.g. The teacher said, “Water boils at 1000 C.” – The teacher said that water boils at 1000 C. “Nothing can harm a good man”, said Socrates. – Socrates said that nothing can/could harm a good man. (The statement is a universal assertion which, if it was true for Socrates’ time, should also be true today. We can therefore report it either by applying or ignoring the back shift rule).

b) Past Tense/Present Perfect/Past Perfect become Past Perfect e.g. Mother said, “Tom hurt himself.” – Mother said that Tom had hurt himself.

“I’ve already seen him”, he said. – He said that he had already seen him. He said, “We were thinking of moving house but we have changed our minds.” –

He said that they had been thinking of moving house but they had changed their minds.

Exceptions to backshift:- in theory, the past tense changes to the past perfect but in spoken English it is often

left unchanged, provided this can be done without causing confusion about the relative times of the action,

e.g. He said, “Ann arrived on Monday”, should be reported: He said that Ann arrived/had arrived on Monday.- when a definite moment is indicated e.g. He said, “I was born in 1928.” - He said that he was born in 1928.- when a statement is retold in Indirect Speech immediately after it has been made (on

the same day) e.g. I talked to him this morning. – She said she talked to him this morning.- repeated actions in the past

59


e.g. Tom said, “I invited all my friends to my birthday parties when I was young.” – Tom said that he invited all his friends to his birthday parties when he was young.- in subordinate clauses of time (the main verb of such clauses can either remain

unchanged or become the past perfect) e.g. He said, “When we were living / lived in London we often saw Paul.” – He said

that when they were living / lived in London they often saw Paul / had often seen Paul.

- in Conditional Clauses (Type II) e.g. Harry said, “I would go to the museum if it was/were open.” – Harry said he would go to the museum if it was open.- in clauses after wish, would rather, it’s time e.g. He said, “I wish I knew.” – He said that he wished he knew.

“It’s time you finished your papers”, the teacher said. – The teacher said it was time they finished their papers.

c) Future Tense becomes Future in the Past e.g. He said, “Ann will be in London on Monday.” – He said that Ann would be in London on Monday.

Peter said, “I’m going to buy a new car next year.” – Peter said he was going to buy a new car next year. The backshift is not applied when the action is future not only for the original statement but also for the time of the report

e.g. Peter said, “I’ll take up engineering after graduation.” – Peter said he’ll take up engineering after graduation.d) The backshift of modal auxiliary verbs: If there is a change in time reference, a modal auxiliary verb is back shifted from present tense forms to past tense forms even if these do not normally indicate past time in direct speech: can – could, may – might, will – would, e.g. He said, “You can come with me if you like.” - He said I could come with him if I liked.

She thought, “He may be right.” – She thought he might be right. Tom said, “The mechanic can fix the brakes on my car, but he won’t.” – Tom complained that the mechanic could fix the brakes on his car, but he wouldn’t.On the other hand, would, should, could, might, ought to, need, must (logical

necessity), used to do not normally change e.g. I said, “He ought to know.” – I said he ought to know.

He said, “I would help her if I could.” – He said he would help her if he could. She said, “I’m always running into him; he must live quite near.” – She said that she was always running into him and that he must live quite near.When must expresses obligation, it can become would have to, or had to,

60


e.g. Mary said, “I must go to school now.” – Mary said she had to go to school immediately.

Peter said, “I must go to a conference tomorrow.” – Peter said he would have to go to a conference the next day.Need remains unchanged, alternatively it can change to didn’t have to, wouldn’t have

to, e.g. He said, “I needn’t be in the office till ten tomorrow morning.” – He said that he needn’t/didn’t have to be in the office till ten the next morning.

Could remains unchanged in indirect speech or is changed according to meaning, e.g. She said, “I could read when I was five.” – She said that she could / had been able to read when she was five.

He said, “When I was a child I couldn’t interrupt my parents.” – He said that when he was a child he couldn’t / wasn’t allowed to interrupt his parents.Changes in the mood of the verb occur mainly when the imperative in an independent

sentence is reproduced into an infinitive or a subjunctive in indirect speech. 5.2. Syntactic changes refer to two levels: on the one hand, it is a matter of changing independent sentences into subordinate clauses, and on the other hand, the changes are reflected inside this new clause in the arrangement of words in keeping with the rules for declarative sentences. Independent sentences (which may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamations) become subordinate direct object clauses.5.2.1. Declarative sentences (statements) become subordinate object clauses. Largely, one might say that verbs that serve to introduce direct speech, can also introduce indirect speech. This is true for a large number of ‘communication’ verbs: advise, ask, claim, confess, declare, explain, insist, promise, protest, remark, say, state, suggest, tell. If the verb say is not followed by an Indirect Object it normally remains with reported speech. e.g. She said, “The roof is leaking.” – She said that the roof was leaking.

But, if the verb say is followed by an Indirect Object, it is usually changed into some such verbs as tell¸ etc.

He told me that the roof was leaking.There are verbs that can introduce only direct speech sentences: gasp, snap, sneer.

e.g. “You’re some kid”, he sneered. – *He sneered that I was some kid.

In reported speech such verbs have to be expressed with say + an adverbial of manner, e.g. to sneer = to say derisively, to snap = to say suddenly, etc.

And there are verbs that can only introduce indirect speech sentences: deny, forget, e.g. He denied that he was sick. – *He denied “I’m sick.”

Yes and no are expressed in indirect speech by means of:- the subject + auxiliary verb e.g. “Is this device safe?” “Yes.” – The man asked if the device was safe and the mechanic replied that it was. “Can you swim?” “No.” – He asked (me) if I could swim and

61


I said that I couldn’t.- verbs of assertion (accept, agree, assent, answer in the affirmative) and verbs of

negation respectively (deny, refuse, reject, answer in the negative). e.g. They said, “Yes, we are coming.” – They agreed to come.

He said, “No, I haven’t been there.” – He denied having been there.

5.2.2. Interrogative sentences (questions) become object clauses. When interrogative sentences are used in indirect speech they become declarative sentences: the interrogative form of the verb becomes declarative (affirmative or negative), the subject precedes the predicate, the auxiliary verb do is omitted. e.g. He asked, “Where does he live?” – He asked where he lived.

He said, “Where is the station?” – He asked where the station was.The object clause is introduced by a verb of inquiry: ask, inquire, wonder, want to

know.- the special questions preserve the introductory element, i.e. who, which, what, why, where, when, how, e.g. He said, “when will they return?” – He asked when they would return.

“Why is Tom angry?”, Helen asked me. Helen asked me / wondered why Tom was angry.

“How do you spell the word?” the teacher has asked. – The teacher has asked how they spell the word.

- the general questions are introduced by if or whether, e.g. Peter is saying, “Isn’t Tom coming?” – Peter wants to know if Tom is not coming.

He asked, “Is that true?” – He asked if / whether it was true.- alternative questions are introduced by whether, e.g. “Are you going to the theatre or to the cinema” Tom said to his sister. – Tom asked his sister whether she was going to the theatre or to the cinema.

“Are you accompanied by Peter or by your sister?”, Mr. Adams said to me. – Mr. Adams asked me whether I was accompanied by Peter or by my sister.General questions introduced by will, would, shall, could are changed into indirect

speech according to the general meaning. a) Shall I / we- a question about a future event, action, e.g. “Shall I see you tomorrow?” Bob said. – Bob wanted to know if he would see me the next day.- request for instruction or advice, e.g. “Shall I buy the red dress, mother?” Ann said. – Ann asked her mother if she should buy the red dress.- offer e.g. “Shall I bring you your coat?” Mary said. – Mary offered to

62


bring me my coat.- suggestion e.g. “Shall we have a snack?” Tom said. – Tom suggested having / that they should have a snack.b) Will / would / could you:- a question about a future action, e.g. “Will you be there tomorrow?” he said. – He asked if she would be there the next day. - request, e.g. “Could you help me?” Tom said. – Tom asked if she could help him; Tom asked her to help him.- Invitation, e.g. “Would you attend the meeting?” the children said to their teacher. – The children asked / invited their teacher to their meeting.

He said, “Will you have a drink?” – He asked me if I would like a drink; He offered me a drink.

5.2.3. Imperative sentences turn into infinitival constructions.- affirmative: e.g. “Let me alone!” the child cried. – The child asked to be left alone.

She said, “Sit down, Peter!” – She told Peter to sit down.- negative: e.g. Don’t interrupt the speaker, please. – He asked them not to interrupt the speaker.

The infinitival construction is governed by verbs expressing order (command, forbid, order, tell, etc.), request (ask, beg, entreat, implore, request, urge, etc.), advice (advise, recommend, warn, etc.) according to circumstances. e.g. He said, “Please, give me another chance.” – He begged them to give him another chance.

“You’d better stay in bed for a few days, Peter!” the doctor said. – The doctor advised Peter to stay in bed for a few days.

Imperatives expressing a general order may be transformed into a that-clause (with should) when the command is introduced by advise, command, order, recommend, urge, suggest,

e.g. Officer to soldiers, “Clean the barracks!” – The officer ordered the soldiers to clean the barracks; The officer ordered that the soldiers should clean the barracks.

Nick said, “Let’s watch TV!” – Nick suggested watching TV; Nick suggested that they should watch TV. Jane said suddenly: “Let’s have a party!” – Jane suggested having a party; Jane suggested that they should have a party.

63


A possible alternative to the infinitive construction is a that-clause with the verb be to. The be to construction is particularly useful in the following cases:- when the command is introduced by a verb in the present tense e.g. The teacher says, “Do the next exercise.” – The teacher says that we are to do the next exercise.

He says, “Meet me at the station.” – He says that we are to meet him at the station.

- the command is preceded by a clause (usually of time or condition) e.g. She said, “If he comes, ring me up.” – She said that if he came we were to ring her up.

5.2.4. Exclamatory sentences (Exclamations) become declarative sentences in indirect speech. They turn into clauses governed by the verbs complain, cry, exclaim, observe, shout, say + an adverb of manner, e.g. say admiringly, say scornfully, etc. The following transformations are possible depending on the nature of the exclamation:- exclamations introduced by what, how are transformed into direct object clauses

introduced by that, e.g. “What a funny joke!” he said. – He exclaimed that the joke was funny.

“How tired I am!” the woman said. – The woman complained that she was tired. “What a delicious cake!” the guest said. – The guest said admiringly that the cake was delicious.

- exclamations such as oh! ugh! alas! ah! are rendered by periphrastic constructions such as He exclaimed with disgust/ surprise; He gave an exclamation of disgust/ surprise, etc.

e.g. She said, “Alas! I’ll never be happy again.” – She exclaimed in despair that she would never be happy again.- greetings and wishes are rendered by semantically related verbs, e.g. They said, “Good morning!” – They greeted me/ They wished me good morning.

He said, “Well done!” – He congratulated me. He said, “Thank you!” – He thanked me. She said, “Happy to see you at my place!” – She welcomed me.

5.3. FREE INDIRECT SPEECHFree Indirect Speech is a half-way stage between direct and indirect speech and is

used extensively in modern narrative writing. It consists in reporting an utterance indirectly by back shifting the verb, while omitting the reporting verb (He said; He asked, etc.)Direct Speech: Ann said, “Why do you always have to pick on me?”Indirect Speech: Ann asked why they always had to pick on her.Free Indirect Speech: Why did they always have to pick on her?

64


Free Indirect Speech is a more flexible medium for reporting than normal indirect speech; it also aids concision by allowing a writer to retell someone’s words without having to keep inserting expressions like He said or He exclaimed. David moved slowly and thoughtfully. He would not be deterred. (implied: He said/thought, ‚I won’t be deterred.’)

Unlike ordinary indirect speech, free indirect speech retains the potentialities of direct speech structure (direct question form, tag questions, exclamations, etc.). e.g. Here was Tom at last! (thought John).

Could he be imagining things? (wondered Mary). She had known. Only why, as he sat there, had he still this strange dominance over her?...Why, even now, if he looked at her and commanded her, would she have to obey?...But once he was obeyed, then she had him in her power, she knew, to lead him where she would. She was sure of herself…Ah, he was not a man! (D.H.Lawrence: Sons and Lovers)

It is therefore only the backshift of the verb, together with equivalent shifts in pronouns, determiners and adverbs that signals the fact that the words are being reported, rather than being in direct speech. The use of free indirect speech for describing “interior monologue” has become a very widespread practice in the fiction of the twentieth century.

AUTOEVALUARE:Exercise 1. Write the appropriate form of the verbs in brackets:

1. John asked me if I (be) going to the party.2. William says he (want) to be a teacher when he grows up.3. At lunch time my wife called to ask me where I (be) all morning.4. He asked if I (ever visit) London before.5. He wanted to know if I (can lend) him the CD player.6. Jane called me on my mobile and asked me where I (be).

Exercise 2. Change the following into indirect speech:1. ‘I suggest you spent a few days there’, I said.2. He asked, ‘What are you going to do?’3. ‘What a stupid thing’, I said.4. ‘Join us if you like’, Pete said.5. ‘Bring the book here immediately’, she ordered.6. ‘We met in Venice last March’, he replied.7. ‘Don’t lie’, she said.8. ‘I intended to make these changes yesterday’, Ann said.

Exercise 3. Turn the following sentences from the indirect speech into the direct speech:1. That woman wanted to know what my name was and where I lived.

65


2. Mike decided that he would go to London the next day.3. Tom said that his parents were coming that afternoon.4. The teacher told us to open our notebooks and to do that exercise.5. Mrs. Smith wondered whether her husband managed to catch the plain.6. She gave an exclamation of surprise and kissed me.7. Mother advised me not to leave so late.8. He promised he would call on us in a day or two.9. Emma told Pete that she was very grateful to him for everything he had done for

her. 10. I asked the boy if he was not homesick sometimes.

Exercise 4. Change the following from direct to indirect speech:1. We say, ‘We are learning English’.2. The boy is saying, ‘I can’t speak Spanish’.3. I asked him, ‘Had you been there before?’4. Tom said to me, ‘I bought the book yesterday’.5. Te pupils always say, ‘We are never late’.6. They said, ‘We have never seen that film before’.7. I heard your answer, ‘That monastery wasn’t built by him; his father built it’.8. You seldom say to him, ‘You are a diligent boy’.9. I repeated, ‘I live in Bucharest’.10. He said, ‘Nobody came to see me at the hospital’.11. The teacher asked them, ‘Why didn’t you take your dictionaries’.12. Mother asked me, ‘Where did you put my gloves?’13. The old man shouted angrily ‘I have been waiting too long’.14. Mark answered ‘I have never visited them’.

Exercise 5. Complete each sentence using indirect speech in such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaning to the sentence above it:

1. ‘I will buy the flowers myself’.Mrs. Smith said ……………………………………………….

2. An announcement was made that the strike was over.There was ……………………………………….........……………….

3. ‘Did you have your Identity Card on the table?’She asked …………………………………………….............………..

4. ‘I shall return tomorrow’.His only comment ………………………………...............…………..

5. They said, ‘You can stay with us’.They invited ……………………………………………...........………

6. I remember one time when my aunt said to me, ‘Don’t talk with your mouth full’.I remember one time when my aunt told ……………………………

7. It amazed me that he said, ‘I won’t do it’.His statement that ……………………………………………………

66


Exercise 6. Turn the following sentences into the indirect speech:1. ‘Read the instructions first’, the clerk advised me.2. ‘What will you say to her now’, Mary asked me.3. ‘Don’t make so much noise’, the old woman told the children.4. ‘Let’s try again’, said the girls. 5. ‘How old is your friend?’, John asked me.6. I thought, ‘My brother will reach home before me’.7. I was answered, ‘The new theatre will have been completely finished by next

autumn’.8. We heard the boy saying to his friend, ‘I shall bring you the book tomorrow’.9. The doctor said, ‘I would take the medicine if I were you’.10. My colleague said to me, ‘That young man was walking nervously up and down

as if he were waiting for somebody’.11. The patient said, ‘I wish I were younger and I had better health’.12. ‘What terrible weather!’, she exclaimed.13. The doctor said ‘Everything should be perfectly clean by tomorrow’.14. The little boy said to me, ‘I crouched behind the armchair so that I should not be

seen’.15. ‘Ugh! How I hate going there!’16. He said, ‘If Liz had studied more, she might have passed the exam’.

BIBLIOGRAFIE:

1. Bădescu, A., Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Stiintifica, Bucureşti, 1963.2. Bantaş, A., Elements of Descriptive English Syntax, TUB, Bucureşti, 1977.3. Budai, L., Gramatica engleza, Teorie si exercitii, Editura Teora, Bucureşti, 1997.4. Gălăţeanu, G., Comişel, E., Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Didactică şi pedagogică,





London, 1969.

TEST RECAPITULATIV:Exercise 1. True or False?1. Another name for subordinate clauses is dependent clauses.2. We always start a subordinate clause with a subordinating conjunction.

67


3. Comment clauses are subordinate clauses.4. Subordinate clauses may be adverbial, nominal or relative clauses.5. All subordinate clauses are /mite clauses.6. Relative clauses may be subordinated by a zero pronoun.7. Nominal clauses are often subordinated by a wh-word.8. Inversion can mark a subordinate conditional clause.9. Subordinate clauses cannot have pronouns as subject.10. Noun phrases, like the day can function as subordinating time adverbials.

Enumerate the Classes of Words that trigger a Subject Clause.Enlarge upon the use of Moods and Tenses in Subject Clauses.Enumerate the ways of reducing a Subject Clause to a non-finite Form.Enumerate some verbs that trigger a Direct Object Clause.State the rules of sequence of tenses in Direct Object Clauses.Tenses and Moods in Prepositional Object Clauses.Discuss the transformations involving Restrictive Relative Clauses.Non-defining Relative Clauses.

Exercise 2. TRUE or FALSE1. Nominal clauses are non-finite clauses. 2. They start with a wh-word, if or that as a conjunction. 3. The initial that can be omitted in all cases. 4. Nominal clauses are often the subjects of sentences. 5. We also use them as direct and indirect objects. 6. Nominal clauses can stand in apposition. 7. They can stand as complements of prepositions. 8. They are also used as adjective complements. 9. They can stand in front position in rather formal writing. 10. They can be deleted from their sentence without loss of meaning. 11. That clauses can be one kind of nominal clauses. 12. That clauses include relative clauses.

Exercise 3. Defining/non-defining clauses. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and explain your answer:1. Defining and non-defining clauses are all postmodifiers. 2. Both kinds of clause may have the same actual words. 3. Non-defining clauses are signalled in writing by a comma. 4. There is no difference between defining and non-defining use in spoken English. 5. Defining clauses are essential to their sentence meaning, non-defining are not. 6. The concept applies most frequently to relative clauses. 7. It also applies to appositive clauses, but never one-word elements. 8. Most adjectives are defining. 9. Intensifying adjectives are usually defining by nature. 10. Poetic descriptive adjectives are often non-defining.

68


Exercise 4. Are the following statements true or false?1. Relative pronouns, introducing relative clauses, all start with wh-.2. Relative pronouns stand first in a clause except when preceded by a preposition.3. All relative pronouns can refer to both singular and plural antecedents.4. Who, whom and whose normally refer to people.5. Whose can never refer to inanimates.6. Which always refers to things or events.7. Which never refers to indefinite pronouns or superlatives.8. We do not use whom if we can avoid it.9. That and zero are alternative object pronouns for personal reference only.10. All relative pronouns have different forms as subject and object.

Exercise 5. Decide whether the next statements are true or false:1. Relative clauses are adjectival in nature. 2. Relative clauses start with relative pronouns. 3. Sometimes, we omit the relative pronoun, making a contact clause. 4. All relative clauses are both defining and non-defining. 5. Reduced clauses, without relative pronoun and operator, are a feature of spoken

English. 6. Relative adverbs can never replace relative pronouns. 7. Non-defining clauses stand between commas in print. 8. Defining clauses are less common than non-defining. 9. Sentence relative clauses can only be introduced by “which”. 10. Nominal relative clauses are introduced by what, meaning ‘that which’.

Enlarge upon the sequence of tenses in Adverbial Clauses of Time.Discuss the ways of reducing an Adverbial Clause of Time to non-finite forms.Tense and Moods constraints in Clauses of Affirmative Purpose.Tense and Moods constraints in Clauses of Negative Purpose.Tenses and Moods used in Conditional Sentences.

Exercise 6. Translate into English:1. Va mai trece mult timp până când se vor convinge că merită să încerce.2. Mi-a promis că mă va suna imediat ce va ajunge acolo.3. Atâta timp cât nu vei risca, nu vei câştiga.4. Te voi anunţa de îndată ce voi termina proiectul. 5. Când îşi va da seama ce a făcut, va fi prea târziu.6. O cunosc de când eram copil.7. Nu vom pleca înainte de a veni el.8. Îţi voi comunica un răspuns clar de îndată ce voi discuta cu familia. 9. A ieşit din cameră numai după ce a verificat totul. 10. Aştept aici cât timp mănânci.11. Îi voi vorbi deschis când îl voi cunoaşte mai bine.

69


12. Când toate acestea se vor lămuri, totul ţi se va părea un vis urât.

Exercise 7. Put the verbs in brackets into their correct form:1. He hurried lest he (miss) the class.2. I shall remind you lest you (forget).3. The doctor told him to keep to a diet so that he (recover) soon.4. He worked hard so that he (win) the prize.5. Bring it here so that we (look) at it better.6. Some people eat so that they (live); others seem to leave in order that they (eat).7. They sent all the documents by air mail so that they (to be received) before the arrival

of the shipping.8. He took his shoes off so that his mother (not hear) him enter.9. The coachman whipped the horses so that they (be) quicker.10. She was squeezing her son’s hand tight lest he (cross) the street alone.11. He grew frightened for fear that his friends (tell) the whole truth.12. The bees swarmed round the sweet-smelling flowers so that they (collect) the nectar

from them.

Exercise 8. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable tense: Example: Why didn’t you phone? If I (know) you were coming, I (meet) you at the airport. Why didn’t you phone? If I had known you were coming, I would have met you at the airport.

1. If he (tell) me that last week I (be) saved a lot of trouble. 2. It’s a pity you missed the party. If you (come) you (met) my friends from Germany.3. If we (have) some tools, we (be able) to repair the car, but we haven’t got any with us. 4. Thank you for your help. If you (not help) me, I (not pass) the examination. 5. It’s a beautiful house, and I (buy) it if I (have) the money, but I can’t afford it. 6. I can’t imagine what I (do) with the money if I (win) the football pools or a lottery.7. Mark isn’t a serious athlete. If he (train) harder, he (be) quite a good runner.8. If Ann (listen) to her mother, she (not marry) Tom in the first place.9. It rained ever day on our holiday. If we (not take) the television with us, we (not have)

anything to do.10. Now we’re lost! If you (write down) Mary’s directions, this (not happen).11. I’m sorry I can’t lend you any money. You know that if I (have) it, I (lend) it to you. 12. What a terrible thing to happen! Just think, if we (not miss) the plane, we (kill) in the

crash.

Exercise 9. Complete the following sentences with clauses that express appropriate meaning. Example: If I had a lot of money…. If I had a lot of money, I’d travel around the world.

70


1. If I were Prime Minister…2. People would complain bitterly if….3. Students would unite in opposition if…4. If my parents saw that bathing suit….5. Worldwide hunger might result if…6. If the ozone layer were to be even more severely damaged… 7. If you were in my place…8. Would you have told him the truth if… 9. Surely if you….he would understand.10. I should have had my photograph taken if…

Exercise 10. True or False?1. Adverbial Clauses operate in sentences in the same way as simple adverbs. 2. Adverbial Clauses may be finite or reduced clauses. 3. Reduced Clauses are usually verbless. 4. Adverbial Clauses can have meanings not expressed by simple adverbs. 5. Adverbial Clauses may take front-and end-positions. 6. All Adverbial Clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions. 7. Reduced Clauses take the same sentence positions as full clauses. 8. Absolute Clauses are reduced adverbial clauses. 9. Reduced Clauses can express meanings which finite clauses cannot. 10. We never use the bare infinitive in reduced clauses.

Direct and Indirect Speech enlarge upon the changes in the deictic categories.

Exercise 11. True or False? 1. Direct Speech reports someone else’s words. 2. Indirect Speech reports direct speech, making certain changes. 3. We can always note from Indirect Speech the exact words used in the direct form. 4. Free indirect speech includes direct questions and exclamations. 5. In Indirect Speech the verb forms are often back-shifted. 6. With present and future time reference, no tense changes are necessary in the

indirect form. 7. Pronouns never need changing in an indirect form. 8. Time and place adverbs often need to be changed in indirect speech. 9. All sentence types can be reported in indirect speech. 10. We can omit that in indirect speech after all reporting verbs.

Exercise 12. Complete each sentence in such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaning to the sentence above it.

1. ‘I left my book here yesterday’.He said that ……………………………………....……………………

2. ‘We won’t eat it now, but we may have it for dinner’.

71


She said that …………………………………………………3. ‘Carlin’s new book is the funniest thing I’ve ever read’.

The reviewer wrote that ……………………….................………… .4. ‘You should take as much water as you can carry’.

He advised us that ……………………....................………….……. .5. ‘I must get something to eat or I’ll faint’.

You told me that …………...............………………………….…….. .6. ‘Shall I go there?’

She asked if …………………............…………………………..……. .7. ‘Demand for new computers in the UK is declining’.

CompCo is reporting that ……………......................…….…………

Exercise 13. Put a cross (x) by any of the options below that cannot complete the sentence. Put a question mark beside any that are possible but very unlikely:

1. Tom just told me he is/was going home because he doesn’t feel well.2. According to Shakespeare, life is/was nothing but a walking shadow.3. It’s reported that there has been/had been a massive earthquake in Indonesia.4. Shakespeare wrote that all the world is/was a stage.5. Can you believe it, he’s told the others he has/had passed Proficiency?6. Mark says he’d/he’ll see you later.7. He told me just now he is/was going to leave the town.8. My mother was always saying that you can/could take a horse to water but you

can’t/couldn’t make it drink.

Exercise 14. Complete each sentence in such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaning to the sentence above it.

1. ‘Mr. Brody, there’s something wrong with the lights’.I mentioned …………………....……………………………………

2. ‘Jane, you and your sister have to tidy up after the party’.I reminded ……………………………….....……………………….

3. ‘Don’t touch any of the wires’.He warned ………………………………….........………………….

4. ‘I’ll go to the seaside next month’.He said ………………………………………….......……………….

5. ‘I didn’t do anything wrong’.He denied ………………………………………......………………..

6. ‘I’m not guilty’, called out one of the defendants. One …………………………………………………………………

7. It really surprised us when she said she’d been adopted.Her statement …………………………………….…………………

8. The students’ agreement is that the cost of tuition has increased too much and I agree.I agree ………………………………………………………………

9. He claimed, ‘I’m not a thief’, but no one believed him.No one believed his ………………………....……………………..

72


10. ‘I have already called her’.He said ……………………………………….……………………..

11. Guard to the prisoner: ‘Stand up when the judge comes in’.The guard ordered ……………………………………………………

12. Worker to his boss: ‘Can I leave early on Friday?’The worker asked ………………………………………………..

Exercise 15. Translate into English:1. L-am întrebat dacă se aştepta să ne vadă sosind atât de curând, dar mi-a răspuns

că din moment ce ne rugase să ne întoarcem cât putem de repede, era convins că nu vom întârzia prea mult.

2. Când am rugat-o să intre în casă mi-a răspuns că este grăbită; se duce la spital să-şi vadă sora şi deci nu va putea sta mai mult de zece minute.

3. Când am intrat mi-a spus că după cât se pare proiectul său fusese respins.4. Am întrebat-o dacă Peter nu lăsase vorbă înainte să plece, dar mi-a răspuns că nu

i-a spus nimic altceva decât că o va anunţa din timp când are de gând să se întoarcă.

5. George l-a întrebat pe prietenul său dacă-i place noul serviciu.6. M-a întrebat unde plecaseră toţi şi cum era posibil să lase copilul singur.7. Le-am spus că este foarte târziu şi că dacă mai vor să prindă trenul de opt este

momentul să se grăbească.8. L-am întrebat de unde are atâţia bani, dar a păstrat tăcerea.9. Lucy ne-a povestit că s-au certat toată după-amiaza pentru că John refuza să

meargă la doctor, deşi era evident că de câteva săptămâni nu se simţea bine.10. M-a întrebat ce să spună în cazul în care este întrebat dacă a văzut cu cine am stat

de vorbă.






London, 1969.

73


74

lec an2 sem2 trantescu 2009

Documents