dizertatie masterat

8/7/2019 DIZERTATIE MASTERAT

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UNIVERSITATEA TEFAN CEL MARE , SUCEAVAFACULTATEA DE LITERE I TIINE ALE COMUNICRII

MASTERAT:Comunicare i relaii publice

LUCRARE DE DISERTAIE

PUBLIC RELATIONSAND

MASS-MEDIACommunication and interconnections

Coordonator tiinific:

Lector universitar dr.: Codru erban

Student masterand:

Florea Loredana- Anioara - Murean

SUCEAVA2009

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SUCEAVA2009

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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION page 4

CHAPTER I I. 1. The beginning of PR .......... page 7I. 2. What Public Relations are and how they work?.......... page 13I. 3. Public relations and mass-media interconnections... page16

CHAPTER II II.1. PR Strategies and Techniques page18II.2. The role of technology in PR . .........page 22

CHAPTER III III.1. Mass-media system.. page 30III.2. Press relations, press files and press release..... page 34III.3. Working with the media.. page 41

CHAPTER IV IV.1. Media effects research for public relationspractitioners......................................................................................... page 43IV.2. The communication with the press during crisis.. page 46

CHAPTER V

V. Public Relations - Much more than media, analyst andblogger relations page 52

CONCLUSIONS ......... page 56 Bibliograp hy... page 59

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INTRODUCTION

In our country, the notion of public relations has begun to be acquainted after

the 90, and practiced as a profession after the year 2000. People tend to confuse

public relations with the relations with the public and in order to embrace better the

theme of public relations I decided to bring some light in this matter. In the next

pages we will show what PR is, how it works and how it collaborates with the

mass-media.

What is the importance of relations with mass-media and why public

relations have any connection with these ones? Why are they working together and

not find themselves in an exclusion report? What is the status of each of them? Is

this the best way to professionalism? In the spirit of the guide of PR practitioners

good manners, a person that wants to understand how it works the professional

mechanism of public relations as a way to achieve the success of the organization

he works for, the PR specialist must understand, first of all, the society in which

the firm he represents develops its activity. A good knowledge of the society itself

means to be aware of the advantages he must use but also of the risks he must

forecast and avoid. This thing cant be realized only by reporting his activity to

mass media, as this channel of communication is the only one that has a globalreflection of a society.

To consider yourself a very good practitioner in the realm of Public

Relations, you must, first of all, know and use all that is new appearance in any of

the media domains. The organization that a Public Relations practitioner works

for must use all the media forms, in order to be consider efficient and successful,

but in the most professional way possible.

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The main idea of this work is that a good collaboration with mass-media is

more than necessary. Its importance, its essentiality for the activity with the public

relations reveals from the fact that mass-media was, from historical point of view,

at the roots of public relations profession, and to support this idea we canexemplify the authors Phineas Taylor Barnum (1810- 1891) or Ivy Ledbetter Lee

(1877- 1934), the second being the one that broadcasted for the first time a press

release. Also mass-media was at the basis of public relations in Great Britain via its

implication in the propaganda during the second world war. Having an efficient

relationship with mass-media, the public relations practitioner will develop a

positive image about his clients but also about himself. The practitioner must havespecialized studies (achieved in a state university that is totally dedicated to public

relations, or, at least, at a department specialized in public relations within a state

or private university). Experience, active work to an agency or a department in the

domain are vital demands in the field. And he also needs an ingredient: passion

for this job. If is not heart in every activity, event, campaign it will not be obtained

true performance.

After 1990, in Romania, many people started to be interested in public

relations and began to gather materials, books, documents about it. They even

traveled long distances in order to participate to courses, seminaries, classes of

public relations. The domain grew slowly in the beginning, but after 2000 it started

to be considered the key to success. The fact that equilibrium and good function of

the modern society depend on the quality of communication is no longer a novelty.

But this truth signifies the assumption of all responsibilities tied to the complex

processes of communication by the leaders of different institutions but also by

those who have the mission to mediate between these institutions and the great

public: the journalists. Together with them, the representatives of another

profession try to contribute/concur to the fast circulation of a correct information,

to the improvement of social communication the public relations practitioners.

In our days, institutions evolve in a more dense domain, being connected

with various human categories, with social, political, economic and cultural

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institutions, with traditional and new currents of ideas. Its impossible that only

one institution to be able to deal with the communication of different problems in

relation with a changing public. Thats why the organizations resort to mass-media,

and via its huge impact and function to be able to transmit the messages theyconsider important for the public interest. The bond between the institution and

mass-media is realized by the press bureau or the practitioners that work in specific

departments and accomplish the duties of such a bureau. The specialists and also

the students that are studying public relations need manuals, documents that would

be able to reveal to them definitions, typologies, working techniques and strategies,

all in a clear and accessible language, things that can be put in practice. In our country foreign materials were brought by people interested in this field and in

time, translated in our language and modeled for our society. The universities

began to take interest in public relations and formed public relations

specialization, and even specialized PR universities focused on this domain and its

relations with other branches. We have the fortune to study these things in

legitimate institutions and also to access the patterns of foreign pioneers. We even

have the opportunity to improve other models and bring our contribution in this

area.

In this paper work I intend to show the importance of public relations and

their collaboration with mass-media, the type of problems that the practitioners had

to deal with because of the society they lived in, and also how public relations and

mass-media work together not only abroad but in our country too.

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CHAPTER I

I. 1. The beginning of PR

Edward Bernays, whom many have considered the founder of modern public

relations, wrote: The three main elements of public relations are practically as old

as society: informing people, persuading people, or integrating people with people.Of course, the means and methods of accomplishing these ends have changed as

society has changed. For Bernays and other historians of the practice, professional

public relations has always gone hand in hand with civilization. In their eyes, much

of recorded history can be interpreted as the practice of public relations. Whereas

primitive societies ruled mainly through fear and intimidation, more advanced

cultures depended on discussion and debate. Persuasion became less and lessgrounded in force and more and more grounded in words. With the invention of

writing, public relations in the formal sense took shape.

Whether they were promoting their image as warriors or kings, leaders of

ancient civilizations such as Sumeria, Babylonia, Assyria, and Persia used poems

and other writings to promote their prowess in battle and politics. In Egypt much of

the art and architecture (statues, temples, tombs) were used to impress on the public the greatness of priests, nobles, and scribes. In ancient Israel, the Bible and

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other religious texts became a powerful means for molding the public mind. With

the growth of the Hellenic world, the word, both written and spoken, exploded as a

force for social integration. And the Athens marketplace became a center of public

discussion concerning the conduct of business and public life. Oratory flourished,and the public interest became a central concern of philosophical speculation.

In ancient Rome, the force of public relations was evident in phrases such as

vox populi , vox Dei (the voice of the people is the voice of God), and res

publicae (public affairs), which means republic. Julius Caesar carefully

prepared the Romans for his crossing of the Rubicon in 49 B.C.E. by sending

reports such as Caesars Gallic Wars (52 B.C.E.) on his epic achievements asgovernor of Gaul. Most historians agree that he also wrote his Commentaries as

propaganda for himself. Recognizing the power of news to mold public opinion,

Caesar published a daily paper called Acta Diurna (daily acts or daily records)

that continued for 400 years. 1

Once the Christian church took shape, it relied on eloquent speeches and

letters, such as Pauls epistle to the Romans, to win converts and guide the faithful.

Public relations continued to develop even during medieval times, using the

new media of that day, such as the Bayeaux Tapestry, a woven wall hanging that

extolled the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. It was not until the Renaissance

and Reformation that the foundation of the modern world aroseand with it the

underpinnings of the kind of public relations that has become vital to the

management of public and private institutions. Great documents of liberty

crystallized the power of public opinion. For example, the Magna Carta the

thirteenth-century English charter of rights and libertiesinspired the U.S.

Constitution. The word propaganda originated in the Catholic Church. In the

seventeenth century, it set up its Congregatio de Propaganda Fide , the

congregation for propagating the faith. In doing so, it explicitly acknowledged

the need for a third party to facilitate communication between government and the1

Mini-Me History by Don Bates Copyright 2006, Don BatesPublished by Institute for Public Relations www.instituteforpr.org

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Indeed, the success of Barnum and his colleagues in manipulating the press was so

great that, to this day, the media still harbor skepticism toward anything that

suggests commercial promotion.

It was in the last two decades of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth century that professional public relations bloomed. This was the era

of Americas wild and woolly development as the center of capitalist enterprise,

when industry, the railroads, and utilities exploded across the face of the nation.

Corporations quickly learned the value of combating hostility and courting

public favor through professional public relations.

Among the pioneers of Public relations we mention Ivy Ledbetter Lee,Edward L. Bernays, Theodore N. Vail, Arthur W. Page. From all, Ivy Ledbetterwas perhaps the most famous of the early public relations practitioners, and with

good reason. He helped develop many of the techniques and principles that

practitioners follow today. He believed in open communications with the media,

and he was candid and frank in his approach to the press. He understood that good

corporate performance was the basis of good publicity. Many believe that his

major contribution was to humanize wealthy businessmen and to cast big business

in a more positive light. Edward L. Bernaysand his associate and wife, DorisFleischman, were among those who competed with Lee for prominence. Bernays is

credited with coining the term public relations counsel in his first book on the

subject, Crystallizing Public Opinion , originally published in 1923. Bernays

viewed public relations as an art applied to a sciencethe art of communications

applied to social science. He and his colleagues went well beyond publicity in their

roles as consultants to business, government, and not-for-profit enterprises. In

1917, during World War I, the Committee on Public Information, also known as

the Creel Committee after the name of its chairman, former newspaper reporter

George Creel, was organized to help sell war bonds and generally to promote the

war effort. Bernays was among those who lent his talents to the wars publicity

front. World War II had the Office of War Information, which organized one of the

largest public relations campaigns in history to muster support for Americas entry

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into the war. Between world conflicts, the Roosevelt administration relied heavily

on public relations techniques to promote its New Deal legislation. Bernays

actually became a full-fledged public relations counselor in 1919 when he

established his own counseling firm with his wife. Despite this criticism, Bernaysremains the preeminent figure in the field of public relations for his tireless efforts

in articles, speeches, lectures and professional consulting, in addition to his

books to educate generations of practitioners and the institutions they serve in the

value of public relations as a tool of management and human relations.

One of the most famous corporations in history was the American Telephone and

Telegraph Company (AT&T), founded in the 1870s, with its 23 Bell Telephonecompanies, a manufacturing and supply unit (Western Electric), and several other

technical and research entities, including Bell Laboratories. Collectively, it was

known as The Bell System or more affectionately, Ma Bell. Until the U.S.

government split it into several different companies in January 1, 1984, it was the

most formidable telecommunications giant in the world.

Although it made great products, had an almost monopolistic control over

telephony, and thrived on high-end technical research and development, a central

aspect of the companys success over the years was its use of professional public

relations. The practice was integrated as the critical tool for communicating and

managing its relations with employees, suppliers, legislators and, most important,

consumers. Two individuals stand out in the crowd of AT&T executives who made

public relations a core value of their company:

Theodore N. Vail:Vail, who joined the company in 1879 as a manager, got to thetop by applying the latest tools and techniques of modern management. When he

became President in 1907, after having been ousted from the company for several

years during which it went into a tail spin, he immediately added public relations

to this mix of tools and techniques. One author said, He was the first major

business leader in America to recognize that good public relations will build the

proper climate in which to build a successful business. In Vails first Annual

Report to shareholders, published in 1908, he titled the first section "Public

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Relations." To him, good public relations meant honest reporting. "If we don't tell

the truth about ourselves, he wrote, somebody else will.

Arthur W. Page: Over the years, the Vail legacy continued, but it wasnt until

1927 that it truly became a core value in everything that Ma Bell thought and did.That was the year that the company hired its first vice president of public relations,

Arthur W. Page. A former writer and editor for Worlds Work Magazine and other

publications, Page made it clear that he would not take the job unless the company

met certain conditions. He would not serve as a publicist. He had to be involved in

the development of policy. And the companys performance would have to be

determined by its public reputation. He stated his philosophy as follows: All business in a democratic country begins with public permission and exists by

public approval. If that be true, it follows that business should be cheerfully

willing to tell the public what its policies are, what it is doing, and what it hopes to

do. This seems practically a duty. To cement his position, he promulgated five

principles of corporate public relations that the company would follow:

To make sure management thoughtfully analyzes its overall relation to the public.

To create a system for informing all employees about the (companys) general

policies and practices.

To create a system giving contact employees (those having direct dealings with

the public) the knowledge needed to be reasonable and polite to the public.

To create a system drawing employee and public questions and criticism back up

through the organization to management.

To ensure frankness in telling the public about the companys actions. (Seitel,

1997).

Page retired in 1947 and continued his work as a consultant until his death in 1960

at the age of 77, but his philosophy and principles continue to retain their currency

and value. In 1983, just before the breakup of their beloved company, AT&T

executives founded the Arthur W. Page Society to promote and publicize his ideas

to other companies and in other contexts. The organizations membership is

composed of leading corporate communicators and public relations counselors.

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The Bell System may be gone, but the practices that it and legends such as Vail

and Page spawned live on.

I. 2.What Public Relations are and how they work?

Viewed as a professional endeavor, public relations is most often defined as the

management function that seeks to establish and maintain mutually beneficial

relationships between an organization, commercial or non-commercial, and the

audiences or "publics" on which the success of these entities depends. These

publics may include any of several possible constituencies: customers, investors,

employees, suppliers, legislators, competitors, government officials and other

influentials.

The International Public Relations Association established at the Annual

Convention in 1978 the next definition: The practice of public relations is the art

and social science of analyzing some tendencies, of the anticipation of their

consequences, of counseling the leaders of one organization and of implementing/

deployment some acting programs that will serve to the interests of the

organization as well as the publics interest 2.But there are hundreds of definitions of the term mentioned above. In

general, its known that public relations presume establishing and maintaining

some mutual profitable relations with different kinds of publics. The effort of

defining public relations or to put order in the existing definitions is hardened by

the fact that the respective formulations contain conceptual aspects (what public

relations are?) and also instrumental aspects ( what is their efficiency, what work

2 D. Newsome et alli, 1993, page 4

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procedures use those who practice them). All these multiply the elements that

compose the definitions, as the results of these activities are various and the tools

that practitioners use are more diversified. At an overall look on the existing

definitions, we notice that some key- words appear at the majority of formulations.After D.L. Wilcox and his collaborators, these words would be:

a) deliberation the activity of public relations is premeditated, it is the product of an analysis and of some choices regarding the winning modalities

of publics trust;

b) planning the activity in public relations is organized: the problems

solutions are discovered step by step, and the strategies are conceived onlong terms;

c) performance public relations are based on results and their efficiencydepends on the exact activity of the organization; due to this, public

relations intercessions cant win the public trust for a company that, through

its activity, ignores the publics interest;

d) two-sided communication public relations bank on taking the informationfrom the environment where the organization operates, on transmitting new

information and on checking their feed-back;

e) publics interest the purpose of public relations activity is satisfying the publics needs, not obtaining, with any price, benefits for the organization;

f) managerial dimension public relations activities are more efficient whenthey are integrated into the leading structures of the organization.

Working within the context of the prevailing public opinion, laws, politics and

societal norms of the country or countries in which they work, public relations

practitioners develop programs and craft messages aimed at creating favorable

support for the goals of the organizations they represent. Obtaining significant,

positive news and feature coverage in the print and broadcast media is a key

objective.

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Unlike advertising or marketing, with which it is often confused, professional

public relations is more soft sell than hard sell. It emphasizes information and

persuasion as opposed to packaging and paid media, diplomacy as opposed to

force. Owing to its subtleties, it is occasionally viewed as propaganda or, inmore current jargon, spin, the intentional manipulation of public opinion without

regard for what is accurate or true. Although professional public relations has

certainly been misused from time to time, its record of historical achievement

suggests a much deeper and abiding respect for and adherence to openness and

honesty in its dealings and communications. Public relations blossomed as a

professional endeavor in the 20th Century, most conspicuously in the UnitedStates .

Considering what was written so far and the above definitions, we can say that

public relations appear as a way of communication between one organization and

its public; PR help managers to get acquainted with the attitudes of the public and

make them to be able to take the right decisions; in the same time, they help the

public to understand the specific of the organization and to trust it. The PR

practitioners plan and fulfill the communication for the organization, inside it and

also in its relations with the environment. They assure the correct circulation of the

information between different subsystems of the organization, between the public

and the company and also between the organization and the public; in these

definitions, the key-element of public relations is reciprocity: the two partners,

level of understanding, of mutual trust and support.

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I.3.Public relations and mass-media interconnections

For public relations practitioners, understanding the way press works is

of crucial importance. In order to realize an efficient communication with mass-

media, the press bureau representative must take in consideration what journalists

values signify, to know how to mediate between organization and journalists, to

know that the relation between him (the press bureau representative) and the

journalists is one of collaboration, one that has to be transparent/ clear, sincere,

professional, accurate and done just in the right time for both participants.

A study made in our country in the years 1997- 2003 showed an

improvement of image of public relations practitioners in front of the one of

journalists, an improvement of the communication with the press, an awareness of

the necessity of a trusting atmosphere and a collaboration between journalists and

practitioners, but also, in the same time, a performance of the journalistic act and

the one of public relations.

The press bureau must be organized in a professional way, havingmarked quite clear the professional tasks, updating constantly the files of the

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organization he works for and giving the journalists the asked information

promptly, without having the tendency of manipulating or presenting just the

favorable news of the organization. The specialist in public relations must gather

information from the outside and inform the company on the things that must beimproved, but also from the inside, in order to make efficient the working way and

the performance of the employees from the perspective of the organization.

Transmitting the organizations message to the aimed public it must be taken in

consideration multiples factors: the title of a press release, the manner it is written,

the message wished to be transmitted, the goal for it to be broadcast and the

channels that it is broadcasted on.

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The journalist that works with the PR practitioner must understand very well

what his interlocutor wants to transmit and not to deform the information.

Otherwise it would be in jeopardy of creating a precedent of a precarious

collaboration. A press conference has as purpose to transmit some important

information, simultaneously, to many journalists and /or to multiple mass-media

channels.

The main idea is that a good collaboration of public relations with the media

is more than necessary. Its major importance for the public relations activity

reveals from the fact that mass-media is at the origins of PRs profession, from the

historic point of view. Mass-media is the ideal instrument if its used properly.

CHAPTER II II.1. PR Strategies and Techniques

Devising the strategy for a plan or campaign is the most difficult part of the

planning process. If the strategy is right, everything else rolls off the back of it.

Rather than thinking of a cohesive and proper strategy, many practitioners move

straight to tactics, the What shall we do? part of the programme, rather than

thinking carefully about how the overall programme should be shaped. They end

up with a fragment, unfocussed effort which lacks any underpinning direction or

driving force.

Strategy, like planning, applies to total programmes as well as individual

activities. Its important because it focuses effort, it gets results and it looks to the

long term. Strategy is the overall approach that is taken to a programme or

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campaign. It is the coordinating theme or factor, the guiding principle, the big idea,

the rationale behind the tactical programme. Strategy is dictated by the issues

arising from the analysis of the information at a disposal. It is not the same as

objectives and it comes before tactics. It is the foundation upon which a tactical programme is built. Strategy is the principles that makes things work. Some times

is called the big idea and sometimes even is it can be an all-embracing concept.

If the strategy was carefully thought through and is the right one to use, than it

should always be changed tactics before changing the strategy. A strategic review

is a major step. Planning must build in some flexibility of approach.

Having made the decision about which broad techniques to employ,consideration has to be given to the specific media to use.

Public relations strategy is made considering a complex of activities that

include:

1. Research research of the organizations public and its environment;

segmenting the public of the organization.

2. Planning -taking the decisions- establishing the objectives of the communication for every category of

public and the evaluating modalities.

- Choosing the most appropriate means of mass communication in order to

reach to every segment of the public;

- Programming the schedule of the activities and responsibilities for their achievement;

- Assigning the available resources.3. Action implementing the PR plan4. Evaluation- evaluating the fulfilment of public relations actions and the accomplishment

of the objectives of communication

- modification/ adjustment of the communication plan in a new situation, as itwas shaped after the evaluation.

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Public relations have on base a core well defined by objectives, notions,

theoretical representations that are although applied via a complex category of

practical procedures and techniques. These techniques differ depending on thechosen channel or modality to transmit the wanted messages to the chosen target

public.

From the point of view of the communication ways, we encounter two aspects:

a) direct communication;

b) mediated communication ( via mass informational means)

Among the specific PR techniques we mention:Press conference

Press briefing

The interview for the written press

The interview for television

The interview for the radio

Elements of electronic communication

Speeches

Reading recent documents and articles about strategies, tactics, technology

in public relations I found interesting things that are applied by the practitioners

nowadays. An owner of a Press Release Bureau, an agency specialized in search

engine optimized press releases and promotional campaigns, has kindly shared his

theories with us. He believes there are 5 top strategies in this domain:1.Media relations- one of the old-age prerequisites for good PR is making surethe media picks up the campaign. It doesn't matter if it's a single press release or a

full-blown PR blitz - having strong ties to the media will give you an immediate

advantage, particularly in this day of blog power. Journalists and especially editors

are busy people and don't have time to look at every news or media release.

However, have one on your side and you've immediately got an inroad into gettingthe media attention your story needs. It's all about credibility - you need to make

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sure your story is newsworthy first. The best way to ensure this is to make sure

your news is timely and interesting. Having a newsworthy story is half the battle in

getting a media source interested. .

2.Know your Market- PR is probably one of the fastest changing markets aroundalong with technology - you need to know what's happening around you to be able

to act immediately to keep your clients ahead of the game. Use everything at your

disposal to keep abreast of the latest news. .

3. Use Technology- In today's predominantly online business world, I find that to be just a little scary there's no quicker medium than online for breaking a big news

story. Social media giants like Facebook, Digg and Youtube are now being heavilyused by PR agencies for their clients. Viral marketing and video campaigns are just

two of the ways that businesses are reaching a wider audience. Blogging is another

vital cog in the online promotion of a business. Where else can you have a medium

that allows instant interaction between you and your customers, or potential

customers? Additionally, a blog allows you to offer a more personal side to your

"business speak" and can help you connect to your key audience in a way that

would have been almost impossible before. .

4. Monitor the Web- As much as social media offers a wonderful tool for any PR campaign, they're only as good as you make them. You need to know what's being

said so you can act, or react. Monitoring any news on your product niche will soon

let you know of any reaction to it, positive or negative. With the most influential

bloggers having the power to instantly make or break a product or story, you have

to be on top of your game and be ready to build on positive news or counter

negative news. Consumer created content is the fastest growing medium on the

web today - make sure you use it to your advantage .

5. Social Awareness- There's no better PR strategy than local awareness.Consumers especially are more likely to buy into a product or idea that gives back

to the community - just look at how successful eco-friendly businesses are

compared to non-green competitors. If a business can offer something to the

community as a result of a new product or service, you'll be in a far better position

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to receive positive PR. .

II.2. The role of technology in PR

The public relations practitioner aware of all new things in the field, to pay

attention to the events that could change the attitude and openness to different

kinds of topics. Nowadays technology is forcing the practitioner to know any

change of the moment, he must always be up to date with the new media forms

and to know how to use them.

The Internet in not only an information tool, but it has turned into an

essential medium for the circulation of public relations messages. New

technologies have dramatically changed the way public relations works by

providing new and more efficient ways in which communication messages can be

produced, distributed, displayed, and stored. Essentially digital technologies are

changing the practice of public relations from every angle. The use of digital

technology transformed the entire field of public relations. The transformation to

digital technology has far-reaching implications for the practice of public

relations3

. Savery (2005) agreed with this view noting that the Internet and3 Springston, J.K. (2001), "Public relations and new media technology: the impact of theinternet", in Heath, R.L. (Eds), Handbook of Public Relations , Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage,

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alternative communication choices are causing the practice of public relations to go

through a period of great change. These innovations allow public relations

practitioners to target their publics directly (p. 1). As society and the media adopt

and use new technologies, public relations practitioners also have to adopt and useof new, innovative public relations tools.

New technologies are diffusing throughout the practice of public relations,

and changing traditional public relations practices. This diffusion is causing a

change in the way traditional forms of public relations are conducted. Certain

technologies, such as e-mail, Internet, and Internet-based communication tools

have been adapted to the point of critical mass. Meaning the use and acceptance of these technologies is self-sustained by individuals within the social system.

However, utilizing these tools in the practice of public relations has yet to reach a

critical mass even though the Internet meets the requirements for a convivial tool.

As audiences have increased their use of the Internet and have grown more savvy

with digital media of all types, public relations has needed to evolve with them 4. It

is important for the public relations field to understand and utilize emerging

technologies, especially since the media and potential target publics are already

doing so. With the popularity of online technologies and the trust in traditional

media declining, more publics are turning to these new, interactive news sources,

which are potentially diminishing the power of the mass media.

Depending on the audience a public relations practitioner is trying to target,

many different public relations tools can be used. Media relations is an important

part of any strategic communication plan. One of the many ways to get into the

media, the most commonly known and the most often misused is the news release

(Howard & Mathews, 1994, p. 31). News releases were first mailed and eventually

faxed to the news media. News releases were also often included in hard copy

media kits. The news release provides pertinent information about the

pp.603.4 John V. Pavlik- Mapping the Consequences of Technology on Public Relations, 2007, page13

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organization, event, program initiative, or product (Diggs-Brown, 2007, p. 70).

Both Diggs-Brown (2007) and Howard and Mathews (1994) agree that

practitioners should have a current media list and specific media to target, and

most importantly must understand the best way to deliver a news release, featurestory, media kit, etc. There are a multitude of traditional public relations tactics and

strategies, including news releases and newsletters, that are moving away from

their traditional means. Many organizations are now utilizing some form of

technology for development and delivery of these tools. For example, traditional

media relations materials such as biographies of leaders, organizational

history, fact sheets, and press archives (traditionally known as clips) are now being used on Web sites. Also, newsletters are being digitally developed and

posted online or e-mailed for a target audience to receive. Finally, the most

common and encouraged way to send a news releases to reporters or any news

organization is via e-mail.

Lordan (2001) 5 stated that new technologies will not replace traditional

public relations practices, but, the rapid growth of technology is creating

tremendous pressure on public relations practitioners to increase their use of

emerging systems (p. 588). The use of advanced technology, specifically the

Internet and Internet-based tools, is essential for public relations practitioners to be

effective and keep up with the societal and media diffusion of technology.

According to Pavlik (2007), as communication technology has progressed, society

has adopted and developed high expectations for the use of the technologies .

Public relations research indicates that the Internet and World Wide Web

has developed into an essential and key public relations tool for practitioners

around the world. According to Kirat (2007), nothing seems more important, than

mastering the world of new technology and the advent of interactive workplace:

the Internet, the World Wide Web, cyberspace. Internet has tremendous potential

power for public relations and other communications disciplines (p. 166). The

definition of new technology is constantly changing and shifting to a new focus.

5 Lordan E.J(2001), CyberSpin: The use of new technologies in public relations

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According to Pavlik, properly used, the Web represents the ultimate

communication tool for building relationships between an organization and its

publics, both internal and external (page 1) 6.

Its obvious that todays public relations managers must be more thancommunications specialists, more than boundary spanners, and more than strategic

advisors. Public relations managers must now be relationship builders, reputations

managers, and responsible advocates, for both their organizations and the

stakeholders to achieve a mutually beneficial end state established and

maintained through a collaborative and dynamic process of negotiation and

facilitation with each stakeholder group. Reading blogs provides a usefulinformation tool for practitioners. However, practitioner bloggers believe that

blogging provides a way for practitioners to truly establish themselves as

prestigious experts in public relations. Blogging is becoming a key aspect of

public relations, not only for researching stakeholder and public opinions, but also

for communicating directly with specific target audiences. Technology has made

it incredibly easy and virtually free to create content, both consumers and the

media and everyone in between are creating content at unprecedented rates

(Paine, 2007, page 2). Nearly once every two seconds a new blog is developed.

According to Paine (2007) 7, another important aspect of blogging is the

opportunity to assess a companys reputation within the blogosphere. Content

analysis of blogs should look for messages and themes to determine how your

customers and constituencies perceive your organization or brand (page 6). Well

known practitioners suggest corporations to understand and monitor what is being

said about their company, product, or brand. In social media and the blogosphere,

being able to measure, track and compare the results is a requirement for

determining next steps and strategy (page 3). Companies not monitoring the

6 John V. Pavlik- Mapping the Consequences of Technology on Public Relations, 2007,7 Katie Delahaye Paine is the founder and CEO of KDPaine & Partners LLC, a New Hampshire based researchconsultancy that provides measurement and accountability for corporations, non-profits and government agenciesworld wide. Her book, Measuring Public Relationships: the Data-Driven Communicator's guide to Measuring

Public Relationships was published in December 2007

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blogosphere are taking huge risks, mainly due to the speed that something can

become an instant hot topic throughout the Web, thus throughout the world.

According to Pavlik, one reason practitioners must adopt these new

technologies is to keep up with the media and society whom both utilize the

technologies. Adoption of these technologies is imperative for public relations

practitioners to communicate efficiently and effectively with journalists, as it is a

fact that journalists rely on PR contacts and on web sites for story information and

ideas. In the technologically advanced society of today, individuals have many

choices on where to get information, much of which is available online not having

to navigate through traditional media outlets. Public relations must still be able to

reach their audiences, making it important to master these online technologies .

Technology has long influenced how public relations practitioners do their

work. Once typed on paper and sent via mail or fax, press releases are now

produced on a computer and delivered via email. PR Newswire sent the first

electronically transmitted press release on March 8, 1954. The electronic press

release was sent to 12 media outlets in New York. By 2007, a variety of

competitors offer a wide range of online media services, ranging from an RSS

(really simple syndication) feed to ProfNet expert source services to free media

monitoring. Video news releases are delivered digitally via satellite or the Internet.

Public opinion surveys are conducted via the World Wide Web. Photography and

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videography are widely produced and delivered digitally. Because much of the

strategy and tactics of public relations rely on use of the media, as media have

evolved technically, practitioners have adapted their methods as well. Some of

these adaptations have been strategic and intentional, designed to improve theeffectiveness, efficiency or efficacy of various tactics or techniques. In other cases,

the changes have been perhaps more subtle and unintentional, possibly adversely

influencing practices.

Internet use by journalists in general has grown dramatically since the 1990s

to become a routine part of the normal work day for reporters and editors. The

2004 Media in Cyberspace study found: 98% of the journalists say they are online at least once a day to check email.

15 hours a week are spent by journalists reading and sending email.

76% of reporters go online to find new sources and experts.

73% of reporters go online to find press releases.

53% of journalists use email to receive story pitches. This is more than double the

percent (25%) who used email to receive story pitches in 1995.

Most journalists have two email addresses. 12% have six or more. Typically,

different addresses are used or given out for different purposes.

24% of journalists used instant messaging in 1999; by 2004, 44% did.

81% of reporters go online daily to do searching.

92% of journalists go online as part of their story research.

A growing portion of journalists use corporate Web sites to obtain

information. Magazine journalists in fact report that for breaking news when a live

source is not available, corporate Web sites are the top choice for information.

55% of print media sites at least occasionally use their Web site to scoop the print

product. This is up substantially since 1999, when 42% would use the Web to

scoop the print product.

A growing portion of journalists prefer receiving photographs, audio and

video.

46% of magazine editors favor receiving digital images.

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26% prefer slides.

26% prefer camera-ready art.

61% of newspaper editors prefer to receive digital photos or other images.

About a third of all broadcasters welcome receiving audio files from Web sites. 20% of broadcasters receive video files online.

More than 51% of journalists use blogs, reported the 2006 - 11th Annual Euro

RSCG Magnet and Columbia University Survey of the Media. The study surveyed

1,202 journalists in North America and around the globe. The study found that:

70% of journalists who use blogs do so for work-related tasks. Most often, those

work-related tasks involve finding story ideas, with 53% of journalist respondentsreporting using blogs for such purposes.

43% of journalists use blogs for researching and referencing facts and finding

sources.

36% of respondents use blogs to find sources.

Most notable is that 33% of journalists say they use blogs as a way of

uncovering breaking news or scandals. Few blog-using journalists are engaging

with this new medium by posting to blogs or publishing their own.

But, evidence suggests that journalists are gradually turning more to posting

to their own blogs in order to have independence from traditional editors or media

gatekeeping. This is much of what attracts millions of citizens around the U.S. and

persons around the world to publish their own blogs. Some research also confirms

that regardless of the medium, including blogs, writing quality is still a deciding

factor in effective communication .8

A notable example of how technology has influenced public relations

messages is the video news release (VNR). With the rise of video tape technology,

VNRs emerged in the 1980s as a video version of the traditional news or press

release. Having started as oftentimes amateurish promotional video on analog tape,

mailed or sent by overnight delivery to selected television stations for possible

8Marken, G. A. Losing Our Most Precious Asset. Public Relations Quarterly , Spring 2006, Vol. 51 Issue1, page 45

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inclusion in the evening newscast, the VNR has evolved into a sophisticated digital

public relations tool and a frequent part of television news, particularly at the local

level 9 Further, new technologies have made it increasingly effective to distribute

VNRs in digital format via satellite or other broadband technologies. Typically, journalists can view or download VNRs online before deciding whether to use

them.

Technological change presents many significant implications for the

structure, culture and management of organizations, particularly from the point of

view of public relations. Perhaps among the most significant is the opportunity to

flatten the hierarchical nature of many organizations, at least from the point of view of communication. Digital communications makes it possible for more

efficient management of organizational communications, including both internally

and externally. This also means organizations can be more open and transparent to

facilitate better understanding between and among various groups. It is also

possible to better transcend time and distance constraints via digital

communications. We are witnessing the rise of decentralization, with increasing

use of collaboration (intranets have succeeded Lotus Notes, etc.) and group

decisionmaking software. Organizational openness and transparency are increasing

as online technologies have become ubiquitous and powerful.

Practitioners monitor such online sources alongside traditional media

outlets. These citizenproduced online media can be influential and widely seen and

accounting for them may be essential to a public relations campaign. Gauging

public opinion can also involve the use of online media. Conducting public opinion

surveys online is now a common practice in public relations.

One of the challenges raised by social networking sites and other new

technologies is the notion of privacy and security in the digital age, with all of the

attendant public relations issues. Many organizations of various types will likely be

confronted by privacy and security concerns as online technologies bring together

both increasing ability to track individuals and data about them and facilitate

9Pavlik, John. http://www.tvquarterly.net/tvq_36_3/media/articles/36.3 Disguised_as_news.pdf

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convenience at the potential sacrifice of personal privacy and data security 10.

Research has much to tell us about how technology influences the practice of

public relations. Yet, much research remains to be done in this regard.

CHAPTER III

III.1. Mass-media system

The simpler way of mapping the big universe of the press is the one that has asmain criteria the support on which the message is sent; we further distinguish the

written press (the text is fixed on solid support- the paper sheet) and the

audiovisual press (the text is fixed on hertz waves). For each category function

more types of classification.

1. The written press- is classified after:

a) the rhythm of appearance we classify daily, weekly, monthly, term,semester and annual newspapers; between the rhythm of appearance

and the type of public a particular publication has, a tight interrelation

is bounding: the numerous and changing the public is, the bigger is

the frequency of appearance. This correlation offers a first useful clue

for the press bureau representative who wants to identify the proper

publications when placing information: if the dates he wants to10 Kelly, Christy - Data Security: A New Concern for PR Practitioners. Public Relations Quarterly ,Summer2005, pages 25-26.

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transmit aim a wider public (the dates are of general interest or of

maximum actuality) he will address to those journalists that work to

daily magazines; if the information aim a restraint public, with a

socio-professional shape well defined, than he must look for specialized publications journalists, and eventually, those that have a

profile column in daily newspapers.

b) The circulation of newspaper/ press run : some newspapers have a

press run of millions of copies everyday (Wall Street Journal, Readers

Digest etc) and others of only few thousands. Still, for the press

communication specialist, the circulation of newspaper shouldnt be adiscriminating criteria; he collaborates with the journalists, with

specialized people in certain domains that must be respected for their

ability, competence and not the number of copies a publication sells.

c) The publications pattern generally we distinguish magazines and

newspapers. Each of them can be at standard format ( the so-called

A2 format) and the tabloid format (A3).

d) The area of circulation- the publications can be: nationals, regionals

and locals , in the last category making part the journals with a press

run of only thousands of copies published by some unknown

community and also the big daily newspapers from modern big cities

with a circulation of publication of couple of thousands copies,

without having national vocation.

e) The content of newspapers and magazines : general or specialized .

2. The audio-visual pressclassifies after:a) the diffusion area the stations can be locals, regionals and

nationals .

b) The content - general or specialized. Both of them can have nationaland international broadcast.

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c) The financed way and the assumed role(this is the most importantcriteria). From this point of view, we distinguish public service

stations and commercial stations .

Some stations are integrating themselves into a network television, theyaffiliate to a central station and take over part of its programs. Knowing the grid of

programs is highly important for the press bureau representative, because it permits

him to evaluate the broadcasting area of some information and to avoid wasting

energy by contacting other local stations.

Work inside the press environment is based on stressed specialization, that

affects the journalists world and also the one of the specialists involved inmanufacturing and obtaining press materials: technicians, managers, sketchers,

engineers, marketing or distribution specialists etc. Also, the journalists are

specialized depending on the media features (written media, radio, television, press

agents), or the working field (economic, social, sport, culture) or the type of

activity theyre doing ( searching and gathering information or analyzing written

materials and publishing them).

A publication or station is divided in 3 main professional fields:

1. the journalistic field ( known as editorial office)

2. the managerial field (that groups the ones that administrate and finance the

production and broadcasting process)

3. the technical field (the specialists that assure the material process of the

product).

An editorial office is organized in departments that can be: thematic (economic,

political, social, cultural etc), on zones (interns, regional areas, big city areas,

internationals) and professionals (journalistic, photo, sketches, editing, image etc).

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In order to realize an efficient mass-media communication, the press bureau

representative (part of public relations system) must take in consideration whatrepresents the personality of that field, a personality that derives from the

specific conditions of working in an editorial office but also from the values that

journalists are relying on when taking decisions or fulfilling some activities. Thats

why the people who work in the field of press communication must know certain

characteristics of the journalists work, to respect them and comply to their

demands. The main value that journalists are very fond of is the liberty of the

press : this assumes the recognition of the journalists right to search information

and express opinions without being obstruct/ enclosed by any authority (political,

administrative, economic, juristic acts etc). the press bureau representative must

accept the fact that the journalists (editors and reporters) are the ones making an

information being of interest, a news, what must be published, how the subject

must be approached, in what form or style, with what tone etc. The journalists must

have the freedom to present the information that the press bureau is offering the

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way he consider best. The journalists appreciate mostly the professionalism and the

correctness, honesty of the working partner, the one he is engaging with in the big

responsibility process of informing the public, in extreme situations (crisis,

accidents, catastrophes etc), when the public needs to receive accurate information,and during a time pressure the journalists appreciate those press bureaus and those

spokesmen that know how to facilitate obtaining essential dates and transmitting

them as efficient as possible. Although the press bureau representative mission is

to mediate between the organization and journalists, this doesnt mean that he has

the communications exclusiveness or that he must stop the access of journalists to

the organizations management. On the contrary, he must facilitate contacts between them and the authorities. He also must support the journalists when they

want to go to certain places to obtain documents, either some departments of the

organization or locations where the organization is represented.

III.2. Press relations, press files and communications

To realize a good communication with the press, the public relations

practitioners must know the specific of the mass-media system and to adapt to it.

From the point of view of press communications objectives and techniques, the

different types of mass-media present specific advantages and disadvantages.

Gathering dates from many such studies (S.W. Dunn, 1986, pp.300-302; D.L.

Wilcox et alli , 1992, pp. 266-290; D. Newsom et alli , 1993, pp.349-351; K.Tucker

et alli , 1994, pp.100-102, 145-149; T.Hunt, J.E. Grunig, 1994, pp.137-141, 157-

161; S.M. Cutlip et alli , 1994, pp.280-299) we reach the following synthesis:

a) The daily newspapershave the following advantages:- they are an important source of high reputation; the appearance of some

material about one organization in a daily newspaper that benefits of wide

distribution and reputation strengthens the reputation of that organization;

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- assures the distribution of information on a wide geographic area and in

divers social backgrounds;

- represents wanted goods achieved in a selective way.

- permit the presentation of information in graphic shapes and attractivetypography;

- guarantee the presentation of information in terms of professionalism and

exigence.

b) Disadvantages:- the news from newspapers have short life: the contain information is

accessible only one day.- the space dedicated to the news is smaller every day;

- the reading of daily press is not equal: the reader takes 30-40 minutes/ day, but

with different levels of concentration; besides, he doesnt read all the papers

and columns, only those interesting him or the habitual ones.

c) The publications with weekly or monthly appearanceshave asadvantages:

- selectiveness: these publications have well defined target-publics, whichallows directing the information to those segments directly aimed by the

message of the organization; more than that, some weekly publications are read

particularly by powerful people from different social environments (opinion

leaders) and the message has the chance to penetrate those environments;

- long life time of some information: because the reader doesnt finish the publication from only one lecture, coming back on reading the publication more

than once, the information has more chances of being identified and

memorized;

- the need of information and interesting topics;- attractive graphic presentation.d) Disadvantages:

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-the delay of distributing some information: because of larger periods of time between appearances, they cant spread the information immediately, but to

some distances from the moment it was sent to the editorial office;

-the rigidity in terms of space ((the information can be placed only in certain pages) and deadline;

-the tendency of not publishing directly the press communication and other materials: the coordinator of these magazines prefer to take over the

information and to ask the journalist to develop a more ample material, starting

from it (story, investigation, portrait, interview etc);

e) Due to its numerous qualities, the televisioncan advantage the press bureaumessages through:

- big social impact: every day, especially during great audience hours, millionsof people stand in front of tv, watching with maximum attention and

perception;

-credibility;-capacity of affective mobilization: tv has an increased power of touching,addressing in the first place to the affective dimensions of human being, and

secondarily to his reflexive availabilities.

f) On the other hand, television has also boundaries:-mobility of tv spectator;-the mass character of the audience;-the image precedes the word;-difficult access: due to its attractiveness, television is looked for by therepresentatives of all institution; thats why obtaining an appearance time is an

extremely difficult operation;

g) Finally, the radio imposes some advantages:-fast receptivity: due to its specific technical conditions, the messagestransmitted on radio get fast to the public, sometimes simultaneously with the

rolling events (live transmission);

- promoting local dimensions;36


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- makes it personal the radio uses the spoken word to broadcast information;he is a communicational environment from man to man, who lives especially

through conversations 11;

-omnipresence: we can listen anywhere, anytime, anyhow.h) Disadvantages :-perishable messages: immaterial character and the small passing through

duration on air;

-small duration of messages.

The public relations practitioners need journalists to be able to put in

circulation the messages and information they want to transmit to their public;the journalists need the practitioners to get faster to sources, to benefit of

proved information and press materials elaborated after the journalistic

standards.

Press files

You cant have a good communication with mass-media if you dont know

whom to address to, who is or could be interested in your messages, how the

press institutions that youre working with are organized. A professional press

file permits:

a) the account of journalists from press institutions that might e interested in

the distributed information;

b) sending the press releases, press files, invitations for press conferences or press voyages for the appropriate persons, at the right moments;

c) keeping up the connections with the journalists after sending certain

information;

d) prompt reaction after the information was put in circulation by the press.

11 Cutlip, 1994, page 291

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Press files are complex documents and extremely well structured, based on

logical and functional criteria. J. Deschepper (1991, pp. 35-36) consider that

press files can be devised in 4 major categories, two regarding the press

institutions and the other two regarding the journalists.a. Press files for press institutions can be classified:

a) press file regarding the press of general information :

- for the press agencies, publications, radio stations and television;- for weekly publications of general information.Each of these files can be categorized after geographical criterion, in central,

regional and local.b) press file regarding the specialized press can contain the following types:

- after domain: economic, financial, scientific and technical press, cultural,

medical press etc;

- afterg periodicity : daily, weekly, monthly, semestrial;

- after the aimed public : feminine, for children, teenagers, retired people etc.

- after hobbies. b. Press files regarding the journalists can be classified in two big

categories:

a) the systematic file of journalists:

- national press journalists;

- local press journalists and zonal newspapers correspondents of press agencies,

central and regional press;

- foreign press correspondents,

b) the alphabetic file of journalists , where they can be grouped after the namecriterion.

The press files must be updated permanently, otherwise they have no value. Its

important to remember that the public of organization is also the public of some

press institutions. Knowing the press agencies specific assures the broadcasting of

messages to the public. This represents an essential part of the process of creating

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solid boundaries of communication with the society. The meticulous work of

creating and permanent updating press files realizes a stable relation with the press

institutions and journalists and also guaranties success in transmitting some

information or in organizing some event with public resonance.

Press ReleaseA press release is a document issued to media and consumers to announce

an organization or a product. A well-written release can dramatically increase

sales, expose a company to the masses, and greatly enhance the image of a

business or products. A professionally written press release can make the

difference between a successful press release and an utter failure. A release must

have a general interest to the target audience and a strong news angle. In addition,

it needs to be written in journalistic rather than marketing style. It should be

objectively written and needs to inform people, not just sell them something. The

focus of the story should not be on the subject of the product itself but on the

creator of the product. A human-interest story or a hint of controversy helps create

interest. Preface the opening sentence of the release with the place and date of the

release. It should aim for absolute clarity and avoid too many adjectives or

adverbs, consider using bullet points where appropriate. Both the headline and the

first paragraph should summarize and sell the story. A press release should

accentuate what is new, unusual, different and extreme.For journalists, the press release is an instrument of work and reference or

a finished product. The main evaluation criteria of a press release importance

are, for journalists, the novelty of information, its interest for the newspaper,

publication or stations public, the quality of the written text.

Press releases are often sent alone, by e-mail, fax or snail mail. They can

also be part of a full press kit, or may be accompanied by a pitch letter. A pressrelease is different from a news article. A news article is a compilation of facts

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developed by journalists published in the news media , whereas a press release is

designed to be sent to journalists in order to encourage them to develop articles on

a subject. A press release is generally biased towards the objectives of the author.

A press release is written in order to highlight an important event , program , or piece of information by an organization that succinctly describes the who, what,

where, when, why and how of the story.

The first thing to be done by the press bureau representatives is to check the

press review, and in this way to establish in how many publications the text

appeared, how many radio and TV stations have broadcasted it, how it was

broadcasted and if it was reproduced correctly or it was accompanied bycommentaries or information belonging to the editorial office. Such an analysis is

very important because it shows: the publications and journalists interested in the

messages of the organization, their attitude towards the organization, the way, via

mass-media, the public could intercept the organizations messages.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program


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fig. A press release template

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III.3. Working with the media

Improving media relations and earning news coverage for your organization is

critical to raising awareness of your mission. Media coverage of your

organizations work and leadership helps establish your credibility in the

community, attracts allies, and sways public opinion. Your issue and work can

grow from something that only a small staff and board discuss regularly to

something that families, other boards, and community leaders begin to address.

Working with the media is an integral part of accomplishing an organizations

mission by informing the public and influencing public policy. Good publicity can bolster your organizations membership or volunteer efforts.

Getting good media coverage is often seen as a daunting task, but with some

preparation and practice it can be a highly rewarding endeavor. A few keys to

success are:

1. Develop a message or a short set of messages that you constantly refer to.

Those messages serve as your guide to answering questions from media, prospective donors, legislators, or anyone interested in your organization, its cause

and its programs.

2. Identify one key spokesperson to speak for your organization (usually the president, board chair, or communications director). Having one media liaison

makes it easier for the media to contact your organization (thus more likely to do

so) and helps avoid sending mixed messages.

3. Remember, with a few exceptions, the media are not out to get you. They are people trying to do their job and report the facts on topics about which they are

often not experts. They depend on people who are experts on topics to give them

the information they need to compile their stories.

4. Dont forget to celebrate your successes. When you do get good mediacoverage, keep a copy for your files, share it with your board, if relevant, show it

to your donors, clients or legislators. Good media can work FOR you.

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5. Reporters and nonprofits hold a special responsibility to the public to voiceopinions and act responsibly based on credible information. The role of the

nonprofit sector and the free press sustain free and open dialogue which is vital to

sustaining a strong democracy.Working with the media is about building relationships. The media are

usually not experts at subjects they cover they depend on the people they

interview and the research they do to provide them the information they need.

Establish yourself as an expert in your field by reliably providing good

information. If an article is run that you wish you had been interviewed for, contact

the reporter and let him/her know that if they need a contact on that topic in thefuture, he/she can call you. When a good story is run or you are well quoted send a

thank you to the reporter responsible. It is good to generate media coverage on a

regular basis; but it is not good to overwhelm the media. Sending regular press

releases is good, but dont send them so frequently that people get sick of them and

quit reading them. Take advantage of media opportunities in addition to press

releases. 12

12 www.ColoradoNonprofits.org

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CHAPTER IV

IV.1. Media effects research for public relations practitioners

A public relations writer is expected to understand the media. He will have to

know the strengths and limitations of all forms of media, including the internet.

The promise of understanding media effects can be seductive a search for

knowledge of cause and effect and the relationship between human behavior andconsumption of media.

Discovering how mass-media researchers define media effects is complex and

typically is inferred from context. Mass communication involves the scientific

study of the mass-media, the messages they generate, the audiences they attempt to

reach and their effects on these audiences 13. Effects can be broadly based, from

effects on an individual to societal effects, ranging from a childs fear reaction toan R-rated film to undecided voters casting ballots for a third-party candidate.

Effects generally include any of the psychological or sociological outcomes

following mass-media consumption. More specifically, media effects may be

defined by a categorization scheme such as type of effect or duration of effect. The

term mass media has grown to include print media, electronic media and computer

generated media, with content ranging from advertising to news and toinformational and entertainment programming.

Early institution about media effects assumed a direct effects magic bullet

model from the early 1900s to the 1940s. Most mass media were in their infancy,

and the emerge of each new medium, from film to radio to television, was met with

public fear about potentially harmful effects as the consequence of exposure.

Historically, the scientific empirical study of media effects has evolved from the

fields of psychology and sociology. The limited effects model also is supported by13 Tan, A. S. (1985). Mass communication theories and research (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Macmillan.

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Klappers (1960) work, which concluded that the media have very limited power

and might only be capable of reinforcing preexisting ideas. This tradition gave way

during the 1970s to a powerful media effects model. It may be visualized as a

softening one.Public relations practitioners often might face the dilemma of deciding where

their messages should be placed. First, consumers approach media in a

predetermined way, but this ultimately has a limited impact on information

processing when the message is the same. Second, message designers should

exploit the formal features of the chosen medium to maximize effectiveness (e.g.,

television messages use attention-getting production techniques, print is used tocomplex information). Third, a target audiences cognitive abilities need to be

assessed to aid in determining how the message is constructed.

Cost and size audience might be the most pertinent criteria given that the

research shows little processing differences across media. The increasing number

of people who obtain information from the internet pose an interesting problem for

researchers concerned with form versus content. Are information-processing

assumptions changed when printed text is presented in a more traditionally visual

(monitor) format and information from a screen is downloaded and printed in text

form?

The theories of cultivation, agenda setting and spiral of silence all may be

considered powerful effects theories. Cultivation theory predicts that heavy media

use will result in consumers expressing opinions and beliefs similar to those

messages featured predominantly in the media such as a belief that the world is a

mean and scary place. Agenda setting postulates that media consumers will

determine that issues predominant in media messages will be correlated with those

issues they find to be important such as the danger of nuclear weapons. Spiral of

silence has a similar attitudinal/public opinion focus. It predicts that people who

believe that their viewpoints are in the minority will be less willing to speak

publicly about it, leading to an increasingly larger group of people who choose not

to voice their opinions. Opinions presented in the media as being those of the

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majority become stronger and face less and less vocal opposition, leaving the

media as a powerful developer of public consensus. All three of these cognitive

based theories have been referred to as theories of accumulation because they

predict cumulative effects over a long period of time.Public relations practitioners could see in time that, regardless of the time

period, public relations efforts can have wildly successful and powerful outcomes

when content is carefully matched to an audience. The audience is the necessary

lynchpin underlying media effects.

Bernays writing from more than 80 years ago continues to sound fresh and

applicable for public relations and media effects. In Crystallizing Public Opinion (Bernays, 1923), and in a public address in 1925, he summarized three points for

public relations practitioners. First, the practitioners must be a careful student of

media to know how people develop their pictures of the world 14. Second, the

practitioner should be knowledgeable about sociology and anthropology to know

how attitudes are formed through culture and social structures. Third, the

practitioner should be knowledgeable to the individuals psychological processes;

practitioners can then tailor efforts for maximum effect.

14 Eduard L. Bernays- Crystalising Public Opinion, 1923

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IV.2. The communication with the press during crisis

The rapid evolution of new media often results in the practice of public

relations getting ahead of research. The practice of crisis communication is ahead

of research in terms of social media. If you look at training seminars and webinars

for crisis communication, social media is emerging as a hot topic. A basic

definition of social media is the use of technology to facilitate interaction and the

sharing of information. There is a need to elaborate and build greater knowledge

about crisis communications and new media with an emphasis on social media.

We should start by noting that social media are a useful way to identify

warning signs that a crisis is developing. As part of crisis scanning, managers

should be observing the social media relevant to their industry. Observing can be

as simple as conducting regular searches and analysis of blogs for mentions of your

organization, its products, or its services. This would include important blogs for

your industry. The blogs could provide warning signs of an emerging crisis.

Another warning sign could be online videos. YouTube is the location of choice

for most online videos. The KFC video of rats in a New York City location was

very popular. Videos were used to spread information about the defective

Kryptonite bike locks and the flaming laptop batteries as well. It might also be a

bad sign if customers form groups on sites like Facebook to complain about your

organization. Monitoring of social media should extend into the crisis response

and post-crisis phases to check how your crisis management efforts are being

received.

The other side of crisis communications is sending messages during a crisis.

Blogs can be an effective way for providing updated information about a crisis.

Like dedicated crisis sections of a web site, blogs can be updated quickly. Blogs

have the added feature of interactivity. Stakeholders can post comments/give

feedback and ask questions. The need to respond to queries increases the timeinvestment for the crisis team, however. RSS can be used to reach employees or

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other stakeholders that would like to subscribe to updates. Jet Blues apology

video on YouTube is frequently given as an example of an effective use of video in

a crisis. The idea is to use multiple channels to release your crisis information.

Businesses, individuals, and organizations will, from time to time, makehonest mistakes or in some unfortunate cases, intentionally support unethical

decisions to dissuade or conceal something significant from its public. Whether it's

an oversight or a matter of deception, savvy companies usually employ and deploy

a crises response team to prepare for, manage and attempt to positively spin the

potential backlash from customers, partners, and employees related to almost

anything. Crisis communications is a branch of PR that is designed to protect anddefend an individual, company, or organization, usually from a reactive response,

facing a swelling public challenge to its reputation, brand, and community.

Crisis communications and reputation management were relegated as a

reactive response, while the groundwork for a potential predicament and the

development of strategic communiqu is among the best practices for proactive

crisis planning.

The traditional crisis communications planning and response workflow:

> Crisis Planning

> Negative Groundswell

> Crisis Response

> Public Relations

> Assessment/Monitoring

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In the Social Web, if not a majority of potential crises are now avoidable

through proactive listening, engagement, response, conversation, humbleness, and

transparency (repeat).An organization should have a good working plan for handling of a crisis.

The groundwork should have already been laid to establish a working relationship

with the press and the media. There may be a time when the organization faces

some kind of crisis. It might be a natural disaster or something man-made, but

either way, it will be a time of distress, decision making and even frustration.

Because the organization's activities are of interest to the community and perhaps beyond, the crisis will be "news." Its compulsory to built a good working

relationship with the press and media through periodic news releases, press

conferences and interviews on aspects of the organization's work. Those steps

make the task of media relations during a crisis much easier.

The media should be informed of the times of press conferences. It will talk

to others between each conference but at least the company will have the

opportunity to tell its own story once or twice a day, and to correct misinformation

picked up by journalists.

Reporters need information. It is their job to collect it, organize it and

produce a story of interest to readers, viewers or listeners. The great majority of

reporters are hard-working, earnest people who take pride in their work and their

service to the community. They work diligently to achieve their objectives. They

are professional and realize that cheap "ambushing" techniques used by some who

are less than professional lead to poor press relations and disfavor from the

community. The organization should have a good working plan for the handling of

a crisis. This plan must be in writing. The people involved in the media relations

must know who does what, and your organization's members must know where

and how the operations center is established for dealings with the media during the

crisis.

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Anytime the company uses a written release, information sheet or other

written memo for the press, it must be professional looking with no misspelled

names, no typographical errors and no misinformation. Accuracy is vital in both

written and oral communications with the press. The cardinal rule is "be honest." A

misstatement can put someone's job on the line, can destroy an individual's

reputation or even destroy the organization.

Opinions and hunches have no place in the communications with the press.

It should limit with the facts and the truth. There may be a situation when the

organization's administrators decide that all the information on the crisis cannot be

given in order to protect a legitimate concern (such as hostage negotiations, the

safety of law enforcement teams or whatever else might be a threatening situation).

In such a case, the spokesperson certainly does not have to give all the information

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on the crisis and may release only part of the inf

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