UNIVERSITATEA DE TIINE AGRICOLE I MEDICIN VETERINAR A BANATULUI

GEORGETA RA

TIMIOARA, 2002

Refereni tiinifici:

Conf. univ. dr. ADRIAN BORCEAN

U.S.A.M.V.B. Timioara

Lector univ. dr. LUMINIA TURCU

Universitatea tefan cel Mare Suceava

ef de lucrri drd. IONEL SAMFIRA

U.S.A.M.V.B. Timioara

CONTENTS

FOREWORD5

UNIT 1 AGRICULTURE: DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE

Grammar: Articles

Social Skills: Expressing Enthusiasm7

UNIT 2 THE FARM

Grammar: The Verbs Be, Have, and DoSocial Skills: Expressing Lack of Enthusiasm14

UNIT 3 THE FARM: SEASONAL WORK

Grammar: The Verbs May and Can

Social Skills: Offering to Do Something20

UNIT 4 TYPES OF AGRICULTURE

Grammar: The Verbs 'Must', 'Have to', and 'Need (to)'

Social Skills: Making Suggestions26

UNIT 5 CROP PRODUCTION AGRICULTURE: AGRONOMYGrammar: The Verbs Ought (to), Dare (to) and Used (to)

Social Skills: Giving Instructions31

UNIT 6 ORGANIC GARDENING

Grammar: The Verbs Will, Would, Shall, and ShouldSocial Skills: Showing Sympathy37

UNIT 7 ORGANIC FERTILISERS

Grammar: Sequence of TensesSocial Skills: Asking Opinions42

UNIT 8 GENETIC ENGINEERING TECHNIQUESGrammar: The Passive VoiceSocial Skills: Expressing Disagreement47

UNIT 9 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILSGrammar: Reported Speech (I)Social Skills: Approving53

UNIT 10 AGRICULTURAL REGIONS

Grammar: Reported Speech (II)Social Skills: Expressing Wish60

UNIT 11 AGRICULTURE IN THE WORLD

Grammar: Numerals, Dates, and Weights and MeasuresSocial Skills: Expressing Regret66

UNIT 12 AGRICULTURE AFTER WORLD WAR II

Grammar: Spelling RulesSocial Skills: Giving Opinions72

BIBLIOGRAPHY78

CUVNT NAINTE

Limba englez pentru agricultori se adreseaz studenilor din anul al II-lea ai Facultii de Agricultur, profilul agricol, specializarea agricultur, i conine elementele teoretice i practice necesare nsuirii i folosirii limbajului agricol n limba englez.

Cartea cuprinde dousprezece teme preluate din New Standard Encyclopedia (1995) i adaptate la nevoile studierii limbii engleze n nvmntul superior agricol. Temele se refer att la agricultur n general (definiie, importan, regiuni agricole, agricultura n lume, istoria agriculturii), ct i la ferma agricol (produsele de ferm, munca zilnic i munca sezonier ntr-o ferm), la cultura plantelor (agronomie), la metodele de lucru n agricultur (agricultura organic), la ngrminte, la ameliorarea plantelor i la soluri.

Temele gramaticale aparin att morfologiei (articolul, verbele modale, diateza pasiv, numeralul), ct i sintaxei frazei (concordana timpurilor, vorbirea indirect) i ortografiei.

Sunt ilustrate printr-o serie de formule specifice i exersate ntr-un context adecvat o serie de acte de limbaj dintre cele mai frecvent ntlnite.

Fiecare lecie se ncheie cu o serie de exerciii lexicale i gramaticale variate menite s faciliteze formarea unor deprinderi de limb corecte (nelegere dup auz, vorbire, citire, scriere) i nsuirea unui bogat vocabular agricol necesar att comunicrii orale ct i consultrii bibliografiei de specialitate n limba englez.

Lector dr. Georgeta Ra

UNIT 1

AGRICULTURE: DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE

Topic: Agriculture

Grammar: Articles

Social Skills: Expressing Enthusiasm

Agriculture deals with the growing of plants or raising of animals for human use and enjoyment. Agriculture consists of two kinds of activities: improving the environment of the plants grown and the animal raised, and improving the usefulness of the plants and animals themselves. Among ways of improving the environment are the preparation of soil for planting, the use of fertilisers, the killing of injurious insects and other pests, and the sheltering and feeding of the animals. The usefulness of the plants and animals is improved primarily through selective breeding. Seeds from the most productive plants of the previous harvest are chosen for planting. Unwanted animals are culled, or removed, from herds and flocks, so that only the healthiest and most useful will breed. The practice or business of agriculture is usually called farming. A person engaged in farming is a farmer; the place where he works is called a farm. Agribusiness is a term used to describe farming and its related activities the manufacturing and distribution of farm equipment and supplies and the processing, storing, shipping, and marketing of agricultural products.

Agriculture is mans most important source of food. Hunting and gathering are of no importance except in the technologically most backward areas of the earth. Only fishing, among non-agricultural activities, provides an important though not a major share of the worlds food supply. Agriculture also provides important raw materials for various industries, and many drugs. Agriculture is one of the most important sectors (parts) in the economies of most nations. It contributes its share of the total economic output of a nation through the sale value of its products. Also, agriculture uses great quantities of equipment, fertilisers, and other products thus creating a market for goods and services or for other sectors such as manufacturing and trade. (After New Standard Encyclopaedia)

(GLOSSARY

to grow = to cause to grow (Roum. a crete)

to raise = to grow

use = the act of employing, using, or putting into service (Roum.

utilizare)

enjoyment = delight, gratification (Roum. ncntare)

to improve = to make better (Roum. a mbunti)

environment = the aggregate of surrounding things, conditions, or

influences (Roum. mediu)

among = (Roum.) printre

killing = (Roum.) distrugere

injurious = damaging, destructive (Roum. distrugtor)

pest = (Roum.) duntor

sheltering = providing with a shelter (Roum. adpostire)

feeding = giving food to (Roum. hrnire)

through = (Roum.) prin

previous = (Roum.) anterior

culled = chosen, selected

supplies = provision, stock

storing = depositing

shipping = transport

hunting = (Roum.) vntoare

gathering = (Roum.) cules

1. Answer the following.

What does agriculture deal with?

What does it consist of?

What ways of improving the environment are there?

How is the usefulness of the plants and animals improved?

What is selective breeding?

What is farming? A farmer? A farm? Agribusiness?

What is hunting? Gathering? Fishing?

What does agriculture provide for the various industries?

What relationship is there between agriculture and other economic sectors?

2. Match the following.

1. fruita. a hard, indehiscent, one-seeded fruit, as the chestnut or the acorn

2. grainb. a part of the body of a plant that develops, typically, from the radicle and grows downward into the soil, fixing the plant and absorbing nutriment and moisture

3. nutc. a small, hard seed, especially the seed of one of the food plants, as wheat, corn, rye, oats, rice, and millet

4. rootd. the edible part of a plant developed from a flower, with any accessory tissues, as the peach, mulberry, banana, etc.

3. Fill in the blanks with the following nouns.

Agriculture - blades - clods - fertilisers - furrows - harrow - land - machine - manure - plough - roller - seeds - soil - sowing - tractor.

... (or the tilling of the land) depends on the nature of the ... and the climate. If the soil is barren (or sterile) it cannot be expected to yield any return. Even if it is fertile, you cannot grow plants that are not adapted to the weather conditions. Poor soil can be reclaimed; a great deal of ... and artificial ... will then be needed. Nothing but scanty vegetation grows on waste ... (or wastes ground). The British farmers year begins in autumn when the fields are turned up, or ploughed. On many farms the ... has replaced the horse and a modern ... can draw several ... at a time. Then follows.... For ages the work of scattering the ... over the field was done by hand. Now it is done with sowing ... (or seeds drills). The seeds must be covered and the ... of earth broken. So the fields are harrowed by means of a sharp-toothed.... Then, when the first ... of grass come up, or sprout, a ... goes over them.

4. Make sentences with the following.

Agribusiness agricultural - agricultural agent (A.E.) or county agent - agriculturally - agriculture - agricultur(al)ist - non-agricultural - pre-agricultural.

5. Point out the technical terms in the text below.

Growth of cities and increased use of machines are steadily reducing the farm populations of many parts of the world. Before the Industrial Revolution began in the mid-18th century, more than 90 per cent of the worlds workers were agricultural. By the late 1930s this percentage was down to 60, today it is below 45. Nevertheless agriculture is still the most widespread single occupation. Synthetic products have lessened the usefulness of many non-food agricultural products. Nylon, for example, has largely replaced silk. New uses, however, have been found for farm products in the chemical industry and other industries. For example, hundreds of products from cosmetics to plastics are made from peanuts and corn.

6. Put the text under 5 into Romanian.

7. Do you have relatives in the countryside? Speak about their lives.

( GRAMMAR: ARTICLES1. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLEThe same for all genders, the indefinite article is used:

- before a singular noun which is countable when it is mentioned

for the first time and represents no particular person or thing:

A dog is an animal.

- before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of

a class of things:

A palm tree is usually very tall. (All palm trees are tall)

- with a noun complement:

He is a good engineer.

- in certain numerical expressions:

a couple, a gross (144), a lot of, a score (20), half a dozen- in expressions of price, speed, ratio, etc.:

a pound a metre, four times a day, sixty kilometres an hour- with few and little:

a few friends (two or three, twenty or thirty)

a little time (days or years)

- in exclamations before singular, countable nouns:

What a dirty river!

- before Mr/Mrs/Miss + surname:

a Mr Smith (a man called Smith)

The indefinite article is not used:

- before plural nouns:

Dogs are animals.

- before singular and uncountable nouns in English:

advice, baggage, furniture, information, luggage, news- before nouns of materials:

cloth, coffee, glass, iron, paper, stone, tea, wine, wood, etc.

- before abstract nouns:

beauty, death, fear, happiness, hope, etc.

- before names of meals:

I never have breakfast.

2. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

The same for singular and plural and for all genders, the definite article is used:

- before nouns of which there is only one, or which are considered

as one:

the earth, the North Pole, the sea, the sky, the weather- before a noun which has become definite as a result of being

mentioned a second time:

His car struck a tree; I saw the mark on the tree.

- before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause:

The place where I met him was polluted.

- before a noun which, by reason of locality, can represent only one

particular thing:

They were all in the garden. (= the garden of their house).

- before superlatives and first/second etc., and only, used as

adjectives or pronouns:

The Himalaya is the highest mountain in the world.

- before singular nouns used to represent a class of objects:

The beaver is hardworking. (= all beavers are hardworking)

- before an adjective used to represent a class of persons:

I like 'The Young and the Restless'.

- before names of chains of mountains, groups of islands, rivers,

seas, and plural names of countries:

the Alps, the Hesperides, the Olt, the Black Sea, the USA- before musical instruments:

I cannot play the piano.

- before names of meals:

The breakfast I had in the morning was OK.

The definite article is not used:

- before countries, proper names, towns:

He returned to Romania and bought a house in Bucharest.

- before abstract nouns:

Children fear darkness.

- after a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjective:

the mother of the boy = the boy's mother- before names of meals:

The Romanians have soup for lunch.

- before parts of the body and articles of clothing, as these normally

prefer a possessive adjective:

Take off your coat; you may leave your hat on.

- before indefinite plural nouns:

Big rivers all over the world are more and more polluted.

- before church, college, home, hospital, market, prison, school:

We go to school to study.

1. Explain the use of Articles in the first paragraph of the text 'Agriculture: Definition and Importance'.

2. Insert a or an if necessary.

travel agent would give you information about hotels. - Do you take sugar in coffee? - He is vegetarian; you won't get meat at his house. - I have hour and half for lunch. - We had fish and chips for lunch. - What name to give girl! - When he was charged with murder he said he had alibi.

3. Insert the if necessary.

youngest boy has just started going to school; elder boy is at college. - Do you know time? - He was sent to prison for six months for shop-lifting. - I am on night duty. - I'd like to see Mr Smith, please. - My mother goes to church in morning, and in afternoon goes to visit friends. - There's a telephone box just round corner.

4. Change the following according to the model.

A rose is a beautiful flower.

Roses are beautiful flowers.

I have a textbook and a dictionary. (from the library)

The textbook is from the library.

A professor should always be a model for his students. - Almost all my students have cell phones in my English class. (on their desks) - Ann has a cap and a pair of mittens. (in her drawer) - He has a cat and a dog. (back home) - Helen has a dress and a pair of shoes. (in her bag) - I have a cellular phone. (in my bag) - I have an English-Romanian dictionary. (in my bookcase) - John bought a CD and a DVD. (from the shop) - My aunt got a letter and a postcard. (from the States) - She has a pen and a pencil. (on her desk) - The elephant is a very strong animal. 5. Put into English.

Am cumprat o jumtate de duzin de ou. - Ce pru murdar! - Frumuseea trece, prietenia rmne. - Ion tie s cnte la trompet. - Mi-a plcut mult mncarea franuzeasc. - Merg la facultate n fiecare zi. - Nu iau niciodat cina dup ora apte seara. - Pn seara ei s-au strns cu toii n curte. - Scoate-i cizmele nainte de a intra n camer. - Stejarul este, de obicei, foarte btrn.( SPEECH ACTS: EXPRESSING ENTHUSIASMUse the following to express your enthusiasm about the prospective of living in the countryside.

is exciting / sensational / thrilling / etc.!

Fantastic! / Great! / Hooray! / Smashing! / Super! / Terrific! / Yippee!

How exciting / marvellous / wonderful !

I can't deny my enthusiasm for

I'm (really) very enthusiastic about it

What a great idea!

UNIT 2

THE FARM

Topic: The Farm

Grammar: The Verbs Be, Have, and DoSocial Skills: Expressing Lack of Enthusiasm

The farm is an establishment that produces crops, livestock, or both. In the United States, a farmer and his family own the typical farm. Many farms, however, are operated not by their owners, but by professional managers or tenant farmers. In some nations farms consist of several parcels of land rather than of a single tract. In most Communist nations, all or most farmland is owned either by the government or by large groups of farmers collectively.

A farmer has been defined as one who makes his entire living from farming, one who makes some of his living from farming, one who lives on a farm, or one who owns a farm. We use here the definition of a farmer as one who makes most of his living from farming.

A commercial farm is one that produces items primarily for sale. A subsistence farm is a low-income farm whose products are primarily for the use of the operator and his family. Most commercial farms are either family farms (farms where the operator and his family provides most of the labour) or family-controlled farms (farms where the business is family-controlled, but most of the labour is done by hired workers).

Most farm work must be done outdoors, during daylight, in good weather, and in the proper season. Work hours are irregular. They are extremely long at times, especially at planting and harvest time. During periods of little outdoor work, such as winter, efficient farmers do indoors work such as repairing equipment. Some kinds of work must be done every day of the year. Farm work calls for many skills. The farmer may need to be a machine operator, repairman, mechanic, carpenter, business manager, investor in the commodities market, and labourer, and he must be able to care properly for the livestock and crops that are his primary source of income. (After New Standard Encyclopedia)

(GLOSSARYestablishment = a place of business, together with its employees,

merchandise, etc. (Roum. stabiliment)

crops = the cultivated produce of the ground, while growing or

when gathered (Roum. cultur, recolt)

livestock = the horses, cattle, sheep, and other useful animals kept

or raised on a farm or ranch

to own = to have / possess

to operate = to manage (Roum. a conduce)

tract = an expanse or area of land, water, etc.; region, stretch

to make ones living = (Roum.) a-i ctiga traiul

most of = (Roum.) cea mai mare parte a

item = a separate article or particular (Roum. bucat, exemplar;

obiect)

sale = (Roum. vnzare)

low-income = (Roum.) cu venit mic

to provide = (Roum.) a asigura

to hire = (Roum.) a angaja

outdoors = (Roum.) afar, n aer liber

skill = ability (Roum. pricepere)

carpenter = (Roum.) dulgher

commodities = goods (Roum. bunuri)

1. Answer the following.

What is a farm?

What does it produce?

Who operates it?

Who owns all or most farmland in most Communist nations?

What is a farmer?

What definition would you prefer to use for Romanian farmers?

What is a commercial farm?

What is a subsistence farm?

Where must be done most farm work?

What skills does farm work call for?

2. Fill in the blanks with a, an, and the.

Some British families have been running ... same farms for generations. ... farmstead includes ... farmhouse and several outbuildings and sheds grouped round ... farmyard. Filthy farms with ramshackle (or dilapidated) buildings are ... most uncommon sights in Great Britain. Water is no longer supplied from wells but from pumps. Although ... farmer necessarily uses traditional agricultural implements, British agriculture is among ... most highly industrialised in ... world.

3. Make sentences with the following.

Farm (n.) - farm (v.) - farm adviser - farm butter - farm equipment - farm facilities - farm hand - farm outfit - farm practices - farm tractor - farmable - farmer - farmer cheese - Farmer-Labour party - farmhouse - farming - farming industry - farmstead - farmyard - farmyard manure.

4. Put into Romanian.

Because each type of crop and livestock requires different care, only a general description of farm work can be given here. Many farms are organised around the production of a specific type of livestock, such as chickens, beef cattle, or hogs. On these farms, the most efficient feeding schedule for the animals is the major consideration in organising farm work. On other farms, the farmer derives most of his income from a specific crop, such as cotton, wheat, or a particular kind of fruit, each of which has its own susceptibilities to disease, weather, and insects.

5. Find the scientific and the common name of the following hay, feed, and forage crops. Alfalfa - beet - bent grass - bermuda grass - bluegrass - bromegrass - buckwheat - buffalo grass - carrot - clover - corn - cowpea - fescue - grass - hay - kafir - kudzu - lespedeza - millet - milo - oats - pea - peanut - rape - rye - sorghum - sun-flower - timothy - vetch.

( GRAMMAR: THE VERBS BE, HAVE, AND DO

1. TO BE

a. Used as an ordinary verb, it denotes existence of, or gives information about (a person or thing):

My father was an officer in the army. (when a noun representing

a definite person or thing is the subject)

There is a dog in the yard. (when a noun representing an

indefinite person or thing is the subject)

b. As an auxiliary verb, it is used:

- in the formation of tenses:

She is working. (continuous active form)

They were followed by their dog. (passive form)

He is being carried by her. (continuous form in the passive)

- with the infinitive:

to convey orders or instructions:

He is to stay here until further notice.

to convey a plan:

They are to get married next April.

to express the immediate future:

They are about to leave. (= They are just going to leave,

They are on the point of leaving)

to express a more remote future, usually a future in the past:

They didn't know they were never to meet again.

c. Other uses. To be is also used to express:

- physical or mental condition:

I am cold / furious.

- age:

I am forty-nine (years old).

- size and weight:

I am 1.62 metres and 80 kilos.

- distance:

Suceava is six hundred kilometres far from Timioara.

- price:

This book is 200,000 ROL.

- weather:

It is chilly.

- time and date:

It's 1.00 p.m., October 11.

2. TO HAVE

a. Used as an ordinary verb, it means:

- possess:

I have lots of books in my book-case.

- take (a bath / drink / food / lesson / meal):

We usually have lunch at one.

- give (a party), entertain (guests):

We are having a party next week.

- encounter (difficulties / trouble):

I have never had trouble with the Customs.

- experience, enjoy:

I hope I'll have a good holiday.

b. As an auxiliary verb, it is used:

- in the formation of tenses:

I have worked. (the present perfect)

I had worked. (the past perfect)

I shall have worked. (the future perfect)

I should have worked. (the perfect conditional)

- with the infinitive to express:

present obligation:

I have to go now. (= I must go now)

past obligation:

I had to leave.

- with an object and a past participle to express sentences of the

type I employed someone to do something for me:

I had my hair cut.

- with an object and a past participle to replace a passive verb:

He had his car stolen before he had the chance to drive it.

3. TO DO

Used as an auxiliary verb, it is:

- used in short answers to avoid repetition of the main verb:

A: Do you like chocolate?

B: Yes, I do.

- placed before the imperative to make a request more persuasive:

Do work a little harder.

- used as an approving or encouraging affirmative answer to

someone asking for approval of, or permission to do, some action:

A: Shall I read it?

B: (Yes,) do.

1. Change the following according to the model.

The Dean wants us to meet them at 5.

We are to meet them at 5.

I don't want you to talk back to me. - John doesn't want you to use his computer. - My mother wants me to lose a few pounds. - Our sons want us to paint the hall. - The professor doesn't want you to take this book. - The rector is not to be disturbed. - What do you want me to do with this book? - You are forbidden to enter this room.

2. Put into English using have to.

A trebuit s atept mai mult de o or venirea poliiei. - A trebuit s stau la rnd ca s vd expoziia de pictur impresionist. - Candidaii trebuie s vorbeasc engleza i italiana fluent. - Studenii trebuie s-i termine proiectul pentru mine. - Toi candidaii trebuie s dea un test scris. - Toi ofierii trebuie s ias la raport mine diminea. - Trebuie s fac toate exerciiile astea pn mine.

3. Put into English using the different forms of to do.

Ai frecventat Colegiul Loga? - Citete-mi, te rog, scrisoarea. - El lucreaz n aceast universitate? - ntr-adevr, el i face temele singur. - Locuieti n acest ora? - Maria nu s-a dus ieri la film. - N-am destul timp ca s ajung la teatru. - Nu asculta prostiile astea. ( SPEECH ACTS: EXPRESSING LACK OF ENTHUSIASMUse the following to express your lack of enthusiasm about the fact that you have to help your grandparents with their work on the farm.

Get lost!

I can't say I'm at all pleased (about)

I really hate

Look here,

Oh, bloody hell!

Oh, no, what's next?

UNIT 3

THE FARM: SEASONAL WORK

Topic: The Farm

Grammar: The Verbs May and Can

Social Skills: Offering to Do Something

Spring Work on a crop farm centres around planting. Normally, ploughing is necessary to break up the soil to prepare it for planting. A harrow is used to level ploughed earth and break up clods of soil. To enrich the soil the farmer may apply manure or commercial fertiliser, usually with mechanised fertiliser spreaders.

Summer Work includes cultivating, haying, and harvesting. Cultivating consists of periodically breaking up the soil. Its purpose is to stimulate crop growth by killing weeds, increasing the water-holding capacity of the soil, stimulating beneficial soil bacteria, and increasing circulation of oxygen through the soil. For some grains, the use of herbicides to control weeds can reduce or eliminate the need for cultivation. Crops can be planted closer together, increasing the yield per acre, when space does not have to be left to permit tractors to pull cultivators through the field.

Fall Work completes the harvesting and prepares for the next planting. Unpinned corn and grass, called green crops, are chopped up with the silage cutter for storage in the silo. After storage they will make nutritious winter food for the livestock. Later in the season, corn is picked, usually with a mechanical picker. Late-maturing crops are gathered, including some kinds of apples and some other fruits. Sometimes, to replenish certain nutrients in the soil, a clover crop is planted in the fall to be ploughed under in the spring. Before the ground freezes, winter wheat and some young fruit trees are planted.

Winter Work consists mainly of chores, especially the care of livestock and poultry. Feeding requires constant work since the animals cannot forage for themselves. Farmers may repair their houses, machinery, and equipment at this time of year. In pleasant weather, they may work on their fences. This is the best time of year for them to bring their financial and other records up to date, plan crop rotation for the coming year, and study possible improvements for their farms. (After New Standard Encyclopedia)(GLOSSARYcrop farm = (Roum.) ferm vegetal

ploughing = (Roum.) arat

harrow = (Roum.) grap, boroan

clod = (Roum.) bulgre (de pmnt)

manure = (Roum.) gunoi de grajd

spreader = (Roum.) mprtietoare (de blegar, etc.)

haying = making hay

harvesting = gathering the crops (Roum. recoltare)

weeds = (Roum.) buruieni

yield = production

unpinned = (Roum.) nedesfcut

to chop = (Roum.) a toca, a ciopri

silage = ensilage (Roum. siloz)

picker = (Roum.) culegtor, recoltator

to replenish = (Roum.) a completa (cu)

to freeze = (Roum.) a nghea

chores = (Roum.) ndeletniciri

to forage = (Roum.) a se hrni cu nutre

fence = (Roum.) gard, ngrditur

crop rotation = (Roum.) asolament

1. Answer the following.

What does spring work centre around?

Why is ploughing necessary?

What may the farmer do to enrich the soil?

What does summer work include?

What does cultivating consist of?

What is the purpose of breaking up the soil?

What are herbicides for?

How can crops be planted?

What does fall work complete?

When is maize picked?

What do they plant before the ground freezes?

What does winter work consist of?

What does feeding require?

2. Fill in the blanks with the following words:

Basket makers - blacksmith - saddler - tinkers - vendors - wheelwright.

An important member of the village community used to be the ... and the musical ring of the hammer on the anvil as well as the glow of the forge used to attract many a villager to the smithy. He would occasionally shoe horses that are nail horseshoes under the animals` hoofs. The ...`s work is to make and repair carts. If a shaft or a wheel is broken, he makes a new one. A cartwheel is composed of the nave (or hub) in which are inserted the spooks, which join it to the rim. The two wheels turn round the axle. The ... makes saddles and harness. A rider governs his horse by means of a rein and bridle; he sets spurs to his horse to quicken his pace. A horse is harnessed to a cart by means of traces. If tramps and vagrants are now figures of the past, gypsies are occasionally to be met with, driving past in their brightly painted caravans or sitting round their campfire. They are ... and.... Itinerant ... visit villages at regular intervals.

3. What are the following?

Hay (n.) - hay (v.) - hay asthma - hay bacillus - hay barrack - hay cold - hay fever - hay kicker - hay season - hay spreader - hay staker - hay tedder - hay-bird - haycock - haylolf - haymaker - haymaking - haymaking season - hay market - hayrack - hayrick - hayseed - haystack.

5. Put into Romanian.

Livestock farmers devote much of their day to keeping pens and barns clean, preparing feed mixes, checking animals for signs of disease or injury, and monitoring animals` growth. Dairy cows must be brought in daily from the pasture (where they are allowed to feed on uncut grass or clover) or from the feedlot (where the farmer provides hay and other feed) to the milking shed. Most farms with more than a few cows use milking machines. Frequently the livestock farmer raises his own feeder crop, which must be planted, cultivated, harvested, dried, and stored.

( GRAMMAR: THE VERBS 'MAY' AND 'CAN'

1. 'MAY'/'MIGHT' is chiefly used to express:

- permission:

granted, refused or requested in the present:

You may come in now. (= I allow you to come in)

granted, refused or requested in the past:

I allowed him to come in.

I said that he might come in. - possibility:

may / might + present infinitive expresses possibility in the

present or future:

He may / might come today. (= perhaps he will come)

may / might + perfect infinitive is used in speculations about

past actions:

They may have gone. (= it is possible that they went)

He is not there; he might have got lost. (uncertainty no

longer exists)

may / might can be used in conditional sentences instead of

will / would to indicate a possible instead of a certain result:

If I see him I may stop. (possible) If I see him I will stop.

(certain)

'May' / 'might' can also be used:

- to express an intention:

I may / might as well go there tonight.

- to suggest or recommend an action:

You may / might as well go there.

- to suggest an alternative action, implying disapproval of a

previous suggested one:

You might just as well go there.

- to express a very casual command:

You might take the dog out.

- to make a persuasive request:

You might tell me what he said. (= please tell me)

- to express irritation:

You might pay us. (= we are annoyed that you don't pay us)

You might have paid us. (= we are annoyed that you didn't)

- to express faith and hope:

May you be rich! (= I hope you will be rich)

2. 'CAN'/'COULD' is used to express:

- permission:

as an informal alternative to may:

You can't go there. (= I don't allow it / your mother doesn't allow

it)

They couldn't use the Hi-Fi tower. (= they were not allowed to

use it)

- possibility:

in the present:

You can ski there. (= there is enough snow)

in the future:

People will be able to ski there.

- ability:

in the present:

She can speak English fluently.

in the past:

She could swim when she was younger.

He was able to skate years ago.

He could see her in the dark. (ability + a particular action)

He could have told her. (= but he didn't)

John could have taken the paper. (= I don't know whether he

did it or not) in the future:

She will be able to speak French in six months.

- condition:

Could he get another job? (= if he left this one)

- request:

Could you please fetch me a glass of water?

- negative deduction:

about a present event:

You can't be hungry. (= you have just had lunch)

about a past event:

He can't have done it by himself. (= he is too young for that)

1. What does the verb may express in the text The Farm: Seasonal Work?

2. Put the phrases under Grammar into Romanian. Give as many versions as possible.

3. Put into English.

Acum pot schia pentru c am schiuri. - Ai fi putut s-mi spui ce s-a ntmplat. - Ar fi putut nva poezia, dar n-a vrut. - Aud pai repezi pe scri. - Cnd a mplinit optsprezece ani, i s-a dat voie s voteze. - Copiilor li s-a dat voie s mearg la not. - Ea nc nu vorbete franuzete dar va vorbi peste civa ani. - Eu tiu cinci limbi strine. - I s-a permis s plece cu avionul. - mi permitei s dau un telefon? - Nu cred c a fost plecat la ar: l-am ntlnit ieri pe strad. - N-am putut vizita Luvrul anul trecut. - Nu e lumin la geam: nu poate fi acas. - Nu poate fi mai trziu de opt. - Nu poate fi miezul nopii.

4. Same exercise.

Nu-l puteam vedea n ntuneric. - Nu se poate s fi costat att de mult. - Nu se poate s-l fi cunoscut vara trecut. - Pare att de tnr: nu poate avea mai mult de treizeci de ani. - Pe unde ar putea fi el acum? - Pot s iau umbrela ta? - Pot s plec? - Poi atepta cteva minute? - Puteam alerga mai repede dect fratele meu acum trei ani. - Putei s m ajutai la bagaje? - S-ar putea ca Mary s lucreze n grdin. - S-ar putea s plece azi la ar. - Se poate s-mi fi pierdut cheile. - Voi putea traduce texte mai grele anul viitor.

5. Speak about what you could / were allowed to do when you were seven / eighteen / twenty-one.

( SPEECH ACTS: OFFERING TO DO SOMETHINGUse the following to offer to do something for your cousins working on their parents farm.

Can I help you with ?

Do you fancy / need ?

I'll give you

If you like, I could

Is there anything I could ?

May I help you with your ?

You should allow me to

Would you like any help ?

UNIT 4

TYPES OF AGRICULTURE

Topic: Agriculture

Grammar: The Verbs 'Must', 'Have to', and 'Need (to)'

Social Skills: Making Suggestions

There are two major classifications of agriculture by product crop production agriculture and animal husbandry.

Crop Production Agriculture. The products of a specific type are often also products of a broader type. Agronomy refers to the production of field crop crops, such as wheat and oats, raised in large-scale farming and to soil management. Fruit Culture includes all fruit production from trees, shrubs, and vines. Gardening or Horticulture deals with the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, flowers, herbs, and ornamental trees and shrubs. Truck Farming refers to the production of commercial vegetable crops on relatively large farms. Other Types of crop production agriculture include the cultivation of fruit, vegetables, flowers, herbs, and other useful plants on small plots near the cultivators home. The collective term for these activities is gardening. There are several specialised gardening, or horticultural, activities. Arboriculture is the cultivation of trees and shrubs for decorative, shade, or ornamental purposes. Floriculture is the cultivation of flowering plants for ornamental purposes. Nursery Farming is intensive cultivation of young plants, principally trees and shrubs, for commercial purposes.

Animal Husbandry refers to all types of farming concerned with raising animals. Dairy Farming refers to the production of milk, cream, and related products (such as cheese) using domesticated cattle as a source. In various other areas of the world buffalo, yaks, and goats are sources of milk and milk products. Fur Farming is the raising of fur-bearing animals for their pelts. Ranching is any form of large-scale agriculture involving livestock raised for meat, hides and skins, and hair products (wool). Other Types. Apiculture is the keeping of bees for the production of honey and wax. Aviculture is the raising of birds for ornamental, recreational, or scientific purposes. Sericulture is the raising of silk worms for their silk. (After New Standard Encyclopedia)

(GLOSSARYanimal husbandry = (Roum.) creterea vitelor

field crop = (Roum.) cultur de cmp

shrub = a woody, perennial plant smaller than a tree, usually

having permanent stems branching from or near the ground

(Roum. arbust)

plot = a small piece or area of ground (Roum. lot)

dairy farming = (Roum.) creterea vacilor de lapte

cream = the part of whole milk that is rich in butterfat (Roum.

smntn)

cheese = the curd of milk separated from the whey and prepared in

many ways as a food (Roum. brnz)

cattle = bovine animals, especially domesticated members of the

genus Bosfur farming = (Roum.) creterea animalelor cu blan

pelt = (Roum.) piele de animal cu blan (netuns sau tuns)

hide = (Roum.) piele de animal

skin = (Roum.) piele jupuit de pe un animal

wax = (Roum.) cear

silk worm = (Roum.) vierme de mtase

1. Answer the following.

How many major classifications by product are there in agriculture?

What does crop production agriculture include?

What does agronomy refer to?

What does fruit culture include?

What does gardening deal with?

What does truck farming refer to?

What does animal husbandry include?

What does dairy farming refer to?

What is fur farming?

What is ranching? Does it still exist?

What is apiculture?

What does aviculture refer to?

What is the purpose of sericulture?

2. Pick up the terms related to farming.

Farms and other agricultural enterprises are usually classified as either commercial or subsistence, and as either diversified or specialised. Commercial farms produce items primarily for sale to others, rather than for the farmers own use. Subsistence farms produce items primarily for the use of the farmer, rather than for sale to others. Diversified farms produce a variety of crops and livestock. Diversification may allow the farmer to space his period of heavy work around the year. Such a farm may be commercial or subsistence. Specialised farms are commercial or subsistence farms that produce only one major product or group of products. This economic classification may be applied to a farm (wheat farm, cattle ranch, etc.) or to a region (milk shed or truck farming area).

3. Fill in the blanks with by, in, into, and to.

his business, his journeys from his home his office, his dealings with his family, his sports and amusements and his politics, the American uses words and phrases unintelligible the Englishmen or intelligible only after a laborious consideration. A familiar anecdote offers an example miniature. A young American living a region of prolific orchards was asked an Englishman what the residents do with so much fruit. His reply was a pun: We eat all we can, and can what we cant. When the Englishman got home he translated the pun English We eat all we can, and what we cant, we tin, and the joke was lost.

4. Make sentences with the following.

Plant (n.) - plant (v.) - plant acid - plant breeding - plant louse (pl. plant lice) - plant pathology - plant rubber - plant wax - plantable - plantain - plantation - planter - plantlet - plant like.

5. Answer the following.

What do your relatives in the countryside grow? Why?

What do they raise? Why?

6. Put into Romanian.

For commercial farmers, diversification lessens danger of financial ruin when one crop or animal product suffers a loss in value. Whether a commercial farm is classed as diversified is based not on how many different crops and kinds of livestock products are produced, but on how many are sold. A Midwestern farmer who produces and sells wheat, soybeans, poultry, eggs, milk, and hogs, for example, is a diversified farmer. However, if he grows grain for hog feed only, raises vegetables and poultry for his own use, and sells only the hogs, he is a specialised farmer.

( GRAMMAR: THE VERBS 'MUST', 'HAVE TO', AND 'NEED (TO)'

These verbs can express:

a. Positive obligation, with the help of must and have to:

- in the affirmative, both verbs express obligation, but must

expresses an obligation imposed by the speaker while have to

expresses an external obligation (i.e. one imposed by external

authority or circumstances):

You must do your homework (= these are my orders).

You will have to do your homework (academic rules will oblige

you to do it)

- in the interrogative, have (got) to expresses:

obligations in the future:

Will you have to do your homework next term too? Yes, this

is an academic rule.

Do all students have to do it?

habits:

Have you got to go to the library now?

b. Negative obligation, with the help of must not in the present or future implying the speaker's authority or very strong advice:

You must not prompt = I forbid you to prompt or I very strongly

advise you not to prompt

c. Absence of obligation, with the help of:

needn't, when the speaker gives authority for the non-

performance of some action in the present or in the future:

You needn't translate the whole text.

don't need to, haven't (got) to and needn't, when an external

authority is involved, in the present:

You don't need to attend this lecture if you don't like it.

don't have to, when an external authority is involved and a

habitual action is referred to, in the present:

You don't have to attend all three courses.

won't have / need to, when an external authority is involved, in

the future:

You won't need to take your dictionaries with you to attend the

conference.

didn't have / need to, hadn't (got) to, for actions in the past:

You didn't have to go to the library: I've got the book you need.

1. Put into English using must or have to.

Ana e absent azi: cred c e bolnav. - Maria va trebui s rescrie compunerea. - Nu avei voie s v jucai n mijlocul strzii. - S-a dus la culcare la ora apte seara: cred c e foarte obosit. - Trebuie s-i cer s pleci imediat. - Trebuie s-o ajui, n-ai ce-i face.

2. Put into English using must or need (to).

El trebuia s fie n Bucureti n seara asta. - Maria trebuie s plece. - N-a fost nevoie s ia un taxi pentru c gara era aproape. - N-a mai fost nevoie s sparg geamul pentru c vecinii aveau o dublur a cheii. - N-a trebuit s-i spun ce s-a ntmplat pentru c tia deja tot adevrul. - Nu trebuie s rspunzi chiar la toate ntrebrile lui. - Profesorul i-a spus c nu trebuie s mai repete greeala.

( SPEECH ACTS: MAKING SUGGESTIONSUse the following to make suggestions about starting a business of your own in the countryside.

Have you thought of?

How / what about?

Suppose we

What if?

UNIT 5

CROP PRODUCTION AGRICULTURE: AGRONOMY

Topic: Agriculture

Grammar: The Verbs 'Must', 'Have to', and 'Need (to)'

Social Skills: Making Suggestions

Agronomy is defined as the branch of agriculture that deals with field crop production and soil studies. Crop scientists study plant species and varieties for developing plants best adapted to various soil and climate conditions. Such scientists employ the principles of genetics, chemistry, physics, and biology to plants and soils in order to develop more efficient methods of crop production.

Plant Breeding. Because the supply of agricultural land is steadily decreasing and the population is increasing, it is necessary to use the available land to greatest advantage. By breeding higher-yielding plant varieties, agronomists aid in increasing agricultural productivity. Annual crop production is increased through the development of plant varieties that are resistant to disease, drought, heat, cold, wind, and various insects. Plant breeding has also aided in improving crop quality, giving crops, among other things, better flavour and higher vitamin content.

Soil Studies. Agronomists study the soil extensively. They determine the mineral content of the soil and use this as a basis on which to recommend the proper fertiliser. The composition of fertilisers is of great interest because virtually every type of soil requires a different fertiliser. Physical and chemical properties of soils are also studied to determine the suitability of a particular soil for a given crop. As much soil is carried away every year by erosion, agronomists help curtail erosion by devising means to keep the soil in place, including planting grass and shrubs, using contour ploughing and other cultivation methods, or planting windbreaks (rows of trees or shrubs, or both) in dry areas. Agronomists also recommend proper irrigation methods to help maintain soil conditions that are beneficial to crops. (After New Standard Encyclopedia)

(GLOSSARYto deal with = to take action with respect to a thing or person

(Roum. a se ocupa de)

field crop production = (Roum.) producie vegetal pe suprafee

mari

crop scientist = (Roum.) specialist n cultura cmpului

in order to = as a means to, with the purpose of (Roum. pentru a,

ca s)

plant breeding = (Roum.) selecia plantelor

supply = stock, store (Roum. rezerv)

steadily = regularly

available = accessible

high-yielding plant varieties = (Roum.) soiuri de plante cu

productivitate mare

to aid = to help

drought = (Roum.) secet

proper = (Roum.) corespunztor

to require = to need (Roum. a cere, a avea nevoie)

suitability = (Roum.) compatibilitate

to curtail = to reduce

to devise = to elaborate

windbreak = (Roum.) perdea de protecie (ir de arbori sdii n

linie dreapt cu scopul de a proteja culturile mpotriva

vnturilor)

1. Answer the following.

How is agronomy defined?

What do crop scientists study? What for? What do they employ?

What is plant breeding?

How is annual crop production increased?

What does plant breeding also aid in?

Why do agronomists determine the mineral content of the soil?

Why are physical and chemical properties of soils also studied?

What is much soil carried away by every year?

2. Fill in the blanks with the following.

Adorned - appear - cut - grow - grown - has - is - mind - open - require.

A great variety of flowers are ... in the flowerbeds: daffodils, tulips, and hyacinths in spring; lilies, pinks (or carnations) in summer. The lily of the valley ... small white bell-shaped flowers. If there ... a garden pond, it is ... with water-lilies and forget-me-nots. On rose-trees ... a wide variety of roses. From the time the first shoots ... to that when the buds ... out, rose-trees ... a great deal of care and attention. Roses are sweet-scented (or fragrant) flowers. But ... the thorns when you ... some of them off to make a bunch (or bouquet).

3. Make sentences of your own using the following.

Agronomic(al) - agronomics - agronomist - agronomy - agronomy farm.

4. Which of the following are herbaceous?

Alfalfa - beet - carrot - fescue - kafir - lespedeza - millet - oats - peanut - rape - sunflower - timothy - vetch.

5. Put into Romanian.

Floriculture is defined as the cultivation of ornamental flowering plants. The term is applied particularly to commercial flower growing. Floriculturists supply customers with cut flowers, potted plants, and plants to be transplanted in gardens. They also produce seeds, bulbs, corms, and tubers from which plants can be grown. An important aspect of floriculture involves the introduction of new and improved plant varieties. These are introduced from abroad, selected from mutations, or produced by hybridising. Fruit Culture includes all fruit production from trees, shrubs, and vines, in fruit and vegetable gardens, or in orchards. The orchard is a planting of fruit trees, nut trees, sugar maples, or other food-producing trees. Apples, pears, peaches, cherries, and plums are fruits commonly raised in United States orchards. Citrus-fruit orchards are usually called groves.

( GRAMMAR: THE VERBS 'OUGHT (TO)', 'DARE (TO)' AND 'USED (TO)'

1. OUGHT (TO) expresses:

- the subject's obligations or duty as reminded by the speaker,

without any speaker's authority (as with must) or an outside

authority (as with have to):

You ought to obey your mothers. (= You should obey your

mothers).

- advice (much less forceful than must):

You ought to see a doctor.

- an unfulfilled duty or a sensible action that was neglected:

I ought to have told him the truth. (= I should have told him the

truth).

2. DARE (TO) in the interrogative can express indignation:

How dare you smoke in class? (= I am indignant because he

smokes in class).

I daresay means:

- I suppose:

I daresay there'll be students in the class.

- I accept what you say (but it doesn't make any difference):

Romanian tourist: But I drive on the right in Romania!

English police officer: I daresay you do, but you must drive on

the left here.3. USED (TO) can express:

- a discontinued habit:

My hair used to be black, then grey; but it's bleached now. - a past routine, not necessarily discontinued:

Most students used to spend their spare time reading. (= They

did it years ago; very likely they still do it).

1. Put the sentences under Grammar into English giving as many versions as possible.

2. Turn as many sentences from the text 'Crop Production Agriculture: Agronomy' as possible according to the model.

Agriculture is defined as the branch of agriculture

Agriculture may / should be defined

3. Turn the following according to the model.

He should study more. He should have studied more.

She ought to work harder. She ought to have worked harder.

The letter should be sent e-mail. - They should visit England. - We ought to telephone her. - You ought to put some money in the bank each week. - You ought to prepare your work more carefully. - You should pay more attention to the grammar rules. - You should speak to them in English. - You should write your paper in ink.

4. Complete the following.

Everyone should - He ought to - I should - John should - No one should - She ought not to - She shouldn't - We ought not to - You should - You shouldn't

5. Put into English using must, have to, should and ought to.

Ar trebui s fii asculttor. - Ar fi trebuit s-i asculi. - Fii asculttor! - S-ar cuveni s fii asculttor. - Trebuie s-i asculi prinii. - Trebuie s fii asculttor dac vrei s reueti.

( SPEECH ACTS: GIVING INSTRUCTIONSUse the following to give instructions to the people you have hired to work on your farm.

Check!

Clean!

Don't let / place / position / remove / spray / take!

Go clean / place / position / remove / soften / spray / take!

Place!

Remove!

Spray!

Take!

UNIT 6

TYPES OF FARMING METHODS: ORGANIC GARDENING

Topic: Farming Methods

Grammar: The Verbs Will, Would, Shall, and ShouldSocial Skills: Showing Sympathy

Organic Gardening is a type of gardening in which only naturally occurring materials are used in all the phases of plant growing including soil improvement, fertilising, and pest control. Organic gardening is practised both by home gardeners and by commercial farmers. The organic foods produced for commerce undergo a minimum of processing and are largely or totally free of chemical preservatives and other additives. They are sometimes called health foods. Organic gardening is essentially the same type of gardening as that practised before the advent of manufactured chemical fertilisers and pesticides. The revived interest in organic gardening is in large part due to the growing concern about polluting the environment and harming the body with pesticides and other chemicals. It is also argued that organically grown foods are more nutritious than those subjected to commercial processing.

Organic gardeners use compost or manure to fertilise the soil and improve its structure, and rely on earthworms to condition the soil. The gardeners add nutrients such as nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus, but only from natural sources. For example, nitrogen is supplied by hoof and horn meal or fish-meal, potassium by granite dust or potash rock, and phosphorus by bone meal or finely ground phosphate rock. Weeds are pulled rather than eliminated by chemical weed killers. Their growth may also be inhibited by frequent cultivation or the application of mulches, such as straw or hay, around the bases of the desirable plants. Instead of using chemical insecticides to control pests, organic gardeners prefer to use natural predators, such as birds and certain insects (such as ladybugs and praying mantises). Other measures include the use of botanical insecticides, such as pyrethrum and ryania, derived from roots or foliage of certain plants. (After New Standard Encyclopaedia)

(GLOSSARYto occur = to be found

to undergo = to be subjected to, to experience (Roum. a suferi)

processing = (Roum.) prelucrare

to be free of = not to have

preservative = chemical substance used to preserve foods from

decomposition or fermentation (Roum. conservant)

advent = arrival, coming

to harm = to damage (Roum. a face ru)

to subject to = to expose

to rely on = to depend confidently (Roum. a se baza pe)

earthworm = any of the numerous annelid worms that burrow in

soil and feed on soil and decaying organic matter (Roum.

rm)

hoof and horn meal = (Roum.) fin de oase (plus copite i coarne)

fish meal = dried fish that has been ground, used as fertiliser or as

an ingredient in foods (Roum. fin de pete)

ground = reduced to fine particles or dust by grinding (Roum.

mcinat)

weed killer = herbicide

mulch = a covering, as of straw, leaves, manure, etc., spread or left

on the ground around plants to prevent excessive

evaporation or erosion, enrich the soil etc. (Roum. mulci)

straw = dried wheat, rye, oats, and barley stalk or stem (Roum. pai)

ladybug = any of the numerous, often brightly coloured beetles of

the family Coccinellidae, feeding chiefly on aphids and other

small insects

praying mantis = any of several predaceous insects of the order

Mantidae

1. Answer the following.

What is organic gardening? Who practices it?

What are the features of organic foods?

What caused the revived interest in organic gardening?

What do organic gardeners use as fertiliser? As weed killers? As insecticides?

2. Match the following.

1. bent (grass)a. iarba cmpului/vntului, piu (Agrostis)

2. bermuda grassb. iarb din grupul Poa

3. bluegrassc. iarb, plant ierboas

4. bromegrassd. iarb scurt (Buchloe dactyloides)

5. buffalo grasse. iarb trtoare (Cynodon dactylon)

6. fescue grassf. obsig (Bromus)

7. grassg. piu (Festuca sp.)

3. Fill in the blanks with the following.

Flowers - herb - leaves - plantains - species.

The weed is a small perennial ... with fibrous roots. The ribbed, dark-green ... grow close to the ground, and the tiny, dull-white ... are borne in a spike. Species that invade lawns in the United States include the broad-leaved and narrow-leaved ... , native to Europe; and Rugel's plantain, a North American ... that resembles the broad-leaved.

4. Make sentences with ten of the phrases below.

Garden balsam - garden bed - garden cabbage - garden city - garden cress - garden frame - garden house - garden label - garden lover - garden mould - garden party - garden plot - garden pruner - garden roller - garden scissors - garden stand - garden stuff - garden tillage - garden truck - garden warbler - garden woodbine - garden worm.

5. Put into Romanian.

Plantation agriculture is the worlds major source of crops from tropical and subtropical regions. The plantation is a large farm on which a commercial crop is grown. Plantations are found in tropical regions. They are worked by unskilled labour hired from the surrounding area and are supervised by professional managers. Principal products of plantation agriculture include rubber, sugarcane, coffee, and cocoa. Only one kind of crop is raised.

( GRAMMAR: THE VERBS WILL, WOULD, SHALL AND SHOULDThese verbs are used as follows:

1. WILL, for:

- assumptions:

He will be here in ten minutes.

- commands:

You will stay here till you finish your paper.

- habits:

A dog will usually obey his master.

- invitations:

Will you have some more coffee? - obstinate insistence:

If you will feed your dog only vegetables, it is hardly surprising

that he cannot run or swim.

- requests:

Will you type this report for me, please?

2. WOULD, for:

- habits:

When I was younger I would read for hours.

- intentions:

He said (that) he would help me.

- invitations: Would you care to see my translation?

Would you care for another cup of coffee?

- not very hopeful wishes concerning the future:

I wish it would stop snowing.

- obstinate insistence:

He would come though they warned him that it would be

impolite.

- preferences:

I would rather / sooner go back home.

- regret that another person is unwilling to do something that the

speaker approves of:

I wish he would go more often to the library.

- regret that another person persists in doing something that the

speaker disapproves of:

I wish he wouldn't keep saying bad jokes.

- wishes:

I would like to buy that book (= I want to buy it).

- polite requests:

Would you mind opening the window, please?

3. SHALL is used:

- with the first person, in the interrogative:

in requests for orders:

Where shall I put the books?

in requests for advice:

Which one shall I read?

in offers:

Shall I translate the text?

in suggestions:

Shall we leave it for tomorrow?

- with second and third persons, to express:

the subject's intention to perform a certain action or to cause it

to be performed:

You shall read the book (= I'll see that you read it)

command:

Each competitor shall make three tries.

4. SHOULD is used:

- to express advice:

You should practise English more.

- to express an assumption:

They should be here by now.

- to express duty:

You should return the books to the library.

- to express fear or anxiety:

She was terrified lest she should step on the dog's tail.

- to express a purpose:

She bleached her hair so that no one should recognise her.

- to express surprise:

What should I find but an ugly woman!

- to indicate a correct action:

You should add some more sugar.

- to indicate a sensible action:

Businessmen should sponsor cultural activities more often.

- to query the reasonableness or justice of an assumption:

I don't know why you should think that she did it.

1. Put into English using shall or will.

Copiii tot copii rmn. - Cred c ne va scrie imediat ce va putea. - Ion nu va iei din cas fr permisiunea doctorului. - M ajui s fac traducerea? - N-ai s faci asta! - Nu vom ajunge la timp la gar ca s prindem trenul. - S cumpr nite banane? - Vom pleca la munte luni dac vremea va fi frumoas. - Vrei s faci asta pentru mine, te rog? - Vrei s-mi aduci corespondena, te rog?

2. Put into English using should or would.

Ar fi trebuit s termine cartea pn azi. - Ar trebui s ncepem orele de englez imediat. - Ar trebui s te duci imediat la doctor. - Ascult, Maria, ar trebui s o ajuu mai mult pe mama ta. - Ct timp ar trebui s pierd cu traducerea aceasta? - Ce ar trebui s fac un student pentru a avea note bune? - Copilul ar trebui pedepsit pentru o asemenea greeal. - Dorii o ceac de cafea? - I-ar face plcere s vin cu noi la munte. - N-ar trebui s lai cinele n ploaie. - Vrei s semnai n registru, v rog?

( SPEECH ACTS: SHOWING SYMPATHYUse the following to show sympathy about those who got sick after eating chemically treated fruit and vegetables.

How terrible

I do sympathise with

I'm (most) awfully / dreadfully sorry to

I'm (very) sorry to hear that

Isn't that a pity that !

It's a pity / shame that

(Oh,) that's terribly bad luck

Poor

That is a pity / shame

What terribly bad luck to

UNIT 7

ORGANIC FERTILISERS

Topic: Fertiliser

Grammar: Sequence of TensesSocial Skills: Asking Opinions

Organic fertilisers are composed of the remains of, or products of, plants and animals.

Animal manures, the most common organic fertilisers, contain substantial amounts of the primary nutrients. By the time they are applied to the land, however, they are usually low in these nutrients because of losses from leaching (washing out of soluble substances) and overheating. Manure is valuable in conditioning soil. Manure containing straw or other litter will form humus, which increases a soils water-holding ability. This helps protect plants from drought, it hinders the leaching of fertilisers, and it aids in preventing erosion. Manure also makes the soil easier to till and promotes soil aeration. By chemical action, it releases fertilising substances locked in soil particles. Manure also feeds the bacteria, fungi, and other organisms that change fertilising substances into forms that plants can use to make food. Green manure is a crop, used in rotation with other crops that is ploughed under to serve the same purposes as animal manure. Leguminous crops are especially favoured as green manures because they add nitrogen to the soil. Compost consists of partly decayed plant and animal matter that is used similarly to manure. Making a heap of alternating layers of organic matter and soil forms it. Commercial fertilisers also can be added to the heap. The compost heap is kept moist to promote the activity of organisms that decay plant and animal matter. Peat consists of plant remains; it improves soil structure. Other organic fertilisers include bird and bat droppings (called guano), blood meal, bone meal, tankage (animal wastes from packing plants), and fish-meal. All these substances contain nitrogen and other essential elements. Bone meal is an excellent source of the element phosphorus. They are best used as feed for livestock. As fertilisers, they are useful to gardeners and greenhouse operators. (After New Standard Encyclopedia)

(GLOSSARY

amount = quantity

to be low in = (Roum.) a avea un coninut sczut n

loss = (Roum.) pierdere

overheating = heating to excess (Roum. supranclzire)

conditioning = (Roum.) condiionare, luarea de msuri pentru

pstrarea n stare bun

litter = straw, hay, or the like, used as bedding for animals,

protection for plants, etc. (Roum. litier, mulci)

water-holding ability = (Roum.) capacitatea de a reine ap

to hinder = to prevent from, to stop (Roum. a mpiedica, a opri)

to till = to plough (Roum. a ara)

to release = to let go

to lock = to make immovable

fungus (pl. fungi) = any of numerous thallophytes of the division

Fungito decay = to putrefy

heap = (Roum.) grmad, morman

to keep moist = (Roum.) a pstra n stare umed

peat = (Roum.) turb

bat = any nocturnal or crepuscular flying mammal of the order

Chiropteradroppings = dung of animals (Roum. excremente de animale)

bone meal = bones ground to a coarse powder, used as fertiliser or

feed

tankage = (Roum.) resturi, deeuri

1. Answer the following.

What are organic fertilisers composed of?

What organic fertilisers do you know?

What does animal manure contain?

What does it feed?

What is green manure?

What does compost consist of? And peat?

What does bone meal contain?

What do your relatives in the countryside fertilise their lands with?

2. Fill in the blanks with the following.

Fertiliser - fish - guano - manure - plants - wastes - wood.

Fertilisers in the form of ... and human ... have been known since ancient times. The ancient Greeks also used potassium nitrate and ... ashes (potash) as fertilisers. Green manure was used in ancient Rome. In the New World, too, fertilisers have a long history. Peruvian Indians used ... as a fertiliser and in North America Indians taught the Pilgrims to fertilise hills of corn with.... Scientific work on fertilisers began near the middle of the 19th century. Justus von Liebig, a German chemist, investigated the chemical composition of ... and experimented with chemical fertilisers. In 1840 von Liebig published a work showing potassium salts and phosphoric acid could be used to improve plants. In 1842 John Bennet Lawes, an English agriculturist, obtained a patent for making super-phosphate and established a super-phosphate factory. Lawes also experimented with other fertilisers at his Agricultural Experimental Station. The use of Chilean nitrate as a fertiliser began about the middle of the 19th century. Processes for fixation of atmospheric nitrogen for use in ... were developed in the early 1900s. Although the first large-scale production was in Norway, Germany soon became the worlds leading producer and held that position for many years. In the United States production grew steadily after World War I.

3. Make sentences with the following.

Fertile - fertility - fertilisable - fertilisation - fertilise - fertiliser - fertiliser manure.

4. Put into Romanian.

There are at least 16 substances that plants must get from the soil and air in order to grow; these are called the essential elements. From the soil, plants obtain 13 of these elements; the other 3 carbon, hydrogen, oxygen come from water and carbon dioxide in the air. The 13 elements, which are provided by the soil and by the application of fertilisers, are classified in three groups: primary nutrients, secondary nutrients, and micronutrients.

( GRAMMAR: SEQUENCE OF TENSESA sentence can contain a main verb and one or more subordinate clauses (i.e., a group of words containing a subject and verb and forming part of a sentence):

Main Clause

Subordinate Clause

I knew(that) the book was not there.When the main verb of a sentence is in the past tense, verbs in subordinate clauses must be in a past tense also:

Tense of verb in main clause

Examples

Tense of verb in subordinate clause

Present

He thinks

that she will come.

Future

Past

He thought

that she would come.

Conditional

Present

She sees

that he has made a mistake.

Present Perfect

Past

She saw

that he had made a mistake.

Past Perfect

Present

You work so hard

that you are always busy.

Present

Past

You worked so hard

that you were always busy.

Past

Present Perfect

I have done all

that is necessary.

Present

Past Perfect

I had done all

that was necessary.

Past

Present

They say

they are going to go there.

Present Continuous

Past

They said

that they were going to go there.

Past Continuous

1. Put the sentences under Grammar into Romanian.

2. How can you explain the differences?

3. Put the verb between brackets into the right form. Give as many versions as possible.

Daniel dreamt that he (to fly) to the moon. - He did not know how he (can) best (to help) her. - I was greatly amused by what she (to tell) me. - John said he (to be pleased) to welcome our new colleagues. - Mary couldn't make out where the sound (to come) from. - My mother inquired at the shop when her dress (to be ready). - She told me that the debt (to be paid). - The chief engineer suggests that the new method (to be implemented) at once. - The little boy watched how his father (to repair) the bike. - We did not know that our student (to be awarded) the prize.

4. Put into English.

Ai putea nva ceva mai bine, sunt sigur de asta. - Ce ai face tu dac ai avea un copil aa ca tine? - Ce ai zice dac prinii ti nu i-ar mai trimite bani? - Credeam c vii mai trziu. - Dac l-a putea ajuta, a face-o cu plcere, dar nu-i dau bani de poman. - Intrnd n camer, mi-a spus c nu va putea lua examenul. - mi spusese c i va cumpra cri cu banii primii. - n timp ce citeam o carte interesant, mama mea a trecut s m vad. - Nu i-a spus c se va duce mine la bibliotec? - Studenta care trece acum pe culoar este fiica prietenei mele.

( SPEECH ACTS: ASKING FOR OPINIONSUse the following to ask for your colleagues opinions about organic gardening.

Are you sure that ?

Do you happen to known ?

Do you think that ?

Has it ever crossed your mind that ?

Has it ever occurred to you that ?

Tell me, please,

What do you feel / think about ?

UNIT 8

GENETIC ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

Topic: Genetic Engineering

Grammar: The Passive VoiceSocial Skills: Expressing Disagreement

Genetic engineering is defined as the process of extracting DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid, which makes up the genes of all living things) from one organism and combining it with the DNA of another organism, thus introducing new hereditary traits into the recipient organism.

Genetic engineering is performed by technicians using high-powered microscopes and microsurgical instruments. Genetically engineering micro-organisms are created using a technique called gene splicing, or gene cloning. In this technique, segments of DNA are cut out of a donor cell from an organism and inserted into the DNA of a vector. A vector is usually a plasmid, a circular structure extracted from a bacterium and containing some of that bacteriums DNA; in some cases, the vector is a modified virus. The vector, with the combined DNA, is then inserted into a host cell from a species different from that of the donor cell. Once in the host cell, the DNA makes exact genetic copies, or clones, of itself. In genetic engineering of plants, the object is not to produce chemicals but to induce desirable traits into the genes of crop plants. A number of techniques are being used. In one, DNA with the desirable trait is spliced into a plasmid obtained from a bacterium that causes galls on plants. Bacteria with the hybrid plasmid are then allowed to infect a crop plant and produce galls. The plant cells in the galls receive the desirable trait from the hybrid plasmid. These cells are removed and placed in a culture dish, where they develop by vegetative propagation into new plants with the desired characteristics. This technique is being used to develop plants that can protect themselves by producing a toxin that is lethal to certain insects. Botanists use gene splicing to develop crop plants with such traits as resistance to disease, drought, insects, and frost. In 1994, a tomato designed to resist spoilage became the first genetically engineered food marketed in the U. S. (After New Standard Encyclopedia)

(GLOSSARY

trait = attribute, property

to perform = to carry out, to execute, to do

gene splicing = (Roum.) unire a genelor

donor cell = (Roum.) celul donatoare

host cell = (Roum.) celul gazd

to splice = to join or unite

gall = any abnormal vegetable growth or excrescence on plants,

caused by various agents, as insects, nematodes, fungi,

bacteria, viruses, chemicals, and mechanical injuries (Roum.

excrescen)

culture dish = (Roum.) recipient de cultur

frost = a degree or state of coldness sufficient to cause the freezing

of water (Roum. ger)

spoilage = (Roum.) alterare

1. Answer the following.

What is genetic engineering?

What is DNA?

Who performs genetic engineering?

What do technicians use in genetic engineering?

How are genetically engineering micro-organisms created?

What happens in gene cloning?

What is a plasmid?

What does the DNA make once in the host cell?

What is the object in genetic engineering of plants?

What do botanists use gene splicing for?

What is the most recent achievement of genetic engineers?

Do you agree with cloning? Why?

2. Make sentences with the words below.

Cultiva(ta)ble - cultivability - cultivar - cultivate - cultivated - cultivated area - cultivation - cultivator - cultivator plough.

3. Fill in with the following.

Drugs - hormone - insulin - interferon - urokinase - vaccines.

Genetic engineering is used in medicine to manufacture certain and hormones. The first products thus produced were a substance used to kill certain viruses and cancer cells, and human, a hormone used to control diabetes. and tissue plasminogen activator, substances that dissolve blood clots, are produced by genetically engineered bacteria and mice. Human growth, which corrects a form of dwarfism and helps heal wounds, is produced by genetically engineered bacteria and yeasts. In 1986 the first genetically engineered were approved for use against pseudorabies, a fatal herpes infection of pigs, and hepatitis B, and a virus infection of humans.

4. Put into Romanian.

In each plant species, certain individual plants have more desirable qualities than others, from the viewpoint of human do needs do. These qualities include size and flavour of edible parts and attractive foliage. Plants are able to pass these qualities on, through their seeds, to their descendants. Humans learned long ago, by trial and error, to select the seeds of desirable plants and thus improve, year after year, the quality of the species they cultivated. Today there are thousands of varieties of agricultural and garden plants.

5. Put into English.

Ameliorarea plantelor a devenit o tiin nc de la sfritul secolului al XIX-lea, cnd au fost descoperite legile ereditii. Cresctorii de plante au produs varieti care rezist la boli, cum ar fi putregaiul, mlura i ofilirea. Cercettorii sunt acum capabili i s creeze noi varietti de plante care s rspund unor cerine deosebite. Iat cteva exemple n acest sens: petuniile btute, grepfrutul fr semine i grul timpuriu. Toate aceste trsturi mult dorite au fost introduse n genele petuniilor, ale grepfrutului i ale grului cu ajutorul tehnicilor ingineriei genetice.

( GRAMMAR: THE PASSIVE VOICEThe passive voice is used in English when it is more convenient or interesting to stress the thing done than the doer of it, or when the doer is unknown:

My cell phone was stolen. vs Thieves stole my cell phone.

In theory a sentence containing a direct and an indirect object could have two passive forms:

She was given a Staff.

Someone gave her a Staff.

A Staff was given to her.

a. Prepositions with passive verbs:

- when the agent, or doer of the action is mentioned it is

preceded by by:

This book was written by me.

- when a verb + preposition/adverb + object combination is put

into the passive, the preposition will remain immediately after

the verb:

I must write to him. He must be written to.

She threw away the old books. The old books were

thrown away.b. Infinitive constructions after passive verbs:

- after acknowledge, believe, claim, consider, find, know,

say, report, think, and understand two passive forms are

possible:

It is considered that he is/to be - suppose in the passive followed by the present/past infinitive

usually conveys an idea of duty:

Pupils are supposed to work hard. = It is their duty to ...

I am supposed to have finished it. = I should have finished it.

- an infinitive placed after a passive verb is normally a full

infinitive:

I made them work. They were made to work.

- the continuous present/perfect infinitive can be used after the

passive of believe, know, report, say, suppose, think,

understand:

He is believed to speak English well.

You are said to have been reading it.

1. Turn the following passive constructions into active ones.

Genetic engineering is defined as a process. - It is performed by technicians. - Genetically engineering micro-organisms are created by genetic engineers. - Segments of DNA are cut out of a donor cell. - The vector is inserted into a host cell.

2. Same exercise.

Many farms, however, are operated not by their owners, but by professional managers or tenant farmers. - Genetic engineering is performed by technicians using high-powered microscopes and microsurgical instruments.3. Change the following according to the model.

My mother gave me a dictionary.

I was given a dictionary.

Ann will tell you what time the plane leaves. - Father promised my brothers new bikes. - He is showing them the house. - I gave the students a test in English. - I'll pay the plumber for his work. - My husband lent them the new phonebook. - The actress will give him her autograph. - The captain ordered the crew to wait on the deck. - The professor will ask them a few questions. - They have appointed Ann-Marie president of the company. - They offered them flowers for their birthday.

4. Put into the passive. Use the agent only if it is necessary.

A machine could do this much easily. - An earthquake destroyed the town. - Any student can put this text into English. - Candidates may not use dictionaries. - Anybody can translate this letter without a dictionary. - He didn't introduce her to his mother. - Nobody has used this room for ages. - She is watching my house. - Students can use dictionaries without problems. - The examiner will read the passage for dictation only once. - They brought the children up in Romania. - They haven't stamped the letter. - They threw away the rubbish.

5. Put into the active.

A biscuit was given to me for dinner. - A post card was sent to my parents from the States. - Columbus is known to have discovered America. - He is said to be writing a biography now. - Mary is said to be marrying John next summer. - She is said to be visiting us next week. - She is said to have been the most beautiful girl in the town. - The dragon is said to have lived for hundreds of years. - They are expected to visit Timioara this month.

6. Put into English using passive constructions.

Aceast situaie trebuie bine cntrit. - Colegii ti au s rd de tine dac i pui cciula asta caraghioas. - Cutiile de Coca-Cola nu trebuie aruncate. - Elevii fuseser bine ndrumai de profesorii lor.- M-a pclit cu minciunile lui frumoase. - Mariei nu-i place ca bieii s se uite fix la ea. - Nu se mai lucrase de ani de zile n grdin cnd au venit ei. - Pn la prnz nu se mncase deloc din prjitur. - Pisica cea neagr a vecinilor mei a fost clcat de o main. - Trebuie s dai explicaii pentru fiecare greeal.

( SPEECH ACTS: EXPRESSING DISAGREEMENTYou heard the farmer providing you with fresh vegetables fertilises the soil with manure. Express your disagreement using the following.

I disagree with

I don't agree

I don't think that at all

I see things rather differently (myself)

I'm afraid I can't accept

I'm afraid I disagree with

Never!

No way!

Nonsense!

UNIT 9

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS

Topic: Soil

Grammar: Reported Speech (I)Social Skills: Approving

Various systems of soil classification have been devised. In general, soils are classified according to their profile and to their physical and chemical characteristics. Classification systems help soil scientists to evaluate the usefulness of different kinds of soils.

Broad classes of soil are determined to a large extent by climate and natural vegetation. They show the distribution of soils across large regions of a country or a continent. Within these regions, the soil may vary a great deal, depending on such factors as the type of rock from which the soil developed, drainage, slope, and disturbance by human activities. Very specific classes are used to distinguish different soils in much smaller areas, such as within a county or on an individual farm.

Some classification systems are based on a system developed by Russian scientists around the beginning of the 20th century. In this system there are three general classes: zonal soils, intrazonal soils and azonal soils.

In this system there are some 60 great soil groups recognised for the entire world. An example of a great soil group is the chernozem (a term derived from Russian meaning black earth). It consists of dark-coloured soils formed under a natural grass cover in areas of temperate to cool climate of limited rainfall, such as the Ukraine and the grasslands of central North America.

The classification system used by the U. S. department of Agriculture is based more directly on the soil profile and the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil than is the Russian system, simplifying the classification of soils whose development is unknown or soils that have been altered by agriculture. Nevertheless, there are similarities in the classes of soils recognised by the two systems. The American system has 10 orders and 47 suborders. (After New Standard Encyclopedia)

(GLOSSARYusefulness = (Roum.) utilitate, folos

broad = liberal (Roum. larg, cuprinztor, liberal)

to a large extent = (Roum.) ntr-o mare msur

a great deal = (Roum.) foarte mult

drainage = (Roum.) ameliorare a solului, asanare

slope = a portion of ground having a natural incline, as the side of a

hill (Roum. pant, povrni, coast)

disturbance = (Roum.) dislocare

chernozem = (Roum.) cernoziom

rainfall = the amount of water falling in rain, snow, etc., within a

given time and area, usually expressed as a hypothetical

depth of coverage (Roum. (cantitate de) precipitaii)

altered = modified

nevertheless = (Roum.) totui, cu toate acestea

1. Answer the following.

Who do classification systems of soils help?

How are soils classified in general?

How are broad classes of soil determined?

What do they show?

How many general soil classes are there in the Russian system?

What is chernozem?

What is the American soil classification system based on?

How many orders and suborders does it have?

2. Fill in with the following. Centuries - food - management - resource - soil.

conservation is of vital importance; the tremendous growth of the worlds population has greatly increased the demand for, but the amount of good farmland is limited. Soil is a renewable , but the process of soil formation is extremely slow. It may take to replace the soil that can be lost in a few years through careless ; with proper management it can be used indefinitely.

3. Make sentences with the words below.

Soil - to soil - soil cutting - soil formation - soil lifting - soil pipe - soilless.

4. Put into Romanian.

Soil is a natural covering on the earths land surface, composed of loose, unconsolidated materials such as tiny mineral particles, decayed organic matter, living organisms, water, and air. Soil is one of the most valuable natural resources; without it, virtually no life would be possible on land. The worlds food supply depends essentially upon the uppermost layer of soil the topsoil. The depth and quality of the topsoil vary considerably from area to area. Despite the importance of the topsoil, its use has often been poorly managed, resulting in a decrease of the soils fertility and in the loss of large amounts of soil through erosion by wind and running water. Early farmers discovered that some kinds of soils were better for growing certain crops than others grow. Soil science, or pedology, however, is a relatively young science. It was not until the late 19th century that the nature of soil began to be correctly understood and the classification of soils was begun.

5. Put into English.

Solurile din zonele subumed i deertic variaz din punctul de vedere al caracteristicilor n funcie de cantitatea de precipitaii. Solurile cu precipitaii moderate fac parte din solurile cele mai natural fertile din lume. Acestea au un orizont A gros i negru bogat n humus i materie organic dedescompus i sunt neuter sau uor bazice. Acolo unde plou puin, covorul vegetal este subire iar orizontul A conine mai puin materie organic. Solul are o culoare mai deschis i, pentru c se spal mai greu, este mai alcalin. Aceste zone semiaride sunt foarte bune pentru puni. Solurile din zonele deertice tind s fie foarte alcaline. Dei conin foarte puine materii organice, ele au niveluri moderate pn la foarte mari de elemente nutritive necesare plantelor, mai puin azot.

6. What can you say about the soil in your region?

( GRAMMAR: REPORTED SPE