despre instruire

Echipa Ştiinţifică :

prof. univ. dr. ION NEGREŢ-DOBRIDOR, conf. univ. dr. CRENGUŢA

OPREA, asist. univ. dr. SILVIA FĂT, prof. dr. CRISTINA ELENA ANTON,

prof. DIANA BRATOSIN, prof. ECATERINA BONCIU

DEZVOLTAREA PROFESIONALA CONTINUA

PE COMPONENTA INSTRUIRII DIFERENTIATE A ELEVILOR

-suport de curs-

1

Cuprins CAPITOLUL I Noţiuni generale despre managementul carierei în învăţământ

1.1. Cariera profesională şi viaţa în societatea modernă şi postmodernă

1.2. Procesul dezvoltării profesionale

1.3. Specificul profesiei didactice. Misiunea soteriologică şi paideutică a educatorului

1.4. Competenţele educatorului de vocaţie şi optimizarea lor de-a lungul carierei.

1.4.1. Modelarea competenţelor

1.4.2. Structura competenţelor de-a lungul carierei didactice standard

Aplicaţia Nr. 1: Un model de carieră didactică

1.5. Exigenţele profesiei didactice ca job, ca ocupaţie şi ca vocaţie

Aplicaţia Nr. 2. :Un studiu comparativ despre competenţele unor educatori celebri

CAPITOLUL II Optimizarea competenţelor didactice de-a lungul carierei.

2.1.Stadiile carierei didactice

2.1.1. Modele ale carierei ideale

2.1.2. Un model al stadiilor carierei didactice de succes

2.2. Ierarhiile profesionale şi succesul în cariera didactică

2.3. Optimizarea continuă a competenţelor în cariera didactică

2.3.1. Avansarea în cariera didactică

2.3.2. Iniţiere, consolidare, avansare, apogeu şi declin în cariera didactică

2

CAPITOLUL III Formarea şi optimizarea continuă a abilităţilor de diferenţiere şi motivare a instruirii.

3.1. Importanţa optimizării capacităţilor şi abilităţilor didactice de diferenţiere şi motivare a instruirii

3.1.1. Dimensiunile şi semnificaţiile diferenţierii instruirii în clasa de elevi

3.1.2.Căror factori se datorează aceste diferenţe?

3.2. Distincţii între individualizarea instruirii, diferenţierea instruirii şi discriminarea în instruire

3.3. Aspectele negative ale discriminării şi aspectele pozitive ale individualizării şi diferenţierii

Aplicaţia Nr 3. Elaborare de microproiecte pentru diferenţierea şi motivarea instruirii în clasă

Aplicaţia Nr. 4. Elaborare de dramatizări simulate

Aplicaţia Nr. 5. Convertirea unor situaţii problematice în studii de caz şi/sau incidente critice

CAPITOLUL IV Managementul instruirii diferenţiate în clasă

( un ghid pragmatic pentru elaborarea microproiectelor şi scenariilor didactice pentru învăţarea difernţiată în clasă )

Aplicaţia Nr. 6: Elaborare de procedee de captare a atenţiei

Aplicaţia Nr. 7: Elaborarea scenariilor unor microproiecte realizate în prealabil

Aplicaţia Nr.8: Transformarea unor scenarii didactice în scenarii de film/material didactic

Aplicaţia Nr. 9: Elaborarea unui studiu ştiinţific pe baza aplicaţiilor 7 şi 8 şi transpunerea lui pe site-ul ISJ Brăila

*

3

BIBLIOGRAFIE

ANEXE

DOCUMENTARE

Documentarul nr. 1: MANAGEMENTUL CARIEREI

1.1. Ce este cariera?

1.2. Managementul carierei

1.3. Career Planning

John Holland

Frank Parsons

Edgar Henry Schein

1.4. Programul KUDOS pentru alegerea carierei de către tineri

Documentarul nr. 2 : COMPETENŢELE CADRULUI DIDACTIC

2.1. Key Competences for Lifelong Learning

2.2. Teacher Education Competencies (North Carolina University )

2.3. Proiectul european DICE

2.4. Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students (American Federation of Teachers, NEA, USA )

2.5. Teaching Grammar ( National Capital Language Resource Center, Washigton DC )

Documentarul nr. 3 : DIFERENTIEREA ŞI INDIVIDUALIZAREA INSTRUIRII

a. INDIVIDUALIZAREA

3.1. O sinteză a cercetărilor

4

Keller Plan

IPI – Individually Prescribed Instruction

PLAN – Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs

3.2.Studii semnificative privind individualizarea instruirii

3.3. Un exemplu sugestiv

b. DIFERENŢIEREA


3.5. Studii semnficative privind diferenţierea instruirii

Studiile Reading Rockets

Differentiated Instruction for Writing (ACCESS Center, USA )

Documentarul nr. 4 : DESIGN INSTRUCŢIONAL

4.1. Definition of Instructional Design

4.2. O istorie a designului instrucţional

4.3. Gagne's Conditions of Learning Theory

4.4. Carroll's Minimalist Theory of Instruction

4.5. Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains

4.6. Instructional Desighn & Learning Theories

4.7. Mastery Learning Paradigm

5

CAPITOLUL I Noţiuni generale despre managementul carierei în învăţământ

1.1. Cariera profesională şi viaţa în societatea modernă şi postmodernă

Societatea secolului XXI diferă radical de cea a secolului XX. Lumea profesiilor şi a meseriilor s-a schimbat dramatic. In prima parte a secolului XX s-a dezvoltat spectaculos şi a atins apogeul industria capitalistă : societatea a devenit o „lume a coşului de fum”, simbolul şi baza ei fiind „fabrica” în care proletarii muncesc şi produc bunuri pentru „consumul de masă” prestând de-a lungul întregii vieţi fiecare aceeaşi meserie repetitivă însuşită încă din copilărie şi adolescenţă. Strungarul, oţelarul, forjorul, sudorul, minerul sau, mai generic, „mecanicul”etc. sunt personajele emblematice ale acestei lumi în care domnesc specializarea profesională îngustă şi permanenţa.

Războaiele mondiale şi nevoia de progres au generat însă promovarea accelerată a transpunerii în practică a cunoaşterii ştiinţifice producând o copleşitoare revoluţie tehnologică. După „Al doilea Val al civilizaţiei omeneşti”1 s-a înstaurat în a doua jumătate a secolului XX, mai întâi lent, apoi de-a dreptul copleşitor, „Al Treilea Val”. Revoluţia în informatică şi electronică cu precădere au generat tehnologii uimitoare în centrul cărora se află computerul şi televiziunea.

Nu are rost să inventariem aici toată gama de ustensile noi care prelungesc capacităţile creierului omenesc, mondializează cunoaşterea, globalizează economia şi transformă întreaga lume într-un kosmos oikoeumenos fabulos pe care unii l-au botezat deja ca fiind un Global Village în care fiecare ştie totul despre fiecare şi despre orice în fiecare clipă. Condiţia umană însăşi şi condiţia vieţii ca atare s-au modificat catastrofic. Permanenţa, stabilitatea, specializarea , ba chiar şi valorile legate de acestea au fost abandonate şi înlocuite cu sintagme oximoromice precum „permanentizarea schimbării”, „adaptarea la nou”, „mobilitatea profesională”, polispecializarea” etc. aducând cu ele alte valori şi o nouă mentalitate în strategiile de supravieţuire a speciei şi a fiecărui individ uman în parte. Pe scurt, la sfârşitul secolului XX s-a zvonit venirea unei Lumi Noi - mai îndrăzneaţă, mai primejdioasă, mai nesigură, mai ambiţioasă - şi acum trăim în ea cu bucurii şi spaime noi. Un paradis terestru somptuos care însă a fortificat şi Iadul cu feerii multiple. Este suficient să butonezi o zi întreagă televizorul conectat la cablu pentru a trăi din plin această senzaţie de fericire şi dezgust trăite laolaltă.

Această transformare produsă în numai câteva decenii a antrenat o adevărată catastrofă în lumea profesiilor şi meseriilor specifice „civilizaţiei coşului de fum”. Majoritatea au devenit anacronice şi au fost abandonate. O generaţie încă tânără şi viguroasă, născută imediat după

1 Expresia celebră a folosită în anul 1981 de viitorologul Alvin Toffler în cartea Al Treilea Val pentru a desemna „civiliza ia co ului de fum”.ț ș

6

Cel de-al Doile Război Mondial, a fost luată prin surprindere. Oţelarul, strungarul, tăbăcarul etc. s-au văzut înlocuiţi de microprocesoare şi roboţi şi trimişi la recalificare sau chiar abandonaţi complet de noua societate. Meşterul curelar din Koenisberg, Johann Georg Kant (1683-1746 ), tatăl şi modelul de viaţă demnă şi prestigiu profesional al marelui filosof Immanuel Kant, dacă ar fi trăit în anii '80 ai veacului trecut, ar fi fost la fel de năuc ca mulţi dintre mulţi foştii meseriaşi şi proletari prestigioşi încă în viaţă.

Exegezele au avut nevoie de etichete privind trăirile spirituale şi ideologiile acestor transformări. Filosofi care străbătuseră secolul XX – precum Jacques Derrida, Jean-Francois Lyotard, Gilles Deleuze, Jean Baudrillard – au botezat „era coşului de fum” ca aparţinând modernismului iniţiat de Secolul Luminilor şi au declarat că acesta a „murit” fiind înlocuit de un spirit nou, postmodernismul. Dar se pare că noua etichetă era prea modestă. Actualmente se consideră că însuşi postmodernismul a murit şi că ne prăbuşim vijelios într-un alt viitor făurind o spiritualitate şi mai nouă, aşa-zisul „after-posmodernism”.

Oare profesia de educator, veche de cel puţin cinci milenii, a intrat şi ea în drama declaşată de acest vertij ştiinţifico-tehnic ?

Desigur, ea nu a fost abandonată deşi în a doua parte a secolului XX s-a încercat acest lucru de căteva ori. Avem în vedere eresurile americane ale lui Ivan Illich2 şi tentativa mult mai pragmatică a lui B.F. Skinner3 de a desfiinţa şcolile şi de a declara defunctă profesia de educator. Pare însă neîndoielnic faptul că atât postmodernismul cât şi after-postmodernismul au impus şi impun şcolii şi educatorilor provocări şi exigenţe fără precedent.

În cursul dedicat Abilitării curriculare am stăruit asupra acestor aspecte.In cele ce urmează stăruim asupra condiţiei educatorului în faţa exigenţelor şi provocărilor impuse de „Al Treilea Val”, de „Civilizaţia Tehnotronică”, de „Satul global”.

Care este noua menire a educatorului şu ce responsabilităţi implică ea?

2 Răspopitul american de origine ruso elve iană IVAN ILLICH ta sus inut în cartea sa, devenită ț ț best seller, Deschooling Society (1971) necesitatea de a desfin a coala pe motiv că „este Fecioara Maria careț ș s-a prostituat la curtea regilor”, vrând să spună că coala se supune i reproduce ideologia sistemuluiș ș politic în vigoare.

3 BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER ( 1904 – 1990) a propus într-o serie lungă de cercetări i lucrăriș înlocuirea tehnicilor tradi ionale de învă ământ cu instruirea programată bazată pe manuale programeteț ț i ma ini de învă at. În lucrarea ș ș ț The Technology of Teaching( 1968) tradusă la noi cu titlul Revolu iaț tiin ifică a învă ământului (1971) i mai ales în romanele utopic - tehnologizanteș șț ț Walden Two și

Beyond Freedom and Dignity a decretat „moartea colii.”ș

7

De ce competenţe are nevoie şi cum şi le poate forma?

În ce constă specificul profesiei şi carierei didactice?

Cum trebuie să-şi planifice educatorul progresul profesional şi cariera didactică?

Ce modele de succes pot fi urmate în dezvoltarea şi managementul carierei didactice?

Cum pot fi perfecţionate continuu competenţele educatorului de vocaţie?

Cum se poate optimiza concret competenţa didactică prin însuşirea unor noutăţi psihopedagogiec – de exemplu cele privind tehnicile de diferenţiere a instruirii?ş.a.

1.2. Procesul dezvoltării profesionale

1.2.1.Cercetarea ştiinţifică modernă şi postmodernă din domeniul psihologiei organizaţionale a studiat posibilitatea construirii unor modele generale ale dezvoltării profesionale indiferent de profesia vizată. Iată unul dintre cele mai cunoscute modele:

Figura Nr. 1: Modelul general al dezvoltării în cariera profesională

Conform acestui model pentafazic însuşi proiectul de dezvoltare a carierei trebuie să aibă în vedere următoarele elemente:

Faza I ( Assessing Self &Preferences ) - cunoaştere şi înţelegere de sine

8

Dezvoltarea carierei

FazaI: AUTOEVALUAREA

Faza II:EXPLORAREA OP IUNILORȚ

Faza III:DEZVOLTAREA ABILIT ILORĂȚ

Faza IV: AFIRMARE(marketing self)

Faza V: PERFORMARE

presupune: - abilităţi proprii

- interese proprii

- valori la care aderi

Faza a II-a ( Exploring options ) presupune:

- identificare proactivă

-înţelegerea de sine şi jocul/compararea/potrivirea sinelui cu posibilităţile proprii

Faza a III-a (Developing skills & Experience ) presupune:

- dezvoltarea abilităţilor

- aprofundarea conoştinţelor

- câştigarea de reputaţie

Faza a IV-a ( Marketing Self ) presupune:

- obţinerea abilităţilor de a căuta şi obţine locul de muncă

- abilităţile de a menţine locol de muncă

- abilităţile de a schimba locuri de muncă

Faza a V-a ( Performing & Planning Next Steps ) presupune:

- dezvoltarea abilităţilor de a lua decizii eficiente legate de carieră

- dezvoltarea abilităţilor de a lua decizii eficiente legate de tranziţiile din carieră

1.2.2. Să considerăm acum un model specific. Procesul dezvoltării şi carierei profesionale în domenii industriale figurat mai jos îşi are o anumită specificitate.

9

CAREER MANAGEME

NT

JOB SEARCH

FOCUS /PREPARATION

CERCETAREA INDUSTRIALĂ

AUTOEVALUAREAbilit i, ățaptitudini

interese

PERSONALITATEA VALORILE

OPTIMIZARE CONTINUĂ

A CUNO TIN ELOR, CAPACIT ILORȘ Ț ĂȚ

I COMPETEN ELORȘ Ț

PÂN LA NIVELULĂ

M IESTRIEI PEDAGOGICEĂ

Figura Nr 2. Procesul dezvoltării carierei în domenii profesionale industriale

Iată un ghid pragmatic în acest sens.

I Self-Assessment Se începe cu explorarea interioară care ajută la înţelegerea unor elementele vitale, care vă tine conectat la muncă într-un mod semnificativ. Integrând în personalitate aptitudinile, valorile, interesele şi veţi fi într-o poziţie mai bună pentru a crea o viaţă de muncă, care vă va permite să te exprimi pe deplin. Lucru are nevoie pentru a se potrivi personalităţii dumneavoastră şi cunoaşterea de sine este primul pas în acest proces.

II Industry Research Planificarea carierei profesionale eficientă necesită informaţii despre piaţa de muncă actuală şi tendinţele din industrie. Prin intermediul bibliotecii şi publicate pe Internet surse, clienţii pot extinde cunoştinţele despre titluri de locuri de muncă şi funcţiile de locuri de muncă.

III Goal Clarification Integrarea „auto-informaţii” despre proppria persoană cu informaţii actuale de pe piaţa de locuri de muncă vă permite să vă focalizaţi pe o direcţie de carieră precisă.

IV Job Search Invaţă care sunt tendinţele pieţei care potrivite şi alege ceea ce este unic despre tine apoi învaţă cele mai eficiente strategii pentru a obţine un anumit loc de muncă. Aceasta include

10




PÂN LA NIVELULĂ


dezvoltarea unui CV concentrat, o scrisoare de însoţire scurtă şi eficientă, relaţionare şi intervievare.

V Career Management Înţelegerea relaţiilor interpersonale la locul de muncă, îmbunătăţirea abilităţilor de comunicare şi de adoptarea unei abordări flexibile de gestionare a schimbării.

Desigur există similitudini, dar mai ales deosebiri între modelul general şi modelul specific dezvoltării în cariera unei profesii industriale faţă de modelul carierei didactice.

1.3. Specificul profesiei didactice.

1.3.1.Procesul dezvoltării în cariera didactică poate fi şi el modelat. Propunem în acest sens un model relativ cunoscut. Specificul acesteia este uşor de identificat. Urmăriţi cu atenţie Figura Nr. 3. Rezultă cu claritate următoarele:

Natura profesiei didactice diferă de natura muncii de producerea bunurilor de consum :

Profesia didactică nu este doar un job oarecare;

Profesia didactică nu este doar o ocupaţie profesională

Atunci ce este profesia didactică?

Reţineţi:

Aceasta nu înseamnă că ea nu este şi ocupaţie sau job. Dar nu se restrânge la aceste dimensiuni practice. Reţineţi datele din figura din figura Nr.4

11

CULTURA GENERALĂ

Experien e proprii, modele de țprofesori,

consiliere avizat , sentimente, ăînclina iiț

privind

VOCA IA PEDAGOGICȚ Ă

DECIZIA DE ALEGERE

A PROFESIEI

DIDACTICE

Motiva ie, țempatie,

aptitudini, cuno tin e,ș ț

exemple pedagogice

Valori morale, atitudini

soteriologice, ideal de viață

paideutic

FORMAREA DEPLIN AĂ

COMPETEN ELOR PEDAGOGICEȚ

DE SPECIALITATE I MORALEȘ




PÂN LA NIVELULĂ


FORMAREA

CULTURII PEDAGOGICE INI IALEȚ

FORMAREA CULTURII I Ș

COMPETEN ELOR Ț

DE SPECIALITATE

ÎNTR-UN DOMENIU

PERSONALITATE

VALORI MORALE

cuno tin eș ț aptitudinideprinderi

minimale

ESEN IALMENTE PROFESIA DIDACTIC ESTEȚ Ă

O VOCA IEȚ

Figura Nr. 3. Un model al dezvoltării carierei didactice

12VOCA IEȚ

(80%)

OCUPA IEȚ

(15%)

Job

(5%)

COMPETEN ELE Ț PROFESIONALE ALE EDUCATORULUI

Cercetarea competen elorț

Figura Nr. 4. Structura praxeologică a profesiei didactice

1.3.2. Ce conferă profesiei didactice această specificitate? Pot fi invocate ca fundamentale elementele de mai jos:

Natura şi scopul muncii

Misiunile ce trebuie asumate pentru îndeplinirea ei cu succes

Cunoştinţele, capacităţile, competenţele solicitate pentru desfăşurarea acestei munci

Weltanschauung

NATURA/SCOPUL MUNCII

MISIUNI COMPETENŢE FUNDAMENTALE

WELTANSCHAUUNG

- Educaţia -Misiunea soteriologică:salvarea

-Competenţa pedagogică

- Cultură generală vastă

-Viziune despre lume ca un loc în care individul

13



-Transformarea animalului din specia Homo în personalitate umană prin physiopoiesis( „a doua natură”-Democritus din Abdera, sec.V î. Hr. )

indivizilor umani de „maladia apaideusiei”(ignoranţă, gr.);

- Misiunea paideutică

- Misiunile social-economice şi umanitare( eradicarea ignoranţei şi sărăciei prin educaţie; etc. )

şi profundă şi competenţă maximală în specialitatea predată

- Competenţa morală

uman este o entitate unică, irepetabilă şi sacră

- Credinţa că individul uman trebuie considerat întotdeauna ca scop şi niciodată ca mijloc.

Se poate observa cu uşurinţă că aproape nici una dintre aceste componente nu sunt absolut necesare pentru îndeplinirea cu succes a unor job-uri şi meserii de tip industrial, funcţionăresc sau de orice altă natură. Deosebirea profundă faţă de acestea o constituie faptul că munca educativă nu produce bunuri de consum ci dăruieşte indivizilor umani şi societăţilor demnitatea şi puterea de a le putea produce.

1.4. Competenţele educatorului de vocaţie şi optimizarea lor de-a lungul carierei

1.4.1. Modelarea competenţelor

Din perspectivă practică, munca didactică incumbă, în proporţiile sus specificate, toate componentele de mai sus. S-a încercat modelarea competenţelor cadrului didactic atât sub raport vocaţional cât şi sub raport tehnico pragmatic. Figura de mai jos4 este numai una dintre încercările de a modela competenţele cadrului didactic într-o manieră exhaustivă:

4 KIYMET SELVY, Teacher's Competencies. In Cultura. International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology, vol.VII, no. 1/2010

14

Lifelong learning comp.


DOMENIUL

COMPETEN ELORȚ

CURRICULUMUL COMPETEN ELORȚ


Comp. social-culturale

Competen e afectiveț

Comp. comunica ionalețCompeten e. digitaleț

Comp. ambientale

c

Fig. Nr. 5 Componentele competenţelor profesionale ale profesorului

( apud Kiymet Selvy)

APLICAŢIA NR. 1

Descieţi un model de carieră didactică excepţională cunoscut sau imaginar. Scrieţi un eseu pe această temă de minimum 5 pagini şi prezentaţi-l în seminar pentru

dezbatere.

1.4.2. Structura competenţelor de-a lungul carierei didactice standard

15

S-a încercat chiar „radiografierea” structurării competenţelor de-a lungul carierei didactice standard. Redăm un model propus de TeachNM de la University of New Mexico College of Education ( New Mexico ) în anul 2010.

I. Profesorul demonstrează cunoaşterea cu exactitate a zonei de conţinut şi curriculumul aprobat

Profesor provizoriu- Nivelul I

Cadru didactic profesionist-Nivel II

Master Teacher - Nivelul III

A. Utilizeaza şi îmbunătăţeşte curriculumul aprobat.

A. Îmbunătăţeşte şi extinde curriculumul aprobat.

A. Contribuie la perfecţionarea şi dezvoltarea curriculumului aprobat.

B. Dă explicaţii clare cu privire la conţinutul lecţieişi procedurile didactice

B. Dă explicaţii clare cu privire la conţinutul lecţieişi procedurile didactice

B. Oferă explicaţii clare cu privire la conţinutul lecţiei şi la proceduri în mai multe moduri şi este conştient de cunoştinţele şi ideile preconcepute pe care elevii le pot aduce la subiect

C. Comunică cu precizie în zona de conţinut.

C. Comunică cu precizie în zona de conţinut.

C. Comunică cu precizie în zona de conţinut şi poate crea mai multe modalităţi de abordare a problemelor studiate.

D. Evidenţiază strânsa corelaţie a componentelor zonei de conţinut ..

D. Integrates other subjects into the content curriculum. D. Integrează alte subiecte în conţinutul curricular.

D. Poate articula în logică pedagogică corelaţiile dintre disciplinele studiate.

II. Profesorul utilizează în mod corespunzător o varietate de metode de predare şi a resurselor pentru fiecare zonă de învăţat.

Profesor provizoriu- Nivelul I

Cadru didactic profesionist-Nivel II

Master Teacher - Nivelul III

A. Oferă oportunităţi pentru ca elevii să lucreze

independent, în grupuri mici, şi în grupuri mari.

A. Proiectează de posibilităţi adecvate de învăţare în

grupuri mari, grupri mici, şi prin experienţe independente .

A. Proiectează activităţi şi angajează studenţi în grup mare, grup mic, activităţi independente

şi de lucru.

B. Utilizează o varietate de B. Selectează dintr-o varietate B. selecţie Demonstreaza şi

16

metode, inclusiv demonstraţii, prelegeri, student iniţiat de

lucru, grupuri de lucru, interogatoriu, şi practica

independenta.

de metode de predare (demonstraţii, prelegeri,

proiecte studentesti, grupuri de lucru, practica independent), pentru obiective specifice de

instruire şi scopuri.

utilizarea eficientă a o varietate de metode de a face cunoştinţe

accesibile tuturor elevilor.

C. Utilizeaza o varietate de resurse, cum ar fi excursii, materialele suplimentare tipărite, manipulatives, şi

tehnologie.

C. integrează o varietate de resurse în instruire, inclusiv excursii pe teren, materiale

suplimentare tipărite, manipulatives, şi tehnologie.

C. Demonstreaza integrarea efectivă de o varietate de resurse

şi experienţe de învăţare în curriculum.

D. Oferă oportunităţi pentru ca elevii să se aplice, practică, şi demonstreze cunoştinţele şi

abilităţile învăţate prin modalităţi diferite.

D. demonstrează înţelegerea şi aplicarea corespunzătoare a

stilurilor de învăţare, modalităţile, şi teoriile

inteligenţelor.

D. Modelează oportunităţi pentru ca elevii să aplice,

practică, şi să demonstreze cunoştinţele şi abilităţile bazate pe cunoştinţe de modalităţile de învăţare, stil de preferinţe, şi de

inteligenţă.

E. implementează modificările necesare şi adaptări în instruire şi

curriculum, astfel încât elevii cu handicap au acces la programa de învăţământ

general în mediu mai puţin restrictivă.

E. desene şi pune în aplicare modificările necesare şi adaptări în instruire şi

curriculum, astfel încât elevii cu handicap au acces la programa de învăţământ

general în mediu mai puţin restrictivă.

E. se angajează, cu colegii şi părinţii pentru a proiecta

colaborare şi punerea în aplicare modificările necesare şi adaptări în instruire şi curriculum, astfel încât elevii cu handicap au acces

la programa de învăţământ general în mediu mai puţin

III. Profesorul comunică cu şi obţine feedback de la elevi într-o manieră care îmbunătăţeşte învăţarea şi înţelegerea.

Profesor provizoriu

- Nivelul I

Cadru didactic profesionist

- Nivel II

Master Teacher

- Nivelul III

A.. explică şi / sau demonstrează relevanţa subiectelor şi activităţilor.

A. Efectiv explică, demonstrează sau comunică relevanţa subiectelor şi activităţilor.

A. Angajează elevii în explicarea şi / sau să demonstrează relevanţa subiectelor şi activităţilor.

B. Comunică elevilor intenţia de instruire, direcţii, sau plan.

B. constant comunica elevilor intenţia de instruire, direcţii, şi

B. studenţii implică în stabilirea

17

planuri. direcţie de instruire şi planuri.

C. Stabileşte expectanţele şi standardele oficiale privind performanţele elevilor.



D. Clarifică acţiuni, direcţii, şi dă explicaţii atunci când elevii nu înţeleg.

D. Prezintă direcţii şi explicaţii într-o varietate de moduri pentru a asigura elevilor înţelegerea celor studiate.

D. Prezintă direcţii şi explicaţii într-o varietate de moduri pentru a asigura elevilor înţelegerea celor studiate.

E. Solicită de comunicare activă din partea studentilor cu privire la procesul de învăţare.

E. Solicită elevii să participe activ în învăţare pentru a realiza scopul instruirii planificate şi aflată în curs de desfăşurare.

E. Angajează elevii în analiza şi evaluarea rezultatelor învăţării şi ajustează instruirea bazându-se pe feedback-ul oferit de student.

F. Comunică în mod regulat cu elevii despre progresul lor.



IV. Profesorul întelege principiile de progres în dezvoltare şi învăţare şi le aplică în mod corespunzător.

Profesor provizoriu

- Nivelul I

Cadru didactic profesionist l II - Nivel II

Master Teacher

- Nivelul III

A. Instruieşte elevii prin utilizarea de abilităţi de gândire cognitive, cum ar fi gândirea critică, rezolvarea problemelor, gândirea divergentă, şi luarea deciziilor.

A. Integrează consecvent în instruire abilităţi utile de gândire cognitivă, cum ar fi gândirea critică, rezolvarea problemelor, gândirea divergentă şi de luarea deciziilor.

A. Integrează consecvent în instruire abilităţi utile de gândire cognitivă, cum ar fi gândirea critică, rezolvarea problemelor, gândirea divergentă şi de luarea deciziilor.

B. Utilizează tehnici de predare adaptate nivelurilor de învăţare, ritmuri şi stilurilor de învăţare ale elevilor.

B. Adaptează tehnici de predare pentru a acomoda o serie de niveluri, ritmuri, stiluri de învăţare şi nevoi speciale ale studentului.

B. Selectează cele mai eficiente tehnici de predare pentru a aborda o varietate niveluri, ritmuri, stiluri de învăţare şi nevoi ale studentului, precum şi interese referitoare la diverse medii.

18

C. Utilizează materiale şi mass-media adaptându-le la niveluri de învăţare, ritmuri şi stiluri ale elevului.

C. Adaptează materiale şi mass-media ptr. a aborda o serie de niveluri, ritmuri, stiluri şi nevoi speciale ale studentului.

C. Selectează materiale dintre cele mai eficiente şi mass-media de a aborda o varietate de niveluri, ritmuri de învăţare, stiluri şi nevoi ale elevului.

D. Utilizeaza resurse cum ar fi: agenţii de servicii comunităţii, personalul din şcoală, şi părinţii pentru a satisface Niveluri, ritmuri şi stiluri ale elevului.

D. Selectează dintr-o varietate de agenţii în folosul comunităţii, personal şcolar specializat şi părinţii pentru a aborda diferite niveluri de învăţare, ritmuri, stiluri şi nevoi ale elevilor.

D. Integrează resurselor comunitare, agenţii de servicii, alte categorii de personal şcoală, părinţi, şi membrii comunităţii în curriculum.

V. Profesorul utilizează eficient tehnicile şi procedurile de evaluare.

Profesor provizoriu

- Nivelul I

Cadru didactic profesionist -Nivel II

Master Teacher

- Nivelul III

A. Utilizeaza o varietate de instrumente de evaluare şi de strategii.

A. Selectează instrumente adecvate de evaluare şi strategii pentru rezultate specifice ale învăţării.

A. Proiectează şi foloseste metode multiple de măsurare a înţelegerii elevilor şi de progres al învăţării.

B. Utilizează informaţii obţinute din evaluarea continuă pentru remedierea şi planificarea instruirii.

B. Utilizează evaluarea formativă şi sumativă pentru remedierea şi planificarea instruirii.

B. Integreaza date din surse multiple de evaluare în planificarea şi optimizarea instruirii.

C. Menţine documentaţia privind progresul elevilor.



D. Comunică progresul elevilor şi familiilor în timp util.

D. Menţine constant comunicarea cu elevii şi cu familiile despre progresul elevilor.

D. Dezvoltă un sistem cu două sensuri de comunicare cu elevii şi cu familiile despre progresul elevilor.

VI. Profesorul gestionează starea educaţiei într-o manieră care promovează comportamentul pozitiv al elevilor şi un mediu sigur şi sănătos.

Profesor provizoriu Cadru didactic profesionist - Master Teacher

19

- Nivelul I Nivel II

- Nivelul III

A. Serveşte drept model pentru comportamentul constructiv.

A. Identifică, explică, şi modele constructive de comportament.

A. Integrează în mod regulat în predare comportamente constructive, pro-sociale.

B. Executa sarcini de rutină efectiv şi eficient.

B. Stabileşte şi învaţă rutine efective şi eficiente.

B. Stabileşte şi învaţă rutine efective şi eficiente.

C. Stabileşte şi consolidează aşteptări/speranţe pentru comportamentul elevilor.

C. Stabileşte şi consolidează comportamentele studentului care promovează cetăţenia în comunitatea clasei de elevi.

C. Elevii se angajează în stabilirea aşteptărilor pentru a construi o comunitate de învăţare în clasă.

D. Handles transitions effectively.

D. Menţine relaţii manierate în clasa de elevi.

D. Menţine relaţii manierate în clasa de elevi.

E. Are materiale şi mass-media gata pregătite pentru utilizare de către elevi.

E. Pregăteşte dinainte şi aranjează materiale pentru a accesibiliza învăţarea elevilor.

E. Stabileşte un mediu în care materialele şi mass-media sunt disponibile şi gata de utilizare de către student.

F. Minimizează distragerile şi întreruperile.



G. Conduce comportamentul elevilor în mod eficient şi corespunzător.

G. Monitorizează şi direcţionează comportamentul elevilor în mod eficient şi corespunzător.

G. Dezvoltă un sistem de management al clasei care promovează comportamentul elevilor acceptabil şi adecvat.

H. Identifică pericolele, evaluează riscurile şi ia măsurile corespunzătoare.



VII. Profesorul recunoaşte diversitatea elevilor şi creează o atmosferă care să conducă la promovarea implicării pozitive a studenţilor pe calea proprie.

Profesor provizoriu

- Nivelul I


- Nivel II

Master Teacher

- Nivelul III

20

A. Demonstrează sensibilitatea şi capacitatea de reacţie la ideile personale, de învăţare a nevoilor, intereselor, şi sentimentele studenţilor cu dizabilităţi şi / sau din punct de vedere cultural şi lingvistic medii diverse (de exemplu, nativii americani, hispanici americani, afro-americani, asiatici americani, precum şi alte grupurilor recente de imigranţi).

A. Recunoaşte şi validează idei, de învăţare a nevoilor, intereselor, şi sentimentele de studenţi cu dizabilităţi şi / sau din punct de vedere cultural şi lingvistic medii diverse (de exemplu, nativii americani, hispanici americani, afro-americani, asiatici americani, precum şi alte grupuri recente de imigranţi .

A. Reglează practici bazate pe observaţie şi cunoaştere a elevilor cu dizabilităţi şi / sau din punct de vedere cultural şi lingvistic diverse grupuri (de exemplu, nativii americani, hispanici americani, afro-americani, asiatici americani, precum şi alte grupuri recente de imigranţi).

B. Recunoaşte performanţele şi realizările elevilor .

B. Recunoaşte constant performanţele şi realizările elevilor .

B. Creează proiecte curriculare care includ performanţele elevilor şi confirmă de realizările lor.

C. Recunoaşte că fiecare elev poate învăţa.

C. Înţelege modul în care elevii diferă în modul lor de a aborda învăţarea şi adaptează instruirea pentru a satisface nevoile diverse.

C. Demonstreaza o conştientizare a influenţelor de context, handicap, limba, cultura şi pe student de învăţare.

D. Oferă oportunităţi pentru fiecare student pentru a reuşi şi a înţelege modul în care elevii diferă în demersurile lor de învăţare bazate pe diverse medii culturale şi lingvistice şi exceptionalities.

D. Proiectează oportunităţi pentru fiecare elev pentru a reuşi, pe baza nevoilor individuale de învăţare.

D. Oferă acomodări şi intervenţii care să permită fiecărui student de a reuşi pe baza nevoilor individuale de învăţare.

E. oferă studenţilor cu posibilităţi de implicare activă şi creativitate.

E. Proiectează activităţi specifice care necesită o implicare activă şi creativitate.

E. Angajează elevii în experienţe de învăţare care promovează creativitatea, critică şi gândirea divergentă.

F. Oferă oportunităţi pentru ca elevii să fie responsabili pentru comportamentul lor şi de învăţare.

F. Proiectează oportunităţi care necesită şi consolidează responsabilitatea studentului pentru învăţare.

F. Proiectează oportunităţi care necesită şi consolidează responsabilitatea studentului pentru învăţare.

G. Promovează pozitiv G. Dezvolta la studenţi "stima G. Încurajează dezvoltarea

21

relaţiile student / profesor. de sine, motivatia, caracterul şi simţul de responsabilitate civică.

respectului pentru individualitate, diferenţele culturale, lingvistice, religioase şi de handicap.

H. Încurajează aşteptări foarte mari student.

H. Stabileşte şi comunică aşteptări mari pentru toţi elevii.

H. Angajează elevii în stabilirea unor standarde de performanţă înalte.

I. Demonstrează o conştientizare şi respect pentru background-ul fiecărui elev, experienta, pentru capacitatea lui de învăţare, pentru limba, si cultura sa.

I . Demonstrează cunoştinţe despre background-ul fiecărui student, despre medii diferite, despre experienţele fundamentale ale fiecăruia, despre abilităţi sale de învăţare, limbi, şi culturi şi încorporează aceste cunoştinţe în deciziile curriculare şi metodologia de instruire.

I. Tratează toţi studenţii echitabil, recunoscând şi proiectând instruirea pentru diferenţele individuale dintre culturi, limbi, abilităţile de învăţare, background -uri şi experienţe personale.

VIII. Profesorul demonstrează dorinţa de a examina şi de a implementa schimbarea, după caz.

Profesor provizoriu

-Nivelul ICadru didactic profesionist -

Nivel II

Master Teacher

-Nivel III

A. Caută informaţii cu privire la metodologia, de cercetare şi tendinţele actuale în domeniul educaţiei pentru a spori şi a îmbunătăţi calitatea învăţării.

A. caută informaţii cu privire la metodologia, de cercetare şi tendinţele actuale în domeniul educaţiei pentru a spori şi a îmbunătăţi calitatea învăţării.

A. Demonstreaza capacitatea de a raţiona de a motiva, de a aborda mai multe perspective, de a fi creativ, motivat şi de a-şi asuma riscuri pentru îmbunătăţirea procesului de predare.

B. Implementează o varietate de strategii pentru a optimiza învăţarea.

B. Demonstreaza cunoştinţe de bune practici care sporesc învăţarea.

B. Colaborează cu colegii din cercetare şi proiectare pentru optimizarea strategiilor de instruire .

C. Recunoaşte că schimbarea C. Participa la îmbunătăţirea C. Asumă rol de leader în studiul

22

implică un risc dar modificările pot fi necesare.

instruirii şi la iniţiativele de reformă şcolară.

şi punerea în aplicare a optimizării instrucţionale şi a iniţiativelor de reformă şcolară.

IX. Profesorul lucrează productiv cu colegii, părinţii şi membrii comunităţii.

Profesor provizoriu

- Nivelul I


- Nivel II

Master Teacher

- Nivelul III

A. Colaborează cu colegii. A. Promovează activ relaţii colegiale cu personal din alte şcoli.

A. Serveşte ca un model pentru relaţiile de colaborare în întreaga profesie.

B. Comunică cu părinţii în mod regulat.

B. Oferă un sistem de comunicare interactivă între profesor şi părinţi.

B. Demonstreaza cunoştinţe specifice despre şcoală, familie, comunitate şi resursele care pot sprijini învăţarea elevilor.

C. Utilizeaza strategii de soluţionare a conflictelor atunci când este necesar.

C. Utilizeaza strategii de soluţionare a conflictelor, după caz.

C. Asistă colegii în utilizarea strategiilor de soluţionare a conflictelor.

D. Implică părinţii în comunitatea şi în mediul de învăţare.

D. Promovează roluri active pentru părinţi şi membrii comunităţii în învăţare.

D. Angajeaza parintii si membrii comunitatii în mod productiv în activitatea şcolii.

E. Comunică într-un mod profesionist cu colegii, părinţii, şi membrii comunităţii cu privire la problemele educaţionale.

E. Comunică într-un mod profesionist cu colegii, părinţii, şi membrii comunităţii cu privire la problemele educaţionale.

E. Lucrează colaborativ şi creativ cu colegii, părinţii, şi membrii comunităţii cu privire la problemele educaţionale.

1.5. Exigenţele profesiei didactice ca job, ca ocupaţie şi ca vocaţie

În continuitate cu tradiţiile pedagogice ale Europei şi, cvasi-implicit, ale României putem sistematiza caracteristicile şi exigenţele ale profesiei didactice astfel:

CA JOB CA OCUPAŢIE CA VOCAŢIE

23

(5%) LUCRATIVĂ

(15%)

(80%)

Loc de muncă Cultură generală largă şi profundă, erudiţie

Aptitudini şi atitudini pedagogice pozitive

Prestaţia unei munci specializate pentru obţinerea unui salariu

Stăpânirea unuia sau mai multor domenii ale culturii cuprinse în curriculum

Convingeri şi pasiune pentru misiunea paideutică

Respectarea legislaţiei, a regulamentelor şcolare şi îndeplinirea corectă a sarcinilor

Cunoştinţe teoretice vaste în domeniul ştiinţelor educaţiei

Convingeri, atitudini şi conduite motivate soteriologic

Cunoaşterea acceptabilă şi stăpânirea adecvată a „meseriei” de educator

Cunoştinţe de psihologie Capacităţi empatice

Cunoştinţe de filosofie,sociologie, antroplogie, biologie etc.

Weltanschauug centrat pe importanţa omului în Univers

Capacităţi de comprehensiune şpedagogică şi demonstrare logică a cunoştinţelor de specialitate

Convingeri şi trăiri filantropice, respingerea mizantropiei

Capacităţi de aplicare a cunoştinţelor de specialitate în contexte revelatoare pentru cel care învaţă

Calităţi morale ilustrate prin conduite adecvate lor:

-demnitate

- onoare

-distincţie

-modestie

Capacităţi de analiză a Calităţi morale privind

24

conţinuturilor de predare prevăzute în curriculum

conducerea de sine:

-conştiinţă de sine

-încredere în sine

-discernământ

-calm

-curaj

-moderaţie

-echilibru sufletesc

Capacităţi de interpretare Calităţi morale privind relaţionarea cu ceilalţi:

-reţinere

-responsabilitate

-intenţii bune

-prietenie

-devotament

-blândeţe

Capacităţi de sinteză şi abilităţi de proiectare pedagogică

Calităţi morale privind credinţa:

-iubirea (universală, christică)

-încrederea

-speranţa

-răbdarea

Capacităţi de apreciere şi evaluare

Calităţi morale privind înţelegerea celorlalţi:

-iertarea

-mila

25

-compasiunea

Calităţi morale privind recunoştinţa:

-recunoştinţa universală

-generozitatea

-mărinimia

-aprecierea

Calităţi morale privind armonia:

-optimism

-cooperare

-entuziasm

Calităţi morale privind perseverenţa:

-efort

-străduinţă

-rezistenţă

Calităţi morale privind respectul pentru viaţa socială:

-toleranţă

-curtoazie

-cooperare

Calităţi morale speciale privind grija faţă de copii:

-iubire filetică

-compasiune

-îndatorare

26

-respect

-bunătate

-responsabilitate

-autoritate

-înţelegere

-empatie

-simpatie ;etc.

APLICAŢIA NR.2

1. Realizaţi un studiu comparativ pornind de la personajele de mai jos

PERSONAJUL COMPETENŢA DE SPECIALITATE

COMPETENŢA PEDAGOGICĂ

COMPETENŢA MORALĂ

Dascălul Chiosea

Dl.Trandafir

Dl.Vucea

Dl. Mariu Chicoş Rostogan

Cel mai competent profesor din şcoala dvs.

27

Cel mai incompetent profesor pe care l-aţi cunoscut

2. Organizaţi în seminar o dezbatere liberă privind cele 6 personaje indicănd şi argumentând calităţi şi defecte.

CAPITOLUL II

Optimizarea competenţelor didactice de-a lungul carierei

2.1. Stadiile carierei didactice

2.1.1. Modele ale carierei ideale

Există oare o carieră didactică standard? Poate fi ea descrisă şi reglementată strict? În privinţa „job-ilor” şi a „profesiilor” obişnuite s-a încercat şi s-a reuşit acest lucru. Iată câteva exemple celebre.

Modelul lui Schein.

S-a încercat modelarea „stadiilor carierei ideale”1 pornind de la stadiile de dezvoltare psihologică:

ETAPE VÂRSTA STADIILE

1 Vide SCHEIN în D.T. HALL Personnel Management, Prentice Hall, London, 1995

28

I 0 -21 EXPLORARE, DEZVOLTARE, FANTEZIE

II 16 -25 Intrarea în câmpul muncii

III 16 -25 Pregătirea de bază

IV 17- 30 Cariera timpurie

V 25 + Mijlocul carierei

VI 35 - 45 Crizele de la mijlocul carierei

VII 40 + Cariera târzie

VIII 40 + Declin

IX 60 + Eliberare şi pensionare

O simplă privire a tabloului de mai sus este suficientă pentru a observa că modelul ideal nu se potriveşte decât vag cu stadiile carierei didactice.

Modelul lui Klatt

Alţi autori2 au propus modele mai adecvate dar fără a surprinde specificul profesiei didactice.

2 V.L.A. KLATT &col.,Human Resource Management, 1985

29

Fig.Nr. 6. Stadiile carierei ( după Klatt, 1985 )

Modelul lui Wagner şi Hollenbeck3

3 J. A. WAGNER & J.R. HOLLENBECK, Management of Organizational Behaviour, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, london, 1992

30

Fig. Nr. 7 Modelul lui Wagner şi Hollenbeck (1992)

2. 2. 1.Un model al stadiilor carierei didactice de succes

Ce este cariera didactică de succes?

Cariera în genere şi cariera profesională în special este o „cursă cu obstacole” care se poate întrerupe brusc la fiecare confruntare cu oricare dintre ele. Depăşirea lor la timp şi cu performanţe maximale constituie conditio sine-qua-non a ceea ce numim „cariera de succes”.

Care sunt aceste „obstacole”?

Sunt mai multe şi relativ diferite, în funcţie de „ruta” şi dimensiunile, pe care le poate lua cariera didactică.

Există două condiţii esenţiale ale reuşitei în profesia didactică:

ALEGEREA CORECTĂ A „RUTEI”

PROGRESUL NEÎNCETAT PE CALEA ALEASĂ

31

Aceste „itinerarii” sunt „deschise” de ierarhiile sistemului şi procesului educaţional.

Cele mai importante dimensiuni de organizare ierarhică sunt:

IERARHIA PROFESIONALĂ PROPRIU-ZISĂ :

– este deschisă tuturor celor care au luat decizia de a urma cariera didactică;

- permite profesorului progresul neîncetat al competenţelor de specialitate, pedagogice şi morale;

- aduce profesorului prestigiul de doctor singularis şi de „illustrissimus magister” în comunitatea educativă şi în societate;

- aduce dascălului recunoştinţa acelor diligenter studiosi care au devenit, în timp, splendens discipuli şi chiar scolaribus magna vitae fermentum superbus...

- atinge apogeul atunci când comunitatea recunoaşte profesorului calităţile de Magistratus Artes Disciplina

IERARHIA MANAGERIALĂ :

- este numai acelor educatori care îşi descoperă aptitudini şi calităţi de organizator şi leader;

-nu şi acelora care cred că dacă au slujit la catedră sau au trecut ca elevi prin şcoală, stultis non scientia paedagogica, sunt capabili să o şi conducă; nu vor avea o carieră managerială de succes ci, dimpotrivă, se vor face de râs şi vor aduce multe daune şcolii ;

- permite celor cu talent, cu simţ al responsabilităţii paideutice profund, mistic chiar şi cu cunoştinţe manageriale temeinice să se ilustreze ca mari conducători şi reformatori de şcoală obţinând gloria şi recunoaşterea sublimă a dreptului de a intra în galeria măreaţă a marilor personalităţi pedagogice româneşti în fruntea cărora străluceşte etern Spiru Haret.

IERARHIA MATHETICĂ:

- este deschisă de obsesia de a studia şi cerceta neîncetat pentru creşterea cunoaşterii şi îmbogăţirea culturii universale care nutreşte instituţiile academice;

- aduce dascălului prestigiu academic şi recunoaştere naţională şi internaţională;

32

- oferă şansa de a intra în galeria marilor personalităţi ale culturii române;

-efemere şi consumatoare de timp funcţiile de conducere din învăţământul superior nu conferă prin ele însele nici presigiu înalt şi nici recunoaştere acadică aparte;

- informarea permanentă, autoformarea continuă şi creativitatea conferă prin ele însele momentele de succes necesare împlinirii carierei academice.

*

2.2. Ierarhiile profesionale şi succesul în cariera didactică

Putem însă descrie succesul în cariera didactică luând în considerare criteriul „avansare în carieră” luînd în considerare aceste trei dimensiuni. Rutele carierei de succes sunt următoarele:

IERARHIA PROFESIONALĂ

în învăţământul preuniversitar

IERARHIA MANAGERIALĂ

în sistemul de învăţământ

IERARHIA MATHETICĂ în învăţământul preuniversitar şi

universitar

VÂRSTA

Pregătire pedagogică şi de specialitate in perioada studiilor de licenţă

- Obţinerea Licenţei şi a

atestatului de cadru didactic

19-21 ani

Profesor fără definitivat

profesor masterat 21-23 ani

Profesor definitiv/posibilităţi de avansare pe ruta învăţământ superior şi cercetare ştiinţifică

Şef de catedră Doctorat/

lector universitar

22-25-28 ani

Profesor cu gradul didactic II/posibilităţi de avansare pe ruta învăţământ superior şi cercetare ştiinţifică

Director de şcoală

Conferenţiar universitar/şef de catedră/ director de departament/ prodecan

25-35 ani

Profesor cu gradul didactic I;

apogeu creativ

Inspector şcolar de specialitate judeţean

Profesor universitar/ prodecan/decan

30-35-40 ani

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Apogeu creativ

Inspector şcolar minister

prorector/rector

Apogeu creativ

30-45 ani

Apogeu creativ Director general ministerial

Apogeu creativ 35—45 ani

Apogeu creativ Ministru al educaţiei

Apogeu creativ 45-60 ani

Declin şi pensionare Declin şi pensionare

Apogeu creativ

Pensionare

60 -70 ani

2.3. Optimizarea continuă a competenţelor în cariera didactică

2.3.1. Avansarea în cariera didactică.

Dincolo de văditele deosebiri dintre modelele de dezvoltare a carierei profesionale faţă de modele care vizează profesii şi meserii „lucrative” în domenii precum cele industriale sau funcţionăreşti, există unele similitudini care ne permit să decelăm trei mari stadii:

I. decizia de alegere a profesiei didactice

II. iniţierea

-formarea de specialitate

- iniţierea pedagogică

III. consolidarea

IV. avansarea

V. apogeul

VI. declinul

VII. eliberarea şi pensionarea

2.3.2.Iniţiere, consolidare, avansare, apogeu şi declin în profesia didactică

Cum trebuie realizată optimizarea continuă a competenţelor cadrului didactic de-alungul acestor stadii?

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Vom reţine desigur numai pe cele semnificative. Lăsăm de o parte stadiile I, VI şi VII din motive care se subânţeleg. Considerând esenţiale opt categorii şi capacităţi implicate în exercitarea cu succes a profesiei didactice vom reţine următoarele exigenţe de optimizare

INIŢIERE CONSOLIDARE

AVANSARE APOGEU DECLIN

INFORMAREA CONTINUĂ

-aprofundarea culturii generale

-studiu zilnic în domeniul specialităţii

- inţiere în ştiinţele educaţiei

-însuşirea tehnicilor informatice

-studiu zilnic în domeniul specialităţii

-cunoştinţe aprofundate de pedagogie , psihologie , sociologie, filosofie, etc.

-didactica specialităţii

- exploatarea surselor de informare

-studiu zilnic în domeniul specialităţii şi iaprofundare în ştiinţele educaţiei;

-filosofia educaţiei

-doctrine pedagogice

-teoria curriculumului

-teorii ale motivaţiei; teorii ale personalităţii;

-studiu zilnic în domeniul specialităţii şi aprofundare în ştiinţele educaţiei -aspiraţie spre erudiţie şi completaea continuă a culturii proprii

-studiu zilnic în domeniul specialităţii şi aprofundare în ştiinţele educaţiei

-proces de conştiinţă şi autoevaluare profesională

FORMAREA CONTINUĂ

- Abilităţi de design instrucţional

-abilităţi de management al clasei de elevi

- Competenţă deplină în proiectarea pedagogică -Competenţă deplină în managementul clasei

-

- mastery în designul instrucţional

- capacităţi de proiectare diversificată

mastery în designul instrucţional

- capacităţi de proiectare diversificată

-stăpânire completă a teoriei şi a metodelor de predare învăţare

-stăpânire completă a teoriei şi a metodelor de predare învăţare

-proces de conştiinţă şi autoevaluare profesională

DEZVOLTAREA

CAPACITĂŢI-LOR

DE

-stăpânirea completă a domeniului de specialitate;


- stăpânirea


- stăpânirea


- stăpânirea

-trăirea sentimentului de „misiune paideutică îndeplinită”;

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COMPREHENSI-

UNE

-înţelegerea principiilor şi exigenţelor fundamentale de proiectare pedagogică şi de motivare a elevilor

deplină a principiilor şi exigenţelor fundamentale de proiectare pedagogică şi de motivare a elevilor;

-determinarea mastery learning

- abilităţi de instruire activă, diferenţiată, individualizată


-determinarea eficacităţii generale a instruirii;

- stăpânirea completă a tehnicilor de instruire diferenţiată şi activă





- stăpânirea deplină a principiilor şi exigenţelor fundamentale de proiectare pedagogică şi de motivare a elevilor;



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OPTIMIZAREA

CAPACITĂŢI-LOR DE

EMPATIE ŞI

COMUNICARE

-asimilarea exigenţelor de comunicare educaţională;

-exersarea aptitudinilor empatice

-stăpânirea exigenţelor de comunicare educaţională;

-dezvoltarea aptitudinilor empatice

-stăpânirea deplină a exigenţelor de comunicare educaţională;

-dezvoltarea şi aprofundarea aptitudinilor empatice;

-stăpânirea deplină a exigenţelor de comunicare educaţională;

-dezvoltarea , aprofundarea aptitudinilor şi stăpânirea completă a tehnicilor empatice;

-trăirea sentimentului de responsabilitate paideutică profundă

-trăirea sentimentului de responsabilitate paideutică profundă;

stăpânirea deplină a exigenţelor de comunicare educaţională;

-dezvoltarea , aprofundarea aptitudinilor şi stăpânirea completă a tehnicilor empatice;

MULTIPLICA-REA

ABILITĂŢILOR

APLICATIVE

-Abilităţi elementare de proiectare şi implementare a exigenţelor de tehnologie educaţională

-abilităţi elementare de diferenţiere şi motivare a instruirii

-Competenţă în proiectare şi în implementarea exigenţelor de tehnologie educaţională în clasa de elevi;

- Construirea corectă de strategii didactice centrate pe obiective operaţionale

-abilităţi şi competenţe de bază pentru diferenţierea şi motivarea instruirii

Stăpânirea completă a tehnicilor de proiectare şi transpunere în clasa de elevi;

-Construirea creativă de strategii didactice centrate pe obiective operaţionale

-elaborare corectă de sarcini de instruire diferenţiată

-elaborare corectă de situaţii optime de învăţare

-Stăpânirea deplină a exigenţelor ştiinţifice de tehnologie educaţională;

- Aplicare creativă a exigenţelor de tehnologie educaţională

--elaborare creativă de sarcini de instruire diferenţiată

-elaborare creativă de situaţii optime de învăţare

-Stăpânirea deplină a exigenţelor ştiinţifice de tehnologie educaţională;

- Aplicare creativă a exigenţelor de tehnologie educaţională

-Proces de conştiinţă şi autoevaluare profesional

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EXERSAREA CONTINUĂ A CAPACITĂŢI

-LOR DE ANALIZĂ ŞI

SINTEZĂ

- -Identificare de tehnici şi procedee pedagogice adecvate pentru predarea-învăţarea în domeniul de specialitate

-Organizarea şi desfăşurarea de microcercetări pedagogice în didactica specialităţii

-Identificarea continuă şi folosirea ingenioasă de noi tehnici şi procedee pedagogice adecvate pentru predarea-învăţarea în domeniul de specialitate

-Organizarea şi desfăşurarea de cercetări pedagogice în didactica specialităţii


--Organizarea şi desfăşurarea de cercetări experimentale riguroase pedagogice în didactica specialităţii


--Organizarea şi desfăşurarea de cercetări experimentale riguroase pedagogice în didactica specialităţii

-Proces de conştiinţă şi autoevaluare profesională

CREATIVITATEA

PEDAGOGICĂ

- eseuri privind profesia didactică

- Producţie de noi tehnici, procedee şi materiale pentru eficientizarea instruirii şi educării

I. Cercetări ştiinţifice în domeniul educaţiei de tip:

-experimental

-documentar

-hermeneutic etc.

II. Studii de sinteză pe teme pedagogice


-experimental

-documentar

-hermeneutic etc.

II. Studii de sinteză pe teme pedagogice fundamentale

III. Proiecte


-experimental

-documentar

-hermeneutic etc.

II. Studii de sinteză pe teme pedagogice fundamentale

III. Proiecte

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naţionale şi internaţionale

naţionale şi internaţionale


PERFECŢIONA-REA

CAPACITĂŢI-LOR DE

EVALUARE

-Asimilarea exigenţelor de teoria modernă a evaluării;

-Elaborare corectă de teste docimologice

-Stăpânirea completă a tehnicilor şi exigenţelor docimologice modern

--Crearea de noi tehnici şi metode de evaluare a performanţelor şcolare; -Promovarea procedeelor de autoevaluare continuă a elevului

-Stăpânirea completă a tehnicilor şi exigenţelor docimologice moderne

-Crearea de noi tehnici şi metode de evaluare a performanţelor şcolare; -Promovarea procedeelor de autoevaluare continuă a elevului


-Promovarea procedeelor de autoevaluare continuă a elevului


-Promovarea procedeelor de autoevaluare continuă a elevului


CAPITOLUL III

Formarea şi optimizarea continuă

a abilităţilor de diferenţiere şi individualizare a instruirii.

În primele două capitole am analizat problematica teoretică a profesiei didactice şi a necesităţii de optimizare a competenţelor educatorului de-a lungul întregii cariere didactice.

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Dar aceasta nu se realizează „în general”. Fiecare competenţă şi capacitate înscrisă în tablourile de mai sus trebuie abordată concret.

În acest capitol am ales una dintre aceste componente: un set de abilităţi necesare pentru a determina eficacitatea instruirii, reuşita tuturor elevilor la învăţătură ( mastery) în condiţiile actuale ale învăţământului românesc. Este vorba de individualizarea, diferenţierea şi motivarea învăţării în condiţiile instruirii dirijate diferenţiate în clasă şi în cadrul unor programe compensatorii. În capitolul IV vom arăta practic modalităţile pedagogice la care poate şi trebuie să recurgă în acest sens un educator creativ şi eficient. Procedurile propuse, după cum se va vedea, au mare aplicabilitate în predarea-învăţarea limbii materne şi a limbilor străine.

Dar inainte de a trce direct la problematica practică sunt necesare câteva lămuriri teoretice.

3.1. Importanţa optimizării capacităţilor şi abilităţilor de diferenţiere şi individualizare a instruirii

3.1.1. Dimensiunile şi semnificaţiile diferenţierii instruirii

Venim pe lume cu un genofond unic care ne diferenţiază net de alte specii: suntem cu toţii bipezi, posedăm limbaj articulat, avem două membre superioare cu deget opozabil et. Suntem aşadar egali? Nu. Înlăuntrul speciei Homo Sapiens există o varietate halucinantă: nici un individ uman nu este identic cu altul, nu a existat niciodată pa Terra un individ uman identic cu dumneta sau cu mine şi probabilitatea ca vreunul dintre noi să fie vreodată „repetat”este aproape imposibilă. Fiecare dintre noi este un unicat , un accident cromozomial non-iterabil.

Aşadar,să luăm în consideraţie această variabilitate şi în planul educaţiei. Toţi elevii care s-au născut normal dispun de toate capacităţile psihice necesare învăţării şi supravieţuirii: ele fac parte din genofond. Dar în genotipul individual ele variază considerabil:nu toţi elevii îşi folosesc aceste capacităţi într-un mod unic; dimpotrivă, fiecare se exprimă în activitatea de învăţare foarte diferit.

De aceea instruirea şi educarea trebuie să se desfăşoare cel puţin în mod diferenţiat.

Desigur, cea mai bună instruire este cea individualizată, realizată cu preceptor unic şi în condiţii cu totul originale. Ea s-a practicat în istoria educaţiei europene deseori, cu rezultate cel mai adesea excepţionale; dar această strategie optimă este costisitoare şi greu de organizat în condiţiile învăţământului de masă organizat pe clase şi lecţii.

Instruirea individualizată nu este însă panaceu. Deseori instruirea difernţiată se dovedeşte mai avantajoasă de cât cea strict individualizată. Este cazul învăţării limbilor streăine moderne în care individualizarea strictă comportă dezavantajul de a se trasforma în solilocviu şi în dialog restrâns la comunicarea dintre profesor şi elev. Dimpotrivă, predarea diferenţiată a acestor limbi comportă numeroase facilităţi de organizare a strategiilor de învăţare bazată pe comunicare şi interînvăţare.

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Totuşi, nu este vorba de un proces simplu; dimpotivă, este vorba de o problematică multidimensională care trebuie bine înţeleasă atât în plan practic cât şi în plan teoretic. Figura de mai jos surprinde numai parţial întreaga complexitate a acestui fenomen şi proces psiho-pedagogic.

Fig. Nr.8 Dimensiunile diferenţierii instruirii

( Schumm, Vaughn & Lazarell, 1994)

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Proiectarea instruirii diferenţiate implică luarea în considerare a cel puţin 5 categorii de variabile. Educatorul creativ şi eficient care practică instruirea diferenţiată raportându-se strict la programa analitică oficială, nu poate neglija întrebări precum cele de mai jos şi răspunsurile ele:

Ce vor învăţa doar mai puţini elevi?

Ce vor învăţa câţiva elevi?

Ce vor învăţa cei mai mulţi elevi?

Este modalitatea cea mai simplă de a depista că în clasa de elevi exist cel puţin trei categorii de elevi:

elevi cu ritm lent de învăţare – aprox. 15%

elevi cu ritm de învăţare mediu – aprox. 70%

elevi cu ritm de învăţare rapid – aprox. 15%

3.1.2.Căror factori se datorează aceste diferenţe?

Prima tentaţie, datorată tradiţiilor şcolare şi prejudecăţilor este aceea de a atribui aceste fenomene unor „cauze naturale” şi unor „factori endogeni” precum vestitul „coeficient de inteligenţă”. Este una dintre marile erori ale pedagogiei tradiţionale şi ale practicilor instrucţionale cu rădăcini în Antichitatea elină şi mai ales în şcolile eclesiastice medievale. In realitate, exceplând copii speciali care s-au născut cu unele deficienţe psihice, toţi copii consideraţi „normali” dispun de toate capacităţile psihice implicate în activitatea complexă pe care o numim „învăţare” sunt capabili să înveţe şi să obţină performanţe şcolare cel puţin la nivelul unor standarde acceptabile ( prestabilite sau nu prin curriculum şi precizate în programele analitice ale materiilor).

Avem de a face cu un fenomen universal: Exprimarea variabilităţii intraspecifice a lui Homo Sapiens în cadrul concret al unei activităţi practice: instruirea şcolară. Deşi dispun de toate capacităţile psihice implicate în învăţare copiii le folosesc foarte diferit. Ca observatori obiectivi sau ca educatori noi percepem această realitate folosindu-ne de singura modalitate observaţională de care dispunem: cea behaviorist-comportamentistă. Ea ne determină să percepem în orice clasă şcolară că :

unii elevi învaţă mai greu şi pierd „ritmul instruirii” impus de organizarea învăţământului, în mod procustian, pe „clase şi lecţii”; aceşti elevi sunt botezaţi şi

42

etichetaţi în fel şi chip:„leneşi”, „slabi”, „molâi” etc. Exemple ilustre: elevii Georg Wilhelm Hegel, Lucian Blaga, Charles Darwin ş.a.

mai mulţi elevi constituie pe cei etichetaţi ca „mediocri”;Exemple ilustre: Michel de Montaigne, Albert Einstein ş.a.

un număr restrâns de elevi care îşi folosesc foarte bine capacităţile psihice şi deci învaţă rapid; ei sunt consideraţi „inteligenţi”, „geniali”, „foarte deştepţi”; Exemple ilustre: Diogene din Sinope Cinicul, împăratul Nero, Alexandru Macedon, Aristotel, Pico della Mirandola.

Ce concluzii se pot trage pentru planul instruirii dacă luâm foarte în serios exemplele date? Desigur, nu unele foarte favorabile pentru educatorii predispuşi să eticheteze în grabă...

În realitate avem de a face cu celebra „curbă în formă de clopot a lui Gauss”, citită repede şi greşit, în termenii unei „psihologii” arhaice, depăşită demult de cercetări revelatoare care au desfiinţat „mitul inteligenţei generale” şi mitul „coeficientului de inteligenţă unic”.

Fig.Nr. 9„Curba în formă de clopot” lui Gauss4

4 Explica ieț : This equation is plotted below. The dark vertical lines indicate the area under the curve from -1 to +1 , and the lighter lines indicate the area under the curve for ±2 .

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Curba lui Gauss exprimă grafic hazardul. Este totuşi o lege a naturii. Este legea după care caracteristicile unei populaţii se reparttizează simetric în jurul unei valori centrale de aşa natură încăt rezulă că în populaţie există 70% „membri mijlocii”, 13% „membri buni”, 13% „membi mediocri”, 2% „membri inferiori” şi 2% „membri superiori”.

E uşor - dar profund greşit - să „traducem” într-un limbaj pseudo-psihologic5 termenul de „mediocru” cu „elev cu QI mediu” sau termenul de „elev foarte slab” cu „elev cu QI inferior” !Dar cu riscuri enorme. Imaginaţi-vă că în clasa de elvi îl întâlniţi pe „molâul gimnazist Albert Einstein” sau pe „tăntălăul Hegel”! Oare i-ţi eticheta pe aceşti elevi ca avănd „QI inferior”?

În realitate, există „inteligenţe multiple” la mai toţi oamenii iar toţi copiii care s-au născut normal sunt apţi să înveţe.

Dar această afirmaţie poate rămâne retorică dacă nu se caută soluţii pentru depăşirea numeroaselor dificultăţi pe care le ridică diferenţele individuale din clasa de elevi.

3.2. Distincţii între individualizarea instruirii, diferenţierea instruirii şi discriminarea în instruire

Constituie difereţele individuale o fatalitate şcolară? Desigur, nu. Dar care sunt remediile?

Tradiţia europeană, care s-a impus şi în şcoala românească organizată pe clase şi lecţii a impus următoarele „remedii” ale acestei presupuse „boli”:

INDIVIDUALIZAREA DIFERENŢIEREA DISCRIMINAREA

Învăţământ particular cu preceptor sau meditator individual

Folosirea sarcinilor diferenţiate în micro-grupuri eterogene în clasa de elevi

Grupuri omogene

Sisteme de învăţământ individualizate complet

Folosirea de sarcini diferenţiate în micro-grupuri omogene în funcţie de performanţă

Sarcini diferite şi obiective de nivel

Programe Interînvăţarea în Şcoli şi clase de elită

5 JEAN PIAGET: „ Nu cunoa tem natura nici unui proces psihic. Nu cunoa tem nici în ce constă naturaș ș inteligen ei. Prin urmare nu se pune problema de a măsura obiectiv ceva a cărui natură ne esteț necunoscută. Nu se pune deci problema măsurării obiective a inteligen ei umane ”ț ( 1945)

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compensatorii microgrupuri eterogene

Tratament pedagogic individual

Programe compensatorii de ratrapare şi de îmbogăţire

Dicriminări pe bază de sex, pe bază de rasă, pe bază de avere etc.

Interînvăţarea îm microgrupuri fals-etrogene

Întrucât aceste aspecte sunt reluate cu detalii şi într-o manieră practică în capitolul următor nu insistăm cu mai multe explicaţii aici. Cititorul interesat de aspectele teoretice este invitat să consulte Documentarul Nr. 3 dedicat individualizării şi diferenţierii instruirii

Totuşi sunt necesare unele precizări importante privind...

3.3. Aspectele negative ale discriminării

şi aspectele pozitive ale individualizării şi diferenţierii

Citiţi cu maximă atenţie, reţineţi şi nu uitaţi niciodată informaţiile din tabelul de mai jos.

INDIVIDUALIZAREA ŞI DIFERENŢIEREA INSTRUIRII

DISCRIMINAREA ÎN EDUCAŢIE ŞI ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNT

Comportă modalităţi şi strategii cu fundamenare pedagogică pe deplin justificate din punct de vedere ştiinţific

(detalii în capitolul următor)

Comportă practici rasiste şi/sau discriminatorii care încalcă marile principii ale pedagogiei

Presupun încălcări grave ale demnităţii umane

Sunt contrare deontologiei profesiei de dascăl

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(detalii în capitolul următor )

APLICAŢII

( Titularul de seminar va decide momentul cel mai oportun în care vor fi folosire următoarelor aplicaţii de-a lungul desfăşurării cursului )

Aplicaţia Nr 3.

Elaboraţi în scris, aşa cum vă pricepeţi acum, un microproiect de română/franceză/engleză pentru o clasă oarecare la care predaţi. În seminar se vor trage la sorţi 5 dintre proiectele realizate. Cei aleşi vor prezenta microproiectele preciând şi arumentând clar:

a)-sarcinile de învăţarediferenţiate

b) -situaţiile optime de învăţare

c)- prin ce procedee urmează să preveniţi fenomenul de push-down ?

Aplicaţia Nr. 4

Pornind de la programa analitică, elaboraţi 3 dramatizări şi/sau simulări care ar putea fi filmate şi folosite la lecţii cu ajutorul computerului

Aplicaţia Nr. 5

Pornind de la programa analitică, elaboraţi în scris 5 situaţii problematice care ar putea fi convertite în studii de caz, incidente critice sau jocuri de rolşi folosite ulterior în lecţii de română/franceză/engleză

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CAPITOLUL IV

MANAGEMENTUL INSTRUIRII DIFERENŢIATE ÎN CLASĂ

( un ghid pragmatic pentru elaborarea micro-proiectelor şi scenariilor didactice pentru învăţarea diferenţiată în clasă )

A determina eficacitatea generală a instruirii! A determina reuşita la învăţătură a tuturor elevilor din clasele şcolilor noastre! Acestea nu mai sunt himere, cum se credea în urmă cu numai cinci decenii. Ele sunt pe deplin realizabile din punct de vedere ştiinţific.

Dar cum s-ar putea realiza acst lucru în şcolile de azi cu clase încă aglomerate, cu elevi care trebuie să continue studiul acasă pentru că timpul de învăţare în şcoală este prea scurt iar tratamentul se restrânge la plicticoase şi obositoare „lecţii frontale” care se sfârşesc obsedant cu cerinţe imperioase precum „ Luaţi ca teme pntru acasă...5 ..10..50 de probleme de matematică....Luaţi 20...30...50...probleme de fizică; Învăţaţi pe de rost...5...10...20 strofe din Luceafărul...etc ”?

Din punct de vedere ştiinţific se pot depăşi aceste practici bizare care se transformă uneori în coşmar .

Soluţia practică?

Instruirea diferenţiată în clasa de elevi !

Ea îşi valorifică virtuţile în modul cel mai eficient cu putinţă în condiţiile respectării exigenţelor de tehnologie educaţională (Gagne) şi ale paradigmei mastery learning.

Vă propunem în continuare un mod ştiinţific de determinare a eficacităţii instruirii din acestă perspectivă. Am ales o manieră simplă şi pragmatică – dar neîndoielnic utilă – de redactare. Citind cu atenţie textul de mai multe ori, fragment cu fragment puteţi supune aserţiunile unor gedankenexperiment revelatoare, dar mai ales puteţi să probaţi în practica de la catedră îndemnurile, sugestiile şi exigenţele care vă sunt propuse. Scoulmeste aceala ca,în urma acestor exerciţii, să căpătaţi abilităţi noi de diferenţierea icinstruieii la disciplina pe care o îndrăgiţi şi pe care o predaţi elevilor Dvs.

Va trebui să învăţaţi, să vă formaţi şi să stăpâniţi două categorii de capacittăţi şi abilităţi:

− de microproiectare a activităţilor de instruire diferenţiată şi

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− de conducere efectivă a activităţilor de instruire diferenţiată în clasă

Calea nu este nici uşoară dar nici grea. Totul este să nu vă grăbiţi să criticaţi; adică să nu respingeţi nimic din ceea ce vi se spune dacă nu aţi probat mai întâi în practică, în clasa de elevi, ceea ce vi se spune în textul care urmează.

4.1. Elaborarea micro-proiectelor şi scenariilor didactice

4.1.1.PATRU PRECIZĂRI PRELIMINARE ŞI UN AUTOTEST PREDICTIV

În cursul de abilitare curriculară am stăruit asupra acestor probleme dintr-o perspectivă generală, cvasi-teoretică. Revenim asupra lor acum dintr-o perspectivă nouă, pragmatică cu scopul precis de a facilita o dimensiune esenţială a instruirii eficiente. Profesorii de limba română, de limba engleză şi de limba franceză vor găsi în paginile care urmează un ghid pragmatic cu ajutorul căruia vor putea realiza activităţi didactice eficiente practicând individualizarea şi diferenţierea instruirii. Sunt necesare însă cel puţin patru lămuriri prealabile.

CUI ESTE ADRESAT ACEST GHID ?

Prezentul ghid este necesar numai acelor educatori-învăţători, profesori, specialişti, care nu au găsit încă suficiente mijloace pentru a determina reuşita la învăţătură a tuturor elevilor pe care îi instruiesc sau a marii majorităţi( peste 90%). ( Vezi Documentarele şi explicaţiile ştiinţifice privind modelele istrucţionale de tip mastery learning în cursul Abilitare Curriculară )

Prezentul ghid poate fi folosit cu succes şi de către acei educatori care, având o experienţă bogată în învăţământ, determină reuşita la învăţătură a elevilor lor, dar ar dori ca, la aceasta, să adauge şi o dragoste deosebită pentru domeniul specialităţii lor la fiecare dintre cei pe care îi educă. Este şi cazul profesorilor de limba maternăşi de limbi străine moderne. Multe din sfaturile acestui ghid pot fi urmate şi pentru obţinerea unor performanţe excepţionale de către copiii cu dotare intelectuală superioară.

DE CE ESTE ASTFEL REDACTAT ACEST GHID ?

În cursul Abilitare curriculară s-a folosit un limbaj specializat, accesibil cercetătorilor in domeniul psihopedagogiei. Partea de curs care urmează se adresează practicienilor-educatori cu niveluri diferite de pregătire şi specializaţi în domenii, de asemenea, foarte diferite, singurul ‘limbaj’ comun pe care aceştia îl pot avea fiind acela al acţiunii educative concrete. De aceea, am căutat să redactăm ghidul în termenii acţiunii eficiente. Inerent, în această situaţie, foarte multe din propoziţiile care urmează vor fi sfaturi şi recomandări. Uneori s-a adoptat chiar modul imperativ şi numeroase dintre judecăţile exprimate sunt apodictice. Nu întotdeauna tonul categoric al acestor afirmaţii sau negaţii se bazează pe certitudini experimentale; el se impune însă întotdeauna pe

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considerente de ordin moral, deontologic sau praxiologic. Ele pot fi puse sub semnul îndoielii ori de câte ori cititorul se va simţi jignit sau surprins de modul imperativ.

Autorii roagă cititorii să nu respingă însă cele propuse de aceste aserţiuni numai pe această bază, ci numai după ce le-a verificat în practică neadevărul. In cazul în care se va dovedi că ele sunt juste, recomandăm cititorului să-şi depăşească firescul orgoliu profesional şi să le accepte pe considerentul că sunt îndemnuri folositoare. In cazul în care se va dovedi că respectivele sugestii apodictice sunt injuste, autorii cer anticipat scuze rugând cititorul să găsească soluţii mai bune decât cele propuse-acesta fiind chiar obiectivul cel mai important urmărit de lucrarea de faţă.

SCOPURILE ACESTUI GHID

După studierea acestui ghid, apelând la experienţa dumneavoastră şi luând în considerare şi informaţiile din prima parte a lucrării veţi fi capabili:

1. să conduceţi activitatea instructiv-educativă pe care o desfăşuraţi intr-o manieră care să permită tuturor elevilor dumneavoastră să atingă şi să depăşească standardele de performanţă presupuse de programele şcolare în vigoare, în funcţie de posibilităţile proprii de învăţare;

2. să proiectaţi ştiinţific activităţi de învăţare eficientă în clasă, programe compensatorii de recuperare şi de îmbogăţire a cunoştinţelor şi programe de studiu individual eficient acasă pentru diferite categorii de elevi cu care lucraţi;

3. să diagnosticaţi precis starea motivaţională şi nivelul pregătirii fiecărui elev, identificând lacunele şi erorile individuale de operare cu informaţii achiziţionate;

4. să motivaţi învăţarea în clasă, la programe compensatorii şi studiul individual prin adecvarea corectă a mecanismului de învăţare la obiectivele urmărite şi prin folosirea tehnicilor de stimulare a intereselor pentru domeniul în care sunteţi specializat.

5. să evaluaţi continuu progresul instruirii prevenind la timp tendinţele de eşec, insucces şi nereuşită şcolară la fiecare dintre elevii dumneavoastră.

CUM TREBUIE FOLOSIT ACEST GHID?

Capacităţile definite prin scopurile de mai sus vor adăuga competenţei dumneavoastră de specialitate mai multă competenţă psihopedagogică transformându-vă într-un educator deosebit de ingenios şi eficace, dacă şi numai dacă:

1. veţi studia atent fiecare dintre informaţiile ce vă sunt puse la dispoziţie în continuare astfel încât să aveţi siguranţa că le-aţi înţeles perfect;

2. vă veţi autoevalua progresul înregistrat folosind testele propuse;

3. veţi rezolva conştiincios exerciţiile şi problemele şi veţi verifica, de fiecare dată, corectitudinea soluţiilor pe care le-aţi propus;

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4. veţi apela numai la dicţionarul pedagogic din anexe ori de câte ori termenii folosiţi de autori vă sunt neclari şi nu veţi căuta să le daţi accepţiunea pe care credeţi probabilă sau întâlnită în lucrări;

5. veţi acorda aceeaşi importanţă şi ghidului propus în această lucrare elevului pentru a-i „învăţa cum să înveţe” dirijând înţelegerea şi folosirea acestuia către cei pe care îi dirijaţi;

6. nu veţi nutri convingerea că amestecând elementele modelului de instruire propus aici cu elemente ale altor modele de instruire într-un „hibrid” veţi obţine instrument de acţiune mai eficient; (acest „hibrid” ar putea fi mai bun, dar această ipoteză trebuie verificată, şi ea, în practică);

7. dacă veţi da urmare, imediat, următorului îndemn:

ÎNAINTE DE A ÎNCEPE STUDIUL GHIDULUI AUTODIAGNOSTICAŢI-VĂ NIVELUL COMPETENŢEI PEDAGOGICE PE CARE L-AŢI ATINS PÂNĂ ÎN ACEASTĂ CLIPĂ.

4.1.2.. IDENTIFICAŢI-VĂ PROPRIUL NIVEL DE COMPETENŢĂ PEDAGOGICĂ

(autotest predictiv)

Instrucţiuni

Testul conţine probleme pe care trebuie să încercaţi să le rezolvaţi pentru a vă putea verifica nivelul competenţei pedagogice teoretice (itemii 1-10) şi nivelul competenţei pedagogice practice (itemii 11-20). Încercaţi rezolvarea tuturor celor 20 de probleme propuse in maximum de 30 de minute. Pentru aceasta este suficient să puneţi semnul „+” lângă răspunsul pe care îl socotiţi adecvat în coloanele A-B-C:

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I. COMPETENŢA TEORETICĂ

Nr

crt

Itemul A B C

1 Prin expresia „mastery learning” se înţelege…

„măiestria pedagogică” a educatorului

„toţi elevii pot fi învăţaţi totul”

„stăpânirea completă a materiei de studiu”

2 Prin obiectiv operaţional se înţelege..

conţinutul fiecărei lecţii în parte

rezultatul preconizat

expresia verbală prin care se de-semnează o capacitate mentală cu ajutorul căreia se poate opera asu-pra unui conţinut pentru a putea produce o performanţă şcolară.

3 Prima taxonomie de obiective pedagogice a fost elaborată de către…

Pestalozzi şi Comenius

D’Hainaut B.S.Bloom şi colaboratorii

4 A evalua înseamnă… … a sancţiona elevii care nu s-au pregătit deloc sau nu s-au pregătit cum trebuie

… a aprecia fie-care elev în parte în funcţie de ce poate el şi a nu-l nota decât atunci când s-a pregătit corespunzător

… a îmbina măsurarea obiec-tivă şi aprecierea (subiectivă) a e-forturilor celui care învaţă

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5 Scopul evaluării formative sau de progres este acela …

… de a-l nota cât mai des pe elev pentru a nu-i permite „să se lase pe tânjală”

… a-l informa pe profesor în legătură cu „ce i-a rămas elevului in minte” dintr-o lecţie

… de conexiune inversă pentru educator şi educat în legătură cu progresul şi corectitudinea învă-ţării

6 Taxonomia de obiective pedagogice este…

… o modalitate de instru-ire din categoria „metode-lor active”

… o clasificare de finalităţi şi scopuri pedago-gice

… o clasificare ierarhică a capa-cităţilor şi com-petenţelor ce pot fi create prin influenţe educa-tive

7 Care dintre expresiile următoare constituie un obiectiv operaţional corect formulat?

Prof.X: „Scopul meu este să stimulez creativitatea şi gândirea logică a elevilor”

Prof.Y: „La sfârşitul activităţii didactice toţi elevii vor fi capabili să re-simtă fiorul ne-firesc al poemului „Luceafărul”

Prof.Z: „La sfârşitul activităţii didactice toţi elevii vor fi capabili să construiască un aparat de radio cu tran-zistori, alegând ei înşişi piesele din magazine; obiectivul va fi atins dacă apara-tul va recepţiona cel puţin două posturi emiţătoa-re pe unde lungi şi medii

8 Bazele instruirii programate le-au pus…

J.B.Watson şi R.C. Hooke

E.L.Thorndike şi E.Guthrie

B.F.Skinner şi S.Pressey

9 Primul model de instruire de tip „mastery learning” a fost creat de către………. în anul ……..

D.P.Ausubel şi F.C. Robinson (1977)

Keller şi Shermann (1952)

John B.Carroll (1963,1968)

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10 Prin „sancţiune pozitivă” psihopedagogii înţeleg…….

… o pedeapsă mai blândă dată elevilor pentru erori nesemnificative.

… o pedeapsă însoţită de o glu-mă a educatoru-lui pentru a nu-l speria prea tare pe elev.

… o încurajare, recompensă laudă.

TOTAL ? ? ?

Totalizaţi pentru fiecare coloană semnele de „+” pe care le-aţi pus. Dacă aţi pus mai mult de cinci semne pe coloana A - bucuraţi-vă; ghidul de faţă vă va fi de mare sprijin în a vă clarifica multe neclarităţi pe care le aveţi din cauza unor lecturi pedagogice prea sporadice; trebuie însă, NEAPĂRAT ŞI DE URGENŢĂ să studiaţi bibliografia selectivă precizată la sfârşitul acestei cărţi. Dacă aţi totalizat cele mai multe semne de „+” în coloana B sunteţi pe un drum foarte bun; studiind încă o dată prima parte a lucrării de faţă veţi putea elimina complet unele lacune din cunoştinţele dumneavoastră de teoria educaţiei şi învăţământului. Competenţa dumneavoastră teoretică în acest domeniu este de nivel mediu dar poate fi sporită în mod remarcabil prin lecturi mai atente şi mai bine ordonate. Dacă aţi totalizat cele mai multe puncte pe coloana C- tot ce va

urma vi se pare extrem de simplu. Aveţi lecturi pedagogice solide – totuşi nu priviţi „proba practicii” cu uşurinţă.

II. COMPETENŢA PRACTICĂ

Nr.

crt.

Itemul A B C

11 În timp ce expuneaţi aspectul cel mai interesant al noii lecţii obser-vaţi că trei elevi nu sunt atenţi. Cum procedaţi?

Caut să confer expli-caţiilor un caracter mai interesant

Mă prefac că nu-i observ şi îmi conti-nui explicaţiile

Mă opresc şi le spun „Fiţi atenţi!”

12 Abia aţi intrat în clasă; elevii vă salută şi îi invitaţi să se aşeze. Ce faceţi în continuare?

Verific prezenţa şi încep să expun un procedeu de captare a interesului şi atenţiei pentru o

Deschid catalogul, fac prezenţa şi verific riguros moul in care şi-au rezolvat

Fac prezenţa şi examinez oral 5-6 elevi care nu au notă

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nouă lecţie de învăţare

temele pentru acasă

13 Aţi reuşit în primele 5 minute să stârniţi interesul tuturor elevilor pentru învăţarea unui nou conţinut. Ce faceţi imediat?

Enunţ clar, pe înţele-sul elevilor obiectivele prioritare pe care le vom urmări împreună

Le dau sarcini de muncă şi îi las în pace să lucreze

Încep predarea noii lecţii

14 În timpul rezolvării unei sarcini de lucru date, un elev pe care îl cu-noaşteţi ca având ritm lent de lucru renunţă la activitate declarându-vă deschis că nu o poate soluţiona. Ce faceţi?

Îl ajut să o rezolvăm lucrând împreună cu el

Îl îndemn să se străduiască mai mult

Îi dau de înţeles că „nu toate muştele fac miere”

15 Aţi aplicat un test formativ. Ce faceţi imediat?

Corectez testul astfel încât elevii să poată afla imediat rezulta-tele

Strâng lucrările elevilor, le examinez sumar şi, în funcţie de rezultate, le dau teme diferenţiate pentru acasă

Insist asupra im-portanţei disciplinei şi atrag atenţia că voi corecta testul cu maximă severitate

16 La sfârşitul unei activităţi didactice doi elevi vă cer permisiunea să facă următoarea observaţie: deşi dumneavoastră i-aţi anunţat că vor deveni capabili să realizeze anumite sarcini de lucru, din cele cinci amintite ei nu pot realiza decât trei; elevii invocă în acest sens rezultatele obţinute la testul de progres. Cum procedaţi?

Îi solicit să participe la un program de recuperare

Le dau teme şi exerciţii pentru a-casă care să-i ajute să depăşească ob-stacolele

Le atrag atenţia că fără străduinţă din partea lor nu este posibil nici un progres profesional elevul fiind singurul responsabil de re-zultatele actului de învăţare

17 Cu prilejul verificării „temelor pentru acasă” descoperiţi că elevul A.A. nu şi-a îndeplinit sarcina dată.

Încerc să identific motivele, pentru care nu-şi realizează teme-

Îi atrag atenţia că este pentru ultima oară când îl mai iert şi la

Este clar că am de-a face cu un leneş. „Îi aplic” un 2(doi) în catalog şi

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Vă amintiţi că A.A. n-a realizat tema pentru acasă nici la lecţia precedentă. Ce faceţi în această situaţie?

le. Dacă nu reuşesc îl solicit să vină la orele de meditaţii

lecţia viitoare îl verific primul, foarte amănunţit

informez dirigintele clasei să ia legătura cu familia lui A.A.

18 Sunteţi profesor la o clasă a IX-a într-un liceu industrial, cu profil mecanică. Aveţi de realizat prima dumneavoastră lecţie la această clasă. Ce trebuie să faceţi înainte de orice?

Fac cunoştinţă cu cla-sa, le expun, cât mai atractiv, frumuseţea disciplinei pe care o predau sau ce m-a de-terminat să mă specializez în dome-niu şi-i anunţ că la ora următoare vor susţine un test de verificare a cunoştinţelor, indic apoi obiectivele şi temele din care va fi construit testul

Verific – oral sau scris – cât de bine au fost pregătiţi în gimnaziu şi apoi le expun exigenţele mele în legătură cu materia clasei a IX- a

Mă prezint, le expun exigenţele mele faţă de pregătirea lor şi le explic în special modul meu de a nota

19 Este ultima oră pe care o predaţi la clasa a XII-a. Ce recomandaţi elevilor în legătură cu disciplina pe care aţi predat-o?

Alcătuiesc două liste de probleme: -aplicaţii ale celor studiate în domeniile spre care se orientează; - probleme deosebite, fascinante, de viitor ale dome-niului încă nestudiate. Propun o bibliografie spre studiu individual

Atrag atenţia asu-pra importanţei domeniului şi recomand spre studiu o bibliografie.

Insist asupra necesităţii de a nu ne-glija domeniul apoi închei mediile generale şi le urez tuturor succes în viaţă

20 Un profesor de la clasa la care sunteţi diriginte vă atrage atenţia că elevul A.A. lipseşte sistematic de la orele

Încerc să aflu moti-vele pentru care elevul nu absentează decât

Îi scad nota la purtare

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sale. Ce faceţi în primul rând? la orele colegului meu.

TOTAL ? ? ?

Procedaţi ca şi la proba anterioară. Dacă aţi pus mai multe semne „+” pe coloana A decât în celelalte, dovediţi o competenţă pedagogică practică bună. Este posibil chiar să fiţi în posesia unor calităţi native de educator care vă vor permite să progresaţi foarte uşor în continuare. Dacă

aveţi mai multe puncte totalizate în coloana B, dovediţi un comportament didactic nesigur.

Ghidul care urmează vă va ajuta însă să-l corijaţi cu uşurinţă. Dacă aveţi mai multe puncte cumulate în coloana C aveţi o conduită didactică magistrocentristă autoritară de natură să inhibe pe cei care învaţă şi să-i determine să vă ocolească sau chiar să vă deteste. Precaritatea metodelor pe care le folosiţi este cauza neîmplinirilor dumneavoastră profesionale.

Deşi aruncaţi vina pe elevi în legătură cu nereuşitele, ea vă aparţine în întregime. Este obligatoriu să vă revizuiţi întreaga concepţie metodico-didactică. Începeţi imediat să studiaţi ghidul care urmează, dar nu vă limitaţi la el. Nu dispreţuiţi inovaţiile didactice; amânaţi-vă această atitudine până nu le-aţi verificat în practică. Nu uitaţi că aveţi o misiune nobilă şi practicaţi cea mai frumoasă profesie cu putinţă! Folosiţi această şansă procurându-vă satisfacţiile profesionale pe care nu le poate avea oricine. Ele constituie o parte însemnată a însăşi fericirii dumneavoastră.

ÎN FUNCŢIE DE REZULTATELE AUTOTESTĂRII, ADECVAŢI-VĂ COM-PORTAMENTUL DE AUTOPERFECŢIONARE ÎNSUŞINDU-VĂ ÎNDEMNURILE CARE URMEAZĂ, EXERSÂNDU-LE ÎN TRĂSĂTURI ALE CONŞTIINŢEI ŞI CONDUITEI DUMNEAVOASTRĂ PEDAGOGICE.

Mai întâi, cel mai general îndemn:

INSTRUIŢI EFICIENT!

4.1. 3.Câte ceva despre măiestria pedagogică

Experienţa „la catedră”, stăpânirea domeniului de specialitate, priceperea de a „lucra cu copiii” ş.a. sunt atribuţii pe care, de cele mai multe ori, orice educator consideră că le posedă.

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Există chiar un foarte mare număr de educatori-învăţători, profesori, ingineri, economişti, arhitecţi, medici, maiştri etc.-care nutresc convingerea că în munca lor dau dovadă de „măiestrie pedagogică”. Autorul acestor rânduri mărturiseşte că ei însuşi trăieşte cu un astfel de sentiment.

Convingerea de a fi posesorii „măiestriei pedagogice” ni se întăreşte ori de câte ori unii dintre care îi instruim obţin performanţe deosebite sau excepţionale; dar ni se „slăbeşte” sau se „spulberă” când alţii dintre elevii noştri cad victimă insuccesului la învăţătură. Eşecurile lor ne apar ca rezultate fie ale incompetenţei lor fie a „lipsei de conştiinciozitate” sau a „insuficientei străduinţe”.

Aşa să stea lucrurile?

Dacă răspundem afirmativ la această întrebare, atunci îndemnul ce ţine loc de titlu acestui paragraf ne va apare fie ca jignitor, fie ca ridicol.

Să examinăm însă lucrurile într-o manieră lucidă luând în considerare două adevăruri pe deplin dovedite de cercetarea ştiinţifică:

a) ADEVĂRUL NUMĂRUL 1: CEI MAI MULŢI ELEVI (aprox. 95-98%) DIN POPULAŢII ŞCOLARE NESELECŢIONATE SUNT CAPABILI CEL PUŢIN DE PERFORMANŢE INSTRUCŢIONALE ACCEPTABILE ÎN RAPORT CU CERINŢELE PROGRAMELOR DE ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNT OBIŞNUITE.

b) ADEVĂRUL NUMĂRUL 2: APTITUDINILE PEDAGOGICE EXCEPŢIONALE CARE INTRĂ ÎN COMPONENŢA ”MĂIESTRIEI PEDAGOGICE” (sau ”HARULUI DIDACTIC”) SUNT EXTREM DE RARE (apar aproximativ o dată la un milion de educatori).

Dacă astfel stau lucrurile înseamnă că un număr de iluzii şi prejudecăţi-determinate de factori diverşi - întunecă judecata noastră cu privire la problema ”câţi pot să reuşească” în activitatea instructiv-educativă.

Iată cel puţin câteva dintre cele formulate adesea ca „aforisme”, ”proverbe” şi ”zicători” ce alcătuiesc un etos pedagogic devenit anacronic în raport cu rezultatele cercetării ştiinţifice din ultimele decenii şi realităţile şcolii româneşti de astăzi:

PREJUDECATA NR. 1: ”Nu toate muştele fac miere”, ”O treime sunt slabi, jumătate sunt mediocri şi numai restul sunt buni sau foarte buni”; ”Şcoala nu este pentru toţi”; ”La elevi egali-tratament pedagogic egal”; ”Elevii trebuie luaţi, de la început, cât mai tare”.

PREJUDECATA NR. 2: ”Eu predau-ei trebuie să înveţe”. ”Nu dascălul trebuie să se pregătească pentru lecţie, ci elevul trebuie să se pregătească după lecţie!”. ”A preda bine înseamnă a stăpâni bine disciplina pe care o predai”. ”Cel care este foarte bun specialist n-are nevoie de nici

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o metodă”. ”Metoda vine de la sine”. ”Fiecare cu metoda şi cu modul său didactic!”. ”Lucrul cel mai important într-o lecţie bună este inspiraţia de moment a dascălului” (etc. etc. etc.).

PREJUDECATA NR. 3: ”Nuiaua şi certarea dau înţelepciunea”. ”A educa înseamnă a pedepsi elevul-de atâtea ori de câte ori îl prinzi nepregătit”. ”Datoria educatorului este să aleagă grâul pentru hambar şi să azvârle neghina la gunoi”. ”Elevul nu învaţă decât de frică”. ”Mi-a tras o palmă (dascălul), dar m-a făcut om”. ”Bătaia e ruptă din rai”.

PREJUDECATA NR. 4: ”Elevul nu trebuie să ştie ce urmăresc cu prioritate pentru simplu motiv că el trebuie să înveţe tot”. ”Nota maximă nu o merită, cu adevărat, decât cel de la catedră”.” Nu ştiu alţii cum notează, dar eu nu greşesc niciodată când apreciez un elev”. ”Dascălul este singurul stăpân pe nota dată elevului”. ”A comunica elevului nota nu înseamnă decât a-l împinge spre dascăl!”

PREJUDECATA NR. 5: ”La şcoală elevul ascultă şi este ascultat; acasă trebuie să înveţe ceea ce a ascultat”. ”Cei mai mulţi fie că nu ştiu, fie că nu vor să înveţe acasă”. ”Rezultatele slabe ale multor elevi se datorează faptului că părinţii nu-i ajută să-şi facă temele”. ”Cei care nu ştiu să înveţe sunt de fapt cei care nu pot să înveţe”.

PREJUDECATA NR. 6: ”Nu există nici o <<ştiinţă a învăţării>>, sârguinţa este totul!”. ”Oricât i-aş cere unui elev să înveţe cum să înveţe, dacă el nu vrea să înveţe, nu va învăţa nici să înveţe”. ”Plăcerea de a învăţa nu vine” pe parcurs”, precum alte soiuri de plăceri. Plăcerea e sădită de la început în unii şi lipseşte la alţii cu desăvârşire” etc. etc.

OBSERVAŢII: În toate cele şase categorii de aforisme elevul apare ca un ”personaj negativ” al activităţii didactice. Etosul pedagogic pe care toate prejudecăţile îl evidenţiază nu se circumscrie mult teoretizatului” optimism pedagogic” dimpotrivă el este marcat de un profund scepticism pedagogic, generat de îndoiala că toţi sunt capabili să înveţe. Or, în lumina rezultatelor cercetărilor ştiinţifice, această îndoială apare ca profund nefondată. Prejudecata nr. 6 contrazice flagrant adevărul nr.1- cum l-am formulat mai sus. Adevărul nr.2 este contrazis nemijlocit de numeroase aforisme şi proverbe care alcătuiesc prejudecăţile următoare; căci acestea lasă să se înţeleagă o serie de obiceiuri, modalităţi de acţiune didactică absolut ineficace; de ex. prejudecata nr. 3 se înalţă pe ideea greşită că singura modalitate de determinare a eficacităţii instruirii este sancţiunea negativă a elevului, urmărind selecţia ”aleşilor”; prejudecata nr. 2 evidenţiază dispreţul pentru acţiunea metodică eficientă, izvorând din orgoliul celui care crede că poate acţiona ”cum îl taie capul”; prejudecata nr. 4 se instituie, de asemenea, pe convingeri greşite în legătură cu rolul şi scopul evaluării în activitatea de învăţământ; în fine prejudecăţile 5 şi 6 se nasc în baza unor credinţe eronate în legătură cu studiul individual şi pregătirea independentă a elevului acasă. Astfel încât, după cum vedem, avem de-a face cu un întreg eşafodaj de erori privind instruirea eficientă. Ele pot fi însă cu uşurinţă depăşite dacă sunt conştientizate ca atare. Întrucât, cu siguranţă….

ORICE EDUCATOR CONŞTIENT DE ROLUL LOR ŞI DE IMPORTANŢA MISIUNII SALE DOREŞTE SĂ REALIZEZE O INSTRUIRE EFICIENTĂ

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Aceasta nu se realizează însă cu metodica precară sugerată de prejudecăţile de mai sus, ci valorificând cât mai mult rezultatele cercetării psihopedagogice intr-o manieră coerentă, bine gândită şi corect realizată.

Desigur, expresiile ”bine gândit” şi „corect realizat” nu vă spun mai nimic, fiind generice şi neclare dacă le privim din unghiul practicii şi dacă avem în vedere complexitatea şi vastitatea cercetărilor psihopedagogice din ultimele decenii. De aceea,

vă propunem mai jos o primă concretizare a lor:

NOTĂ IMPORTANTĂ. In acest ghid se vor folosi pentru simplitatea explicaţiilor expresii precum OBIECTIV, OBIECTIV OPERAŢIONAL, OBIECTIV TERMINAL etc. Am arătat că acestea sunt convertibile cu expresii precum Competenţă, Capacitate, Abilitate pe care le găsim în programe mai recente. Vă rugăm să consultaţi cursul de Abilitare curriculară pentru eventuale dificultăţi sau nelămuriri. Se va vedea pe parcurs că operaţionalizarea obiectivelor pedagogice reprezintă avantaje practice inestimabile şi că renunţarea la această tehnică ar fi doar o opţiune nefastă indusă de ceea ce vechii latini numeau periculosus et stultissimus error.

Dar această primă concretizare nu este suficientă pentru a face operaţional îndemnul de a instrui eficient. De aceea, vă propunem o a doua concretizare:

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2.4. Proiecta i ştiin ific activit i didactice!ţ ţ ăţ

2.4.1. Defini i obiectivele înv rii!ţ ăţă

2.4.2. Alege i con inuturile esen iale!ţ ţ ţ

2.4.3. Concepe i strategii de înv areţ ăţ diferen iat !ţ ă

2.4.4. Elabora i teste de evaluare aţ progresului instruirii!

1.1. Determina i OBIECTIVELE TERMINALE aţ ciclului de instruire anterior parcurs!

1.2. Elabora i şi aplica i un test predictiv!ţ ţ

1.3. Stabili i programe compensatorii!ţ

1.3.1. Proiecta i programul de recuperare!ţ

1.3.2. Proiecta i programul de îmbog ire!ţ ăţ

1. DIAGNOSTICAŢI STAREA INIŢIALĂ A INSTRUIRII, CAPACITATEA DE ÎNVĂŢARE ŞI MOTIVAŢIA ÎNVĂŢĂRII

2. PROIECTAŢI ŞI DESFĂŞURAŢI ACTIVITĂŢI DE ÎNVĂŢARE ÎN CLASĂ A CONŢINUTURILOR ESENŢIALE!

2.5. Transpune i în practic în mod eficientţ ă proiectele didactice!

2.5.1. Capta i aten ia celor care înva !ţ ţ ţă

2.5.2. Enun a i obiectivele enun ate!ţ ţ ţ

2.5.3. Actualiza i ancorele înv rii!ţ ăţă

2.5.4. Prezenta i sarcinile de înv are şiţ ăţ dirija i înv area pân la ob inereaţ ăţ ă ţ performan elor!ţ

2.5.5. Asigura i conexiunea invers !ţ ă

2.5.6. Evalua i progresul instruirii!ţ

2.5.7. Asigura i continuarea şi aprofundareaţ studiului!

STUDIA I ATENT Ţ

TAXONOMIAT

Fig.nr.11. Operaţiile instruirii eficiente

Dar nici chiar acest tablou nu este suficient pentru a putea determina eficacitatea generală a instruirii, reuşita tuturor elevilor pe care îi pregătiţi. De aceea vă furnizăm în continuare informaţii, exerciţii şi probleme în legătură cu fiecare dintre categoriile de operaţii precizate anterior.

4.2. DIAGNOSTICAŢI EXACT STAREA INIŢIALĂ A INSTRUIRII

Modelul instrucţional pe care doriţi să vi-l însuşiţi studiindu-l în acest moment se bazează pe următorul postulat:

CALITATEA UNEI ÎNVĂŢĂRI NOI DEPINDE DE CALITATEA ÎNVĂŢĂRILOR ANTERIOARE ŞI DE NIVELUL MOTIVAŢIONAL

De aici se poate deduce un principiu elementar:

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3. EVALUAŢI CONTINUU ŞI PERIODIC PROGRESUL INSTRUIRII!

4. ASIGURAŢI CONTINUITATEA ŞI EFICIENŢA STUDIULUI INDEPENDENT!

3.6. Aplica i şi valorifica i teste formativeţ ţ de progres!

3.7. Aplica i periodic teste sumative şiţ controla i modul în care se integreazţ ă achizi iile în structuri de lung durat !ţ ă ă

3.8. Propune i elevilor o ”art de aţ ă înv a” pentru a ajuta s -şi formeze unăţ ă stil eficient de munc intelectual .ă ă

STUDIA I ATENT Ţ

TAXONOMIAT

PUTE I CONSIDERA SARCINA ŢÎNDEPLINIT DAC :Ă ĂÎ

REVEDE I INC O DAT Ţ Ă ĂPREVEDERILE PROGRAMEI DE INSTRUIRE LA DISCIPLINA PE CARE O PREDA IŢP

Astfel spus, în fiecare elev trebuie să vedeţi rezultatul unei istorii instrucţionale pe parcursul căreia el a achiziţionat mai multe sau mai puţine informaţii din domeniul disciplinei pe care o predaţi, precum şi capacităţi de a opera cu aceste informaţii; calitatea acestor achiziţii condiţionează calitatea şi eficienţa instruirii ce va urma.

Educatorul care acceptă aceste adevăruri se va vedea obligat ca înainte de a declanşa un proces instructiv-educativ…

SĂ EXAMINEZE MINUŢIOS STAREA INIŢIALĂ A PREGĂTIRII CELOR CARE ÎNVAŢĂ ŞI CAPACITĂŢILE LOR DE ÎNVĂŢARE.

Aceasta presupune: să determine precis obiectivele materiei anterior parcurse de elev; să elaboreze, să aplice şi să examineze detaliat rezultatele unui test predictiv; să stabilească programe compensatorii. Iată câteva sugestii în legătură cu fiecare dintre aceste operaţii:

4.2.1. Cum se determină obiectivele ciclului de instruire anterior parcurs de elevi

4.2.1.1. DOUĂ INSTRUMENTE ŞI…”O MÂNĂ DE AJUTOR”

Pentru realizarea corectă a acestor operaţii ne sunt necesare două instrumente:

A. TAXONOMIA OBIECTIVELOR PEDAGOGICE (BLOOM ŞI COLAB.)

B. PROGRAMA DE ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNT A DISCIPLINEI PE CARE O PREDAŢI.

precum şi

COLABORAREA CU CEILALŢI MEMBRI AI CATEDREI SAU COMISIEI METODICE DIN CARE FACEŢI PARTE.

Înainte de a încerca să aplicaţi cele ce urmează, VĂ RECOMANDĂM în legătură cu fiecare, unsprezece reguli de acţiune:

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DAC LA UN MOMENT DAT VREM S CONTINU M INSTRUIREA UNUI ELEV TREBUIEĂ Ă Ă S ŞTIM EXACT CE TREBUIE Ă S ŞTIEĂ ŞI CE ŞTIE S FACĂ Ă ELEVUL PÂN LA ACELĂ MOMENT.

STUDIA I ATENT Ţ

TAXONOMIAT

1) Citi i atent întreaga programţ ă

2) Consulta i bibliografia (recomand m, mai ales, ţ ălucrarea lui G. de Landsheere Definirea obiectivelor educa iei)ţ



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4) Realiza i un tabel de specifica ie pentru ciclul ţ ţrespectiv ca în modelul de mai jos.

5) Pute i realiza interferen e de tipul celor ţ ţexemplificate în tabelul de specifica ie de mai ţjos.


1) Se impune converti i competen ele i ț ț șcapacit ile în obiective pedagogice?ăț

3) A i în eles de ce taxonomia obiectivelor ţ ţpedagogice poate fi definit ca un model de ădezvoltare ştiin ific a fiin elor umane cu ţ ă ţajutorul educa ieiţ

4) A i în eles precis de ce taxonomia obiectivelor ţ ţpedagogice este restrictivă

PUTE I CONSIDERA STUDIUL ŢEFICIENT DAC :Ă

5) Pute i identifica uşor avantajele utiliz rii ţ ătaxonomiei în practica instruirii şi educa ieiţ

6) Reuşi i s corela i clasele de comportament ţ ă ţdin taxonomie obiectivelor domeniului cognitiv cu con inuturile materiei de studiu – profilând un ţ”model pedagogic” al însuşirii acesteia

2) R spunde- i la întrebarea” Ce trebuie s ştie ă ţ ăsau s ştie s fac un elev care a parcurs ă ă ăprograma în întregime?”

3) Analiza i materia prev zut pentru ciclul de ţ ă ăinstruire anterior parcurs de elev, r spunzând la ăaceeaşi întrebare.

Fig.12. Cele 11 reguli ale “declanşării” instruirii eficiente

4.2.1.2. Tabelul de specificaţie pentru definirea obiectivelor terminale/capacităţilor/abilităţilor

Gramatică-clasa a III-a

(Tabel de specificaţie a obiectivelor terminale ale capitolului ”Adjectivul”)

La sfârşitul capitolului toţi elevii ar trebui să fie capabili:

Cerinţe ale claselor de compor-tament

SĂ CUNOASC

Ă

reuşind;

SĂ ÎNŢELEA

GĂ

reuşind;

SĂ

APLICE

reuşind;

SĂ

ANALIZEZE

reuşind;

SĂ

SINTETIZEZE

reuşind;

SĂ

EVALUEZE

reuşind;

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O

B

I

E

C

T

I

V

E

T

E

R

M

I

N

A

L

E

OT1 - să defi-nească adjec-tivul ca parte de vorbire ce exprimă însu-şiri ale fiinţe-lor, lucrurilor şi fenomenelor naturii;

OT2 - să recu-noască adjec-tivul în textele date.

.

.

OTn - să-şi amintească regulile gra-maticale orto-grafice şi de punctuaţie specifice ad-jectivului

OT1 - să de-monstreze prin exemple rela-ţia adjectiv substantiv de terminat

.

.

.

.

.

.

OTn - să stabilească funcţia sin-tactică pe care o poate avea adjectivul în texte date sau create de el însuşi

OT1 - să utilizeze ad-jectivul în alcătuirea unor propo-ziţii date în limbajul o-ral, cât şi în cel scris.

.

.

.

OTn - să folosească regulile gramaticale de scriere a adjectivului

OT1 - să dis-tingă particu-larităţile morfosintactice ale substan-tivelor în texte date sau create de el însuşi ale adjectivelor care le însoţesc

.

.

.

OTn - să descopere ad-jectivele adec-vate pentru completarea unui text lacu-nar dat

OT1 - să modi-fice modelele date prin folosiri ale antonimelor şi sinonimelor unor adjective.

.

.

.

.

.

OTn - să creeze texte cu sens pe baza unor liste de adjective date

OT1 - să ar-gumenteze necesitatea scrierii adjec-tivului îna-intea sub-stantivului determinat.

.

.

.

.

.

OTn – să ar-

gumenteze

……………

…………….

Fig.nr.13. Determinarea obiectivelor terminale cu taxonomia Bloom (model)

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O1

O2

.

.

.

On

I1

I2

.

.

.

In

O1

O2

.

.

.

On

4.2.2.COLABORAŢI CU CEILALŢI MEMBRI AI CATEDREI SAU COMISIEI METODICE

Exerciţiile propuse anterior vă vor sugera concluzia că ”taxonomia de obiective pedagogice este un instrument orb care nu vă poate conduce ”de la sine” spre alcătuirea unui inventar rezonabil de obiective pedagogice terminale”. Mai întâi veţi constata că unele obiective par să se repete exasperant, iar altele sunt prea concrete. Sunt toate la fel de importante? Răspunsul la această întrebare nu este bine să-l daţi singuri. Consultaţi-i pe ceilalţi membri ai catedrei sau comisiei metodice. Atenţie însă!

NU CONSULTAŢI UN SINGUR COLEG, ORICÂT DE MULT I-AŢI APRECIA COMPETENŢA! APELAŢI LA CÂT MAI MULŢI ŞI NU LUAŢI ÎN CONSIDERARE DECÂT OPNIILE CELE MAI CONVERGENTE!

Numai în acest fel veţi putea evita subiectivismul specific al fiecăruia şi tentaţia unei soluţii cât mai comode. Experienţa colegilor trebuie considerată ca o resursă utilizabilă, dar nu uitaşi că ea conţine şi elemente care vă pot influenţa negativ. De aceea, iată cinci „sfaturi” care le veţi primi, dar pe care nu trebuie să le urmaţi:

• Renunţă la aceste instrumente sofisticate şi procedează după cum îţi dictează conştiinţa!

• Fă ca mine, eu nu greşesc niciodată!

• Nu te complica inutil!

• Nu face prea mult zgomot pentru nimic!

• Nimeni nu te obligă la aşa ceva, n-are rost să-ţi pui probleme în plus!

Cel mai indicat ar fi să provocaţi o şedinţă de lucru a catedrei sau a comisiei metodice în care să prezentaţi tabloul de specificaţie pe care l-aţi realizat. În timpul discuţiilor înregistraţi fără părtinire toate părerile apoi, în linişte examinaţi-le. Eliminaţi pe cele care vă îndeamnă să renunţaţi. Analizaţi atent argumentele celor care vă solicita să eliminaţi sau adăugaţi obiective terminale. Stabiliţi dacă cele propuse se circumscriu finalităţii generale şi scopurilor cu nivel de generalitate mediu ale disciplinei pe care o predaţi. NU IGNORAŢI PROGRAMA AMALITICĂ

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O1

O2

.

.

.

On

I1

I2

.

.

.

In

O1

O2

.

.

.

On

CHIAR DACĂ VĂ DISPLACE! În acest fel veţi ajunge la un inventar complet de obiective terminale.

4.2.3 CUM SE ELABOREAZĂ, SE APLICĂ ŞI SE VALORIFICĂ UN TEST PREDICTIV

4.2.3.1 Elaborarea unui test predictiv

În concepţia noastă „test predictiv” înseamnă „test iniţial” – aplicat la începutul unei noi etape de instruire pentru a identifica nivelul de realizare a obiectivelor studiului într-o etapă anterioară, riguros delimitată şi lacunele intervenite în pregătirea fiecărui elev al clasei pe parcursul instruirii sau ulterior (de ex. , în vacanţele dintre semestre).

Lista de obiective terminale constituie baza derivării itemilor (problemelor) care alcătuiesc testul predictiv.

Regula simplă de elaborare a unui test predictiv este următoarea:

PENTRU FIECARE OBIECTIV TERMINAL TREBUIE ELABORAT CEL PUŢIN UN ITEM CARE VERIFICĂ REALIZAREA SAU NEREALIZAREA ACESTUIA LA UN NIVEL DE PERFORMANŢĂ SUFICIENT DE ÎNALT PENTRU CA ELEVUL SĂ POATĂ CONTINUA ADECVAT INSTRUIREA.

Schema derivării itemilor este următoarea:

Obiectivele Testul predictiv Ciclul nou de instruire

ciclului de

instruire anterior

parcurs

Fig.nr.14. Schema elaborării unui test predictiv

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O1

O2

.

.

.

On

I1

I2

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.

.

In

O1

O2

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.

.

On

4.2.3.2. Construirea testului predictiv

Se observă că, deşi baza testului predictiv o constituie obiectivele instruirii deja desfăşurate, în elaborarea sa trebuie ţinut seama şi de ceea ce urmează să înveţe elevii. Numai în acest fel se pot stabili performanţe minimal acceptabile în raport cu care se va aprecia reuşita sau nereuşita elevilor şi în baza cărora se anticipează posibilitatea sau imposibilitatea continuării instruirii în ritmul impus de parcurgerea programei de învăţământ.

Iată un exemplu, de corelare corectă itemilor cu obiectivele ciclului de instruire anterior parcurs într-un test predictiv de matematică aplicat unei clase a III-a aflată în primele zile ale semestrului al II-lea.

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OBIECTIVE ITEMI

Mai sunt toţi elevii care încep semestrul al II-lea capabili:

O1 – să efectueze toate operaţiile aritmetice elementare? Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă toţi elevii vor rezolva cel puţin un exerciţiu dat fără nici un fel de eroare.

O2 – să rezolve corect exerciţii specifice respectând limbajul matematic? Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă fiecare elev va rezolva suma, diferenţa, câtul şi produsul unor numere date.

.

.

.

On – să rezolve probleme specifice formulate de învăţător? Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă va fi rezolvată fără eroare cel puţin o problemă dată.

I1: Efectuează cel puţin prima coloană de exerciţii:

205 + 502 = ? 68 : 3 = ?

361 x 2 = ? 421 x 2 = ?

372 - 194 = ? 285 - 195 = ?

364 : 3 = ? 129 + 3 = ?

I2: - a) Cu cât este mai mare suma numerelor 137 şi 205 decât produsul numerelor 23 şi 7?

- b) Cu cât este mai mare diferenţa numerelor 791 şi 314 decât câtul numerelor 318 şi 3?

.

.

In: Pentru o cantină şcolară s-au cumpărat 145 căni a 40 lei bucata, iar de restul până la 9900 lei s-au cumpărat linguriţe mici de 20 lei bucata. Câte linguriţe s-au cumpărat? De ce? (Justificaţi).

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4.2.3.3. Calităţile unui test predictiv

Ce alte calităţi trebuie să întrunească un test predictiv pentru a putea fi considerat “bun” şi “folositor”? Iată inventarul celor mai importante:

A. VALIDITATEA Un test este valid dacă şi numai dacă este astfel construit încât măsoară exact ceea ce trebuie să măsoare. Un test docimologic nu este valid dacă itemii care îl compun nu acoperă întregul câmp de probleme care interesează măsurarea sau acoperă un câmp de probleme mai vast decât interesează.

Validitatea predictivă a testului iniţial este asigurată dacă acesta este astfel construit încât poate indica în ce fel se poate continua în viitor instruirea fiecăruia dintre cei care au fost testaţi.

B. FIDELITATEA Un test docimologic este fidel dacă şi numai dacă, aplicat în situaţii analoge sau identice, conduce spre rezultate analoge sau identice. Un test predictiv nu este fidel dacă aplicat la doi elevi cu aceleaşi lacune în instruire le evidenţiază numai la unul dintre ei. Fidelitatea unui test nu poate fi niciodată absolută (100%), fiind admisibilă o anumită “abatere standard”, dar infidelitatea unui test nu trebuie să depăşescă niciodată 2,5 – 3%; un test accentuat infidel este, prin definiţie, nevalid.

C. REPREZENTATIVITATEA Un test docimologic este reprezentativ dacă “acoperă” un câmp cât mai larg de cunoştinţe sau capacităţi din domeniul de instruire pentru care a fost elaborat; un test predictiv nu poate fi considerat reprezentativ dacă verifică doar părţi sau elemente ale materiei anterior studiate şi nu esenţialul întregii materii parcurse.

D. PUTEREA DE DISCRIMINARE un test predictiv este eficient dacă identifică exact nuvelul de performanţă de care este capabil elevul şi toate lacunele care au intervenit în instruirea lui anterioară. Gradul scăzut de discriminare al unui test iniţial reduce corespunzător capacitatea lui predictivă.

E. APLICABILITATEA Un test predictiv este aplicabil dacă şi numai dacă oferă date utile atât elevului cât şi educatorului, asigurând un feed-back diferenţial. Un test predictiv este inaplicabil dacă nu oferă datele necesare diagnosticului şi remediului.

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4.2.3.4.Şapte reguli pentru aplicarea unui test predictiv

Revedeţi încă o dată subcapitolul anterior. Insistaţi asupra calităţilor pe care trebuie să le îndeplinească un test. Dacă aveţi convingerea că toate cerinţele au fost indeplinite, atunci procedaţi la aplicare. Ţineţi seama, în acest sens, de următoarele reguli:

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Înainte de a aplica un test predictiv unei clase ave i obliga ia de aţ ţ face elevilor cunoscute obiectivele pe care le urma i;ţ

Insista i, pe un ton adecvat, c nu dori i „s -i prinde i pe eleviţ ă ţ ă ţ nepreg ti i”, c nu ve i nota în catalog rezultatele şi nici nu v ve iă ţ ă ţ ă ţ forma o impresie definitiv asupra poten ialului lor de înv are;ă ţ ăţ

Asigura i un climat de munc ne-stressant, preveni i emo iaţ ă ţ ţ exagerat a elevilor care e manifestat , dar nu-i sprijini i pe niciă ă ţ unul, în nici un fel, in dep şirea dificult ilor pe care le ridic testulă ăţ ă însuşi;

Stabili i o limit de timp pentru rezolvarea testului, respecta i-o cuţ ă ţ stricte e, dar nota i numele elevilor care ar fi putut s rezolveţ ţ ă testul într-un timp mai mare decât cel stabilit, precum şi pe acela al elevilor care rezolv testul într-un timp mai scurt;ă

Corecta i imediat testul predictiv împreun cu elevii folosind oţ ă gril preg tit din timp sau un elev-proctor (elev care rezolvă ă ă ă perfect înaintea altora testul şi care poate fi transformat în gril deă corectare);

L sa i timp elevilor s -şi examineze erorile dup confruntarea cuă ţ ă ă grila, dar apoi strânge i testele completate şi examina i acas cuţ ţ ă maximum de aten ie fiecare test în parte;ţ

Stabili i împreun cu elevii c vor avea nevoie de un caietţ ă ă suplimentar pentru „exerci ii compensatorii” pe care îl vor purtaţ zilnic la ei; confec ionându-v şi dumneavoastr un asemeneaţ ă ă caiet în care ve i consemna datele testului predictiv, proiecteleţ programelor compensatorii şi ve i urm ri, or de or , amelior rileţ ă ă ă ă care se vor produce în comportamentul de înv are al elevilor.ăţ

4.2.4 PROIECTAŢI PROGRAME COMPENSATORII!

Recitiţi atent ultima dintre regulile aplicării unui test predictiv. Ea vă sugerează scopul diagnosticului pedagogic în întregime.

Modelul de instruire pe care vi-l propunem vă solicită să practicaţi INSTRUIREA DIFERENŢIATĂ în trei forme:

Deocamdată să vedem în ce mod se pot valorifica rezultatele testelor predictive pentru a practica instruirea diferenţiată în cadrul unor programe compensatorii.

Iată două imagini sugestive.

Prima dintre ele sugerează că un mare număr de elevi (ordonata ) obţin note mari şi foarte mari. Este vestita „curbă în J”, semnul clar al unei instruiri anterioare corespunzătoare.

Cea de a doua se află în situaţi inversă: un număr mare de elevi au performanţe slabe şi foarte slabe. Este teribila „curbă în i”, semnul ineficacităţii generale a instruirii.

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• în cadrul PROGRAMELOR COMPENSATORII

• în timpul ÎNV RII DIRIJATE ÎN CLASĂŢĂ Ă

• în cadrul STUDIULUI INDIVIDUAL

IDENTIFICAREA CRITERIILOR DE DIFEREN IERE A INSTRUIRII ÎNŢ VEDEREA OPTIMIZ RII CONTINUE A PERFORMAN ELOR DE ÎNV AREĂ Ţ ĂŢ ALE FIEC RUI ELEV.Ă

Fig.nr.15. Rezultatele unui test predictiv,

ca efect al unei instruiri anterioare corespunzătoare (eficientă)

Fig.nr.16. Rezultatele unui test predictiv,

ca efect al unei instruiri anterioare necorespunzătoare (ineficientă)

În ambele situaţii figurate mai sus – dar cu precădere în cea de-a doua – se impune apelul la PROGRAME COMPENSATORII – de RECUPERARE şi de ÎMBOGĂŢIRE.

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Să le definim pe scurt:

Fig. nr.17. Construirea programelor compensatorii

Ce exigenţe solicită proiectarea şi realizare a fiecăruia dintre ele?

4.2.4.1 Cinci reguli de urmat

pentru proiectarea şi realizarea programelor de recuperare

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PROGRAM DE

“ÎMBOG IRE”ĂŢ

Program suplimentar destinat elevilor capabili de performan e ţsuperioare standardelor prev zute în programele ăşcolare, desf şurat sub form ă ăde CONSULTA II menite s îi Ţ ăîndrume preg tirea pentru ăconcursurile şcolare.

PROGRAM DE

RECUPERAREProgram de instruire suplimentar, desf -şurat ăsimultan cu procesul de înv -ă

mânt, în ţăvederea atingerii sau dep -şirii ăstandardelor de performan ţăsolicitate de programele şcolare.

Program suplimentar destinat elevilor cu lacune esen ialeţ în instruirea anterioar , ăorganizat în vederea atingerii performan elor minimal ţacceptabile, desf şurat sub ăform de MEDITA II.ă Ţ

PROGRAME

COMPENSATORII

Regula nr.1 Acordaţi prioritate proiectării, organizării şi desfăşurării programelor

de recuperare de la fiecare clasă la care predaţi:

a) trecând cât mai rapid cu putinţă la desfăşurarea lor;

b) afectând întregul timp de care dispuneţi dumneavoastră şi elevii respectivi;

c) considerându-l obligaţia dumneavoastră elementară şi o stringenţă pentru elevi.

Regula nr.2 Scopul principal în care organizaţi programe de recuperare este acela de a anula lacunele intervenite în pregătirea elevilor derivat din scopul general care constă în ”autodesfiinţarea” programului prin eliminarea motivelor care l-au impus în legătură cu fiecare elev participant în parte.

Regula nr.3 Nu menţineţi la programul de recuperare un elev care a recuperat în întregime materia şi este capabil să înainteze adecvat în instruirea pe care o parcurge în clasă.

Regula nr.4 Solicitaţi elevii la programul de recuperare să realizeze numai obiective pedagogice şi sarcini care:

a) “acoperă” lacunele identificate cu prilejul evaluării predictive şi al evaluării formative de progres;

b) privesc înlăturarea dificultăţilor, inconsecvenţelor, achiziţiilor nesigure.

Regula nr.5 Ajutaţi-i pe toţi să reuşească! Daţi dovadă de înţelegere! Motivaţi învăţarea! Sugeraţi-le tuturor căi viabile de rezolvare! Treziţi tuturor participanţilor încrederea în ei înşişi! Nu admonestaţi niciodată! Fiţi cât mai politicos, blând chiar! Comportaţi-vă cu elevii pe care îi chemaţi la recuperare ca şi când ar fi proprii dumneavoastră copii! Lăudaţi (exagerat chiar!) pe cei care reuşesc. Folosiţi orice alte stimulente pozitive!

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4.2.4.2. Alte zece reguli de urmat

pentru organizarea şi desfăşurarea programelor de îmbogăţire

22 Exerciţii şi probleme

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• Postula i c ţ ă oricare dintre participan i ar putea dep şi propriaţ ă dumneavoastr competen !ă ţă

• Face i-i pe to i s cread c pot dep şi propriile lor performan eţ ţ ă ă ă ă ţ , ba chiar şi pe cei ale c ror idei le studiaz !ă ă

• Obliga i-i pe to i ţ ţ s nu se lase învinşiă de dificult ile sarcinilor!ăţ

• Furniza i întotdeauna sarcinile de înv are gândindu-le dup dificultate!ţ ăţ ă

• Nu v speria i c v pierde i autoritateaă ţ ă ă ţ şi recunoaşte i cu sinceritate cândţ elevii g sesc solu ii mai ingenioase decât dumneavoastr . Sugera i-le să ţ ă ţ ă persevereze în a v dep şi!ă ă

• Înv a i-i s colaboreze dar şi ăţ ţ ă s se întreac unul pe altul!ă ă

• Nu folosi i alt stimulent decât dorin a de ţ ţ a progresa mai rapid şi de a ob ineţ performan e excep ionale!ţ ţ

• Sugera i, fiec ruia în parte, ţ ă în mod discret, c este capabil de performan eă ţ extraordinare dac va depune eforturi mai mari şi se va concentra maiă mult!

• Nu permite i nici un fel de discu ii ironiceţ ţ între ei în leg tur cu nereuşiteleă ă temporare ale unora dintre participan i!ţ

• Oferi i celor capabili de performan e superioare cât mai mult ţ ţ ă libertate de gândire şi de ac iuneţ . Renun a i la “d d ceal ”. Permite i-le s aib ideiţ ţ ă ă ă ţ ă ă “proprii” şi “p reri personale” dar sugera i-le s le sus in numai dup ceă ţ ă ţ ă ă le-au verificat. Dac manifest conduite ce vi se par aberante, ă ă nu-i admonesta i imediatţ , pune i-i în fa a consecin elor pe care ieşirile lor leţ ţ ţ isc . Raporta i –v la copiii capabili de performan e superioare ca şi când eiă ţ ă ţ ar fi copii obişnui i în restul activit ii instructiv-educative, egali cu colegiiţ ăţ lor, nu le admite i atitudini şi gesturi de “superioritate” fa de ceilal iţ ţă ţ şi sugera i-le c au obliga ia moral s -i sprijine pe cei care întâmpinţ ă ţ ă ă ă dificult i la înv tur .ăţ ăţă ă

APLICAŢIE SPECIALĂ

Dacă vreţi să stăpâniţi corespunzător tehnica elaborării si folosirii textelor predictive precum şi exigenţele organizării programelor compensatorii, străduiţi-vă să rezolvaţi exerciţiile propuse în continuare. Verificaţi corectitudinea soluţiilor pe care le propuneţi prin răspunsurile ce vă sunt oferite la sfârşitul acestei lucrări. Ori de câte ori răspunsurile şi soluţiile oferite de autori nu vor coincide cu cele găsite de dumneavoastră, reluaţi exerciţiul sau problema încercând să descoperiţi unde aţi greşit. Vă sugerăm în acest sens să revedeţi informaţiile oferite în cursul de Abilitare curriculară.

Nr.1. Elaboraţi un test predictiv pentru materia parcursă cu elevii unei clase care „învaţă bine” în ultimul trimestru încheiat. Verificaţi validitatea testului. Răspundeţi cu da sau nu la întrebarea: A fost testul astfel construit încât dvs. aţi putut şti în mod anticipat:

a) care elevi se vor dovedi capabili de performanţe superioare;

b) care elevi au lacune în instruire şi în ce ritm ei vor recupera cunoştinţele pierdute?;

c) căror cauze s-a datorat rămânerea în urmă la învăţătură a anumitor elevi?

Nr.2 Aţi elaborat un test predictiv pentru două clase paralele. Cărui fapt se datorează diferenţa netă dintre rezultatele obţinute în urma aplicării?

Nr.6 Aţi aplicat deja un test predictiv. Totuşi, la jumătatea trimestrului descoperiţi că unii elevi au lacune neidentificate de test. Ce determină această situaţie surprinzătoare?

Nr.3 Aţi pregătit deja un test predictiv. Ce trebuie să faceţi înainte de a-l aplica? Şi cum?

Nr.4 Aţi aplicat deja un test predictiv, timpul stabilit pentru soluţionare s-a epuizat, iar un elev vă solicită să mai lucreze în continuare. Cum procedaţi

Nr.9 Înainte de consumarea timpului afectat unui test predictiv, un elev vă prezintă deja testul rezolvat perfect. Ce veţi face în această situaţie?

Nr.5 Aţi realizat un test predictiv realizat după toate exigenţele prezentate în acest capitol. Prezentându-l directorului şcolii acesta vă felicită şi vă roagă să îl prezentaţi ca „model” în şedinţa de catedră. Instrumentul dvs. însă este dezaprobat de către colegi în unanimitate. Ce veţi face

Nr.6 În timpul programului de recuperare, doi elevi cu rezultate slabe la un test predictiv rezolvă succesiv două sarcini dificile foarte rapid şi fără erori. Cum veţi proceda în această situaţie neaşteptată?

Nr.7 În timpul unui program de îmbogăţire observaţi că un elev se plictiseşte. Cărui fapt se poate datora acest lucru?

Nr.8 În timp ce încerca cu dificultate să rezolve a doua sarcină de lucru furnizată la programul de recuperare, elevul A.A se ridică nervos şi vă declară că renunţă, considerând că nu are aptitudini pentru disciplina pe care o predaţi. Cum veţi proceda?

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3.4.3. PROIECTAŢI RIGUROS

ŞI DESFĂŞURAŢI ŞTIINŢIFIC

ACTIVITĂŢI DE ÎNVĂŢARE ÎN CLASĂ

4.3.1 Cum se proiectează riguros activităţile de invăţare în clasă

4.3.1.1 CÂTEVA LĂMURIRI TERMINOLOGICE ŞI PATRU EXIGENŢE PENTRU PLANIFICAREA MATERIEI

Termenul de „proiectare pedagogică” (sau „design instrucţional”) are mai multe accepţiuni. Noi îl vom folosi în continuare în mai multe sensuri sensuri:

Sensul nr. 1: PROIECTAREA SISTEMELOR EDUCAŢIONALE CURRICULUM DESIGN sau macro-proiectarea ( = curriculum design )

Sensul nr.2: PROIECTAREA CICLULUI (sau ETAPEI) DE ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNT sau mezo-proiectarea (= conceperea succesiunii de activităţi didactice şi a programelor compensatorii necesare realizării unor obiective terminale ale unui ciclu de instruire delimitat temporal)

Sensul nr.3: PROIECTAREA ACTIVITĂŢILOR DIDACTICE sau micro-proiectarea (= conceperea activităţilor ce trebuie desfăşurate pentru a determina într-o lecţie sau grup de lecţii – realizarea anumitor obiective operaţionale derivate ale ciclului de instruire în curs).

În primele sensuri, proiectarea instruirii prezintă similitudini cu CURRICULUM DESIGN şi cu „PLANIFICAREA SEMESTRIALĂ A MATERIEI”.

În cel de-al treilea sens, MICRO-PROIECTAREA INSTRUIRII prezintă similitudini cu „planul de lecţie”. Dar, în practica instruirii, deosebirile sunt mai importante decât asemănările.

De asemenea:

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CEEA CE DEOSEBEŞTE PROIECTAREA INSTRUIRII DE PLANIFICAREA MATERIEI ŞI PLANUL DE LEC IE ESTE RIGOAREA CU CAREŢ DEMERSURILE SUNT SUBORDONATE REALIZ RII UNOR OBIECTIVEĂ PEDAGOGICE M SURABILE.Ă

PLANIFICAREA CALENDARISTICĂ (SEMESTRIALĂ SAU ANUALĂ) ŞI PROIECTAREA FIECĂREI ACTIVITĂŢI DIDACTICE TREBUIE CONSIDERATE FORME DE CONTINUARE ŞI CONCRETIZARE A DESIGN-ULUI CURRICULAR PRIN CARE S-AU ELABORAT PLANUL DE ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNT ŞI PROGRAMELE ANALITICE.

Exigenţele mezoproiectării – ale PROIECTĂRII CICLULUI (sau ETAPEI) DE ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNT - prezentate parţial în cursul Abilitare curriculară şi pot fi adăugate planificării semestriale a materiei cu foarte bune rezultate.

Cu alte cuvinte, pentru a facilita proiectarea activităţilor didactice şi a realiza controlul riguros al progresului instruirii:

PLANIFICATEA TRIMESTRIALĂ A MATERIEI TREBUIE SĂ PRECIZEZE:

1. obiectivele terminale al materiei ce va fi parcursă atât pentru fiecare capitol în parte, cât şi pentru întregul conţinut;

2. conţinutul testului predictiv şi al testelor sumative ce vor fi aplicate de-a lungul trimestrului;

3. succesiunea temporală a activităţilor didactice ce vor fi proiectate;

4. datele, mijloacele de realizare, tipul activităţilor.

3.3. CE ESTE UN MICRO-PROIECT PEDAGOGIC BINE GÂNDIT

ŞI CUM SE REALIZEAZĂ

Urmăriţi, apoi, unul dintre proiectele cuprinse în partea a IV-a a lucrării pe care o aveţi în faţă.

Principiul care animă inferenţele teoretizate şi exemplificate în locurile arătate este derivat dintr-un adevăr incontestabil, stabilit de praxiologie – ştiinţa care studiază eficienţa acţiunii.

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ORICE LUCRU BINE F CUT ESTE REZULTATUL UNUIĂ PROIECT BINE GÂNDIT.

Posibilitatea de a-şi anticipa pe plan mental acţiunile, înainte de a le executa, pentru a preveni erorile conferă omului întreaga superioritate.

Dacă „a gândi înainte de a face” constituie o regulă universală a acţiunii eficiente, ea se impune şi domeniului sensibil al acţiunii instructiv-educative.

Prin urmare suntem siliţi să admitem ca pe un adevăr incontestabil şi afirmaţia următoare:

Un „proiect didactic bine gândit” descrie anticipat modul cel mai simplu de realizare şi de testări a unui set de obiective operaţionale:

Fig.nr. 18. Corelarea componentelor într-un proiect pedagogic

Pentru a putea fi apreciat ca ”bine gândit” un proiect pedagogic trebuie să întrunească o serie de calităţi privind conţinutul specificaţiilor sale şi privind forma în care aceste specificaţii sunt făcute.

Reţineţi schema următoare:

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ORICE LUCRU DIDACTIC BINE F CUT ESTEĂ REZULTATUL UNUI PROIECT DIDACTIC BINE

GÂNDIT.

1. are o dimensiune rezonabil ;ă

2. este redactat într-o form clar ă ăcare permite urm rirea modului în ăcare fiecare obiectiv poate fi transformat într-un rezultat m surabil;ă

3. con ine numai specifica iile care ţ ţprivesc demersul de la obiective la rezultate;

4. ofer posibilitatea de a face ăeconomie de scris f r a fi în dauna ă ăefortului de gândire;

5. permite, în timp, renun area la ţscrierea unor specifica ii şi ţsimplificarea manierei de redactare.

sub raportul formei

UN PROIECT PEDAGOGIC ESTE BINE GÂNDIT dac :ă

sub raportul con inutuluiţ

1. precizeaz obiectivele instruirii în ămanier opera ional , în termeni de ă ţ ăcomportament observabil şi testabil;

2. precizeaz atâtea obiective câte ăpot fi atinse în timpul afectat activit ii didactice respective;ăţ

3. precizeaz obiective opera ionale ă ţale materiei de studiu;

4. acoper con inuturile esen iale ă ţ ţale materiei de studiu;

5. permite diferen ierea instruirii în ţfunc ie de preg tirea şi de ritmul ţ ăcelor care înva ;ţă

6. precizeaz sarcini de lucru pentru ărealizarea fiecarui obiectiv.

EVALUARE

STRATEGII

RESURSE

OBIECTIVE

OPERA IONALEŢ

Fig. nr. 19. Condiţiile micro-proiectării

Iată, acum câteva exigenţe şi reguli pentru parcurgerea fiecărei etape a proiectării unei activităţi didactice în vederea asimilării cunoştinţelor esenţiale în clasă de către toţi elevii, prin dirijarea mecanismelor de învăţare implicate în instruire.

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4.4. ETAPELE MICRO-PROIECTĂRII PEDAGOGICE

ETAPA I.

DEFINIŢI CORECT OBIECTIVELE OPERAŢIONALE ALE ACTIVITĂŢII DIDACTICE!

Încă din subcapitolul anterior aţi descoperit că definirea obiectivelor pedagogice în formă operaţională este o operaţie fundamentală a conceperii actului didactic, dar ea implică serioase dificultăţi. Acestea din urmă provin din faptul că noi putem enunţa uşor scopurile generale şi finalităţi îndepărtate, dar nu putem anticipa precis rezultatele şi efectele concrete ale acţiunilor noastre.

De exemplu, putem anticipa că până în anul 2020 omenirea va progresa pe toate planurile, dar nu putem etapiza anticipat pentru fiecare zi, săptămână sau lună ce efecte se vor produce. Cauza este simplă: viitorul ridică în faţa posibilităţilor noastre de cunoaştere cele mai mari obstacole pentru că de fapt... nu există. De aceea viitorologii nu ezită în a spune că problema esenţială pe care o avem în legătură cu el nu este de „a-l aştepta”, ci de „a-l construi”.

Acest mod de a gândi prezintă analogii cu proiectarea instruirii.

Întrucât:

Dar pentru a putea declanşa, controla şi dirija într-o manieră sigură PROCESUL INSTRUIRII prin realizarea unei succesiuni de obiective pedagogice acestea trebuie să fie astfel definite încât să permită MĂSURAREA PRECISĂ, PERMANENTĂ ŞI PERIODICĂ.

Când putem spune că un obiectiv pedagogic a fost corect şi complet operaţionalizat?

Reţineţi!

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OBIECTIVELE PEDAGOGICE SUNT REZULTATE SCONTATE ALE INSTRUIRII.

M SURAREA PRECIS A PROGRESULUI INSTRUIRIIĂ Ă ESTE POSIBIL DAC ŞI NUMAI DAC OBIECTIVELE EIĂ Ă Ă AU FOST DEFINITE ÎN TERMENI OPERA IONALI.Ţ

Fig. Nr. 21. Operaţionalizarea corectă a obiectivelor pedagogice

Cele 5 precizări se constituie, de fapt, într-o „procedură standard de operaţionalizare a obiectivelor pedagogice”, elaborată de noi pa baza celor propuse de către Gilbert de Landsheere (1979).

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5.STANDARDUL PERFORMAN EI Ț

a teptateș

Cine sunt cei care vor fi afecta i ameliorativ sau ţoptimal prin influen a ţpedagogică

1. SUBIECTUL

Nivelul de performan ţăde înv are care va ăţpermite continuarea acesteia cel pu in în ţacelaşi ritm f r riscul de ă ăa cumula lacune în înv are; caracteristici ăţale performan ei care o ţfac acceptabil şi în ăfunc ie de care se va ţaprecia reuşita în realizarea obiectivului

3.PERFORMANAŢ

exersarea capacit ii ăţmentale asupra unui con inut de înv areţ ăţ

UN OBIECTIV PEDA-OGIC ESTE CORECT ŞI COMPLET OPERA-IONALIZAT DAC Ţ Ă

ÎN ENUN UL S U Ţ ĂSUNT CUPRINSE:

5 PRECIZ RIĂ4.SITUA IA Ţ

DE

ÎNV AREĂŢ

Condi iile concrete în ţcare se va realiza noua capacitate de înv are ăţşi în care eventual ar putea fi testat f r ă ă ăechivoc producerea ei

2.CAPACITATEA

de înv areăț

Ac iunea mental sau ţ ăopera ia de care vor ţdeveni capabili cei care înva datorit ţă ăinfluen ei educativeţ

Ea prezintă numeroase avantaje practice întrucât presupune fundamentarea întregului demers pe care îl implică transformarea obiectivului pedagogic într-un rezultat măsurabil al instruirii.

Urmăriţi aceste avantaje pe baza unui exemplu concret:

Fig. Nr. 22. Predeteminările obiectivului operaţional

Prin urmare, dacă obiectivul pedagogic este corect şi complet operaţionalizat, el va sugera şi modul în care se va transforma într-un rezultat al învăţării testabil la toţi cei care învaţă. De aceea, se poate aprecia că:

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OPERA IONALIZAREA OBIECTIVELOR REPREZINT 90 % NUŢ Ă NUMAI DIN EFORTUL DE PROIECTARE A INSTRUIRII, CI CHIAR ŞI DIN EFORTUL DE REALIZARE A ACESTEIA.

SPECIFICA II ÎN ŢPROIECTUL PEDAGOGIC

La sfârşitul activit ii didactice to i elevii ăţ ţvor fi capabili (SUBIECTUL)

s analizeze (CAPACITATEA) verbele ă(PERFORMAN A)Ţ

Item în testul de evaluare a progresului instruirii

Situa ia de înv areţ ăţ

Sarcini de lucru

Indicatorul eficacit ii ăţgenerale a instruirii

OBIECTIV OPERA IONALŢ

într-un text dat, exclusiv în baza cunoştin elor dobândite, f r nici un ajutor ţ ă ădin partea educatorului (SITUA IA)Ţ

Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dac vor fi ăanalizate corect 7 din cele 10 verbe existente în text (PERFORMAN A ŢSTANDARD)

Atenţie, însă! Trebuie să vă însuşiţi tehnica de operaţionalizare a obiectivelor pedagogice cu dorinţa de a o transforma în:

Dar nu este uşor. Trebuie să exersaţi vreme îndelungată tehnica pe care v-o propunem. Vă va fi din ce în ce mai uşor în timp, dar...

De ce?

Pentru că fiecare din cele „5 precizări” – cu excepţia celei dintâi – vă solicită să ţineţi seama de numeroase exigenţe. Iată în acest sens câteva sugestii care vă vor ajuta să depăşiţi atari dificultăţi:

84

EFORTURILE DE ÎNCEPUT SUNT EXTREM DE MARI.

DEPRINDERE DE A „VEDEA” ÎNTOTDEAUNA ACTIVITATEA DIDACTIC PRIN PRISMA UNOR REZULTATE M SURABILE.Ă Ă

Precizarea Sfaturi utile

SUBIECTUL 1.Folosiţi întotdeauna expresia „La sfârşitul activităţii didactice TOŢI elevii vor fi capabili...”

2. Nu-l uitaţi niciodată pe „toţi”

3. Feriţi-vă de expresiile: „La sfârşitul activităţii didactice elevii vor fi capabili” şi „elevii vor sti...” (pentru că pierd din vedere necesitatea de a determina eficacitatea generală a instruirii – prima- şi cantonează instruirea la nivelul memorării – ce-a de-a doua)

CAPACITATEA DE ÎNVĂŢARE

4. Nu folosiţi decât verbe ce indică acţiuni mentale ce se manifestă sub formă de comportamente observabile. Apelaţi la inventarul lui Metfessel, Michael şi Kirshner (vezi anexa)

5. Evitaţi expresiile care se referă la conduita dvs. („voi stimula”, „voi îmbogăţi”)

6. Evitaţi expresiile generale (a cunoaşte, a şti, a înţelege)

7. Evitaţi expresiile metaforice

8. Evitaţi expresiile care trimit la comportament inobservebile (a simţi, a resimţi, a iubi, a dori)

PERFORMANŢA 9. Nu confundaţi „performanţa” nici cu „capacitatea” şi nici cu „conţinutul”: ea reprezintă aplicarea primei asupra celui de-al doilea

10. Nu acordaţi termenului de performanţă accepţiunea pe care i-o dau sportivii (orice achiziţie de învăţare este o performanţă, nu numai cele excepţionale)

11. Utilizaţi numai conţinuturi esenţiale în formularea performanţelor (expresia capacităţilor pe mai multe conţinuturi determină dezvoltarea capacităţilor; dar numărul conţinuturilor neesenţiale este atât de mare încât riscaţi să produceţi o puzderie de obiective mărunte şi să nu mai terminaţi niciodată instruirea)

12. Nu uitaţi că nu aveţi obligaţia să-i învăţaţi pe „toţi totul”, ci doar pe toţi lucrurile pe care nu le-ar putea învăţa singuri.

13. Folosiţi-vă competenţa de specialitate în a oferi elevilor spre învăţare ceea ce este fundamental în domeniul dvs., nu spunându-le tot ce ştiţi în legătură cu fiecare subiect pe care îl trataţi

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SITUAŢIA DE

ÎNVĂŢARE

14. Combinaţi metode materiale şi mijloace cunoscute sau inventaţi altele pentru a construi condiţii externe apte să declanşeze condiţii interne al învăţării, astfel încât elevii să poată atinge obiectivul cât mai repede, cât mai uşor, cât mai plăcut, şi eventual, singuri, neajutaţi de dvs.

STANDARDUL PERFORMANŢEI ACCEPTABILE

15. Apreciaţi drept „nivelul acceptabil de performanţă de învăţare” numai pe acela care va permite continuarea instruirii fără diminuarea ritmului impus de programa şcolară

16. Numiţi suficienta caracteristici ale performanţei standard pentru a putea aprecia fără echivoc reuşita sau nereuşita elevilor

17. Raportaţi-vă la potenţialul de învăţare al claselor luând în considerare pe cel al elevului cu ritmul cel mai lent.

18. Nu folosiţi aceleaşi „criterii de reuşită” la clasele cu potenţial diferit de învăţare

19. Evitaţi „din start” criteriile de reuşită ce definesc performanţe sub limita acceptabilă

20. Evitaţi să definiţi „performanţe maximale” şi „performanţe optimale” pentru întreaga clasă.

Cele 20 de sfaturi utile vă vor ajuta să depăşiţi dificultăţi ce ţin de subiectivitatea dvs. Există însă şi dificultăţi obiective pentru care sfaturile anterioare nu vă vor fi de nici un folos:

Exemplu Să presupunem că într-o lecţie oarecare sunt 5 informaţii esenţiale care trebuie asimilate în memoria elevului pe baza unor obiective operaţionale derivate din clasa CUNOA-ŞTERII a taxonomiei lui BLOOM (Trebuie să recunoaştem că numărul de informaţii este modest). Dacă informaţiile sunt esenţiale ele trebuie să fie ÎNŢELESE – dacă la cele 5 obiective de „cunoaştere” se vor adăuga alte 5 obiective de „comprehensiune”.

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DIFICULT I OBIECTIVEĂŢ

1.”Proliferarea” unui num r prea mare de obiective opera ionaleă ţ

2. Repetarea „exasperant ” a obiectivelor la diverse clase deă comportament.

Dar tot astfel se va pune problema şi cu celelalte clase din taxonomie, informaţiile trebuind să fie APLICATE, ANALIZATE, SINTETIZATE şi, în fine, EVALUATE. Rezultatul? 5 informaţii x 6 clase = 30 obiective operaţionale! Pot fi ele realizate în răstimpul scurt al unei lecţii de 40-50 de minute? Evident, nu!

Din exemplul de mai sus trebuie să derivăm o înţelepciune specifică. Mai întâi trebuie să observăm că succesul taxonomiei a determinat un „complex al luării deciziei” în rândul multor educatori care au început să se raporteze la aceasta ca la un „tablou absolut” – precum cel mendeleevian de chimie. Dar până şi autoritatea tabloului lui Mendeleev este zguduită de transmutarea elementelor prin reacţiile de fuziune şi de fisiune nucleară!

Aşadar:

În al doilea rând, trebuie observat că, dincolo de avantajele evidente, operaţionalizarea obiectivelor s-a transformat, pentru unii, în modă. Foarte multe informaţii neesenţiale – sau chiar esenţiale – se pot transmite eficient elevilor, înglobându-le în „situaţiile de învăţare” adecvate pentru a realiza obiective operaţionale importante, fără a fi necesară altă operaţionalizare. Pentru depăşirea dificultăţilor obiective, menţionate anterior, iată o regulă sigură:

Ce se înţelege însă prin obiectiv pedagogic prioritar?

Urmăriţi cu atenţie organizarea ierarhică a claselor de comportament în taxonomia lui Bloom, înfăţişată în tabloul de mai jos (Sanders, 1966):

Cunoaştere

Comprehensiune Aplicare Analiză Sinteză Evaluare

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PROPUNE I-V ŞI REALIZA I ÎN ACTIVIT ILE DIDACTICE NUMAIŢ Ă Ţ ĂŢ ŞI NUMAI OBIECTIVE OPERA IONALE PRIORITARE.Ţ

NU UITA I C TAXONOMIA DE OBIECTIVE ESTE UNŢ Ă INSTRUMENT PE CARE TREBUIE S -L ST PÂNI I DVS. ŞI NUĂ Ă Ţ PENTRU A V L SA ST PÂNI I DE EL!Ă Ă Ă Ţ

Evaluare

Sinteză Sinteză

Analiză Analiză Analiză

Aplicare Aplicare Aplicare Aplicare

Interpolare Interpolare Interpolare Interpolare Interpolare

Traducere Traducere Traducere Traducere Traducere Traducere

Memorare Memorare Memorare Memorare Memorare Memorare Memorare

Fig.30. Organizarea ierarhică a claselor de obiective (Sanders, 1966)

Ierarhia sugerează că anumite obiective ar putea fi abordate „direct”, fără parcurgerea scărilor anterioare. De exemplu, înţelegerea unei definiţii presupune memorarea sa mai înainte, dacă urmăm dogmatic ierarhia; orice educator ştie însă că elevii pot fi ajutaţi să înţeleagă o definiţie sau să aplice o regulă, fără să le fi memorat în prealabil. Pe de altă parte, ierarhia claselor de obiective se structurează nu numai „de la simplu la complex”, ci si de la „inferior la superior”. Este evident că o capacitate de analiză a unui conţinut este superioară memorării aceluiaşi conţinut. Se poate spune că ultimele trei clase ale taxonomiei sunt superioare primelor trei. Aceasta ar putea constitui un criteriu de alegere preferenţială a obiectivelor operaţionale ale unei activităţi didactice.

Vă propunem, in acest sens, un ghid complet de alegere a obiectivelor operaţionale prioritare.

Pasul I Trasaţi un tabel cu şapte coloane (luând ca model tabloul lui Sanders reprezentat mai sus)

Pasul II

Completaţi tabelul în ordinea „de la simplu la complex” începând cu coloana cu toate obiectivele operaţionale pe care le puteţi defini pentru activitatea dvs.

Pasul III

Verificaţi tabelul identificând corespondenţele dintre obiective (folosind ca grilă tabloul lui Sanders).

Pasul IV

Examinaţi fiecare obiectiv în parte, începând cu obiectivul înscris pe treapta cea mai de sus a ultimei coloane, a VII-a, răspunzând la întrebarea „Oare ar putea fi realizat acest obiectiv fără să fi fost realizat în prealabil cel situat pe coloana din stânga în dreptul său?”

• Dacă răspunsul este afirmativ, atunci se vor elimina toate obiectivele

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înscrise pe toate celelalte coloane din partea stângă.

• Dacă răspunsul este negativ, atunci continuaţi examinarea obiectivelor în acelaşi mod.

Pasul V

Copiaţi toate obiectivele neeliminate începând din partea stângă; aceasta va fi lista obiectivelor prioritare aranjate în ordinea de la simplu la complex, de la inferior la superior.

ETAPA A II-A.

ANALIZAŢI RESURSELE NECESARE REALIZĂRII OBIECTIVELOR!

Principalele categorii de resurse disponibile pentru realizarea obiectivelor pedagogice sunt:

A. POTENŢIALUL DE ÎNVĂŢARE (aflat în mintea celui care învaţă: mecanisme de învăţare, aptitudini, capacitate, etc.), care se exprimă în planul instruirii sub forma unui anumit RITM DE ÎNVĂŢARE.

B. CONŢINUTUL PROCESULUI DE ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNT (informaţii, operaţii cu informaţiile, adică ceea ce se află „în mintea” celui care instruieşte şi este specificat în PLANUL, PROGRAMA DE ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNT şi în MANUALUL ŞCOLAR).

C. RESURSELE MATARIALE (condiţiile de instruire din clasă, laborator sau atelier, auxiliare precum filme, diafilme, diapozitive, scheme, grafice, planşe, hărţi, machete, simulatore, cărţi, etc.).

D. Acestor resurse ar trebui să le adăugăm pe cea mai importantă dintre cele câte pot afecta învăţarea: TIMPUL; în condiţiile instruirii desfăşurate în sistemul bazat pe clase şi lecţii, trebuie să observăm însă că timpul este o resursă limitată – deci este o restricţie. Asupra felului în care trebuie folosită această resursă esenţială vom reveni în următorul capitol dedicat realizării activităţilor didactice.

A. CÂTEVA ADEVĂRURI ŞI ŞAPTE REGULI DE FOLOSIRE INGENIOASĂ A POTENŢIALULUI DE INVĂŢARE

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Modelul de instruire pe care vi-l propunem vă solicită să renunţaţi la pretenţia de a cunoaşte în mod obiectiv şi exact cauzele care determină diferenţele individuale dintre copii şi care afectează bineînţeles şi conduita lor în învăţare. Aceasta nu înseamnă că modelul vă interzice orice preocupare în această direcţie. Dimpotrivă:

Contactul nemijlocit cu elevii vă oferă de fapt, posibilitatea de a culege intuitiv numeroase informaţii despre elevi.

Nu uitaţi însă:

De aici rezultă un avantaj enorm. Nu ştim deocamdată cum s-ar putea spori gradul de dezvoltare al unor capacităţi intelectuale (precum inteligenţa, de exemplu) decât foarte vag pentru că nu cunoaştem natura lor endogenă.

În schimb,

În ce fel putem proceda în acest sens?

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ÎNCERCA I PERMANENT, PRIN ORICE MIJLOACE, INCLUSIVŢ PRIN CELE DESPRE CARE SE PRETINDE C V OFER OĂ Ă Ă CUNOAŞTERE OBIECTIV (teste de inteligen , teste deĂ ţă aptitudini, probe standardizate, chestionare, etc.) SĂ CUNOAŞTE I CÂT MAI PROFUND INDIVIDUALITATEA CELORŢ CARE ÎNVA .ŢĂ

TOATE PARTICULARIT ILE INDIVIDUALE ALEĂŢ ELEVILOR INTERESEAZ INSTRUIREA DOAR ÎN M SURAĂ Ă

ÎN CARE AFECTEAZ RITMUL (VITEZA) CU CAREĂ ÎNVA FIECARE.ŢĂ

EXACT ÎN MODUL PE CARE VI-L PROPUNE MODELUL INSTRUC IONAL PE CARE TOCMAI VI-L ÎNSUŞI I ACUMŢ Ţ

ŞTIM ÎN CE FEL PUTEM PROCEDA PENTRU A ACCELERA PERMANENT RITMUL ÎNV RIIĂŢĂ

ORIC RUI ELEV.Ă

Într-adevăr, modelul este conceput ca o tehnică de sporire generală a ritmurilor de învăţare. După ce vi-l veţi fi însuşit şi îl veţi fi aplicat mai multă vreme,

VEŢI OBSERVA CĂ ELEVII DUMNEAVOASTRĂ:

Aceste efecte benefice nu se vor produce decât dacă veţi lua în considerare cel puţin şase adevăruri:

Adevărul nr. 1 Viteza învăţării este condiţionată de corectitudinea adecvării mecanismelor învăţării la obiectivele urmărite.

Adevărul nr. 2 Viteza învăţării este direct proporţională cu gradul de motivaţie intrinsecă a învăţării.

Adevărul nr. 3 Viteza învăţării este dependentă de gradul de satisfacţie pe care învăţarea o produce la cel care învaţă.

Adevărul nr. 4 Viteza învăţării este dependentă de „economia de timp” cu care obiectivele sale sunt realizate de către elev.

Adevărul nr. 5 Viteza învăţării este dependentă de „economia de efort” cu care obiectivele sale sunt realizate de către elev.

Adevărul nr. 6 Viteza învăţării este dependentă de conştientizarea prealabilă a scopurilor acesteia de către elev.

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- Înva din ce în ceță mai rapid

- Înva din ce în ce ță mai u orș

- Înva din ce în ce ță cu mai mult pl cereă ă

- Înva din ce în ce ță mai temeinic

Despre adevărul nr. 6 vom discuta mai pe larg în subcapitolul următor al acestei lucrări. Deocamdată însă câteva precizări în legătură cu primele 5. Desigur, viteza învăţării este afectată şi de către aptitudinile generale şi speciale; coeficientul de inteligenţă, de exemplu, sau volumul memoriei, capacitatea de concentrare a atenţiei sunt de natură să o influenţeze pozitiv sau negativ.

Nu putem solicita însă elevul să aibă un coeficient de inteligenţă mai mare decât cel pe care îl are pentru a-şi spori viteza învăţării. În schimb,

PUTEM MOTIVA ELEVUL, ÎL PUTEM PUNE ÎN SITUAŢII OPTIME PENTRU A-ŞI FOLOSI MECANISMELE DE ÎNVĂŢARE CU ECONOMIE DE EFORT, DE TIMP ŞI CU CÂŞTIGURI MAXIME ÎN PLANUL SATISFACŢIEI ÎNVĂŢĂRII.

Cum?

Vă propunem în continuare câteva sugestii pe care le puteţi considera ca un adevărat

ÎNDREPTAR

DE FOLOSIRE RAŢIONALĂ A RESURSELOR DE ÎNVĂŢARE DE CARE DISPUN TOŢI ELEVII

Nu treceţi însă la însuşirea lor decât după ce aţi recitit încă o dată, în întregime, capitolul al II-lea din lucrarea pe care o aveţi în faţă.

Regula nr. 1

Ori de câte ori proiectaţi instruirea revedeţi rezultatele testului predictiv şi ale ultimelor teste de progres pe care le-aţi aplicat şi folosiţi-le pentru a grupa elevii în funcţie de ritmul cu care ei învaţă.

Regula nr. 2

Identificaţi mecanismul (tipul) de învăţare adecvat realizării fiecărui obiectiv pe care vi l-aţi propus şi gândiţi-vă cum veţi ajuta fiecare grup sau elev să-l folosească mai bine în realizarea obiectivului.

Regula nr. 3

Ori de câte ori urmăriţi un obiectiv aflat pe o clasă taxonomică superioară trebuie să-i anexaţi un mecanism de învăţare aflat pe o scară ierarhică superioară; motivaţia intrinsecă „vine de la sine”(Gagné) şi puteţi neglija motivarea învăţării; ori de câte ori vă aflaţi în altă situaţie trebuie să subliniaţi învăţarea cu elemente motivaţionale.

Regula nr. 4

Solicitaţi elevii la eforturi oricât de intense, dar nu dincolo de limita în care ei resimt consumul de efort sub formă de stres sau oboseală.

Regula nr. 5

Nu obligaţi elevii să consume mai mult timp decât ei socotesc necesar pentru a realiza obiectivele şi nu le furnizaţi sarcini de lucru care le consumă inutil timpul.

Regula nr. 6

Orice sarcină de învăţare aţi furniza elevilor asiguraţi-vă din vreme că realizarea ei se va finaliza cu o stare de satisfacţie.

Regula nr. Nu apelaţi la sancţiuni negative pentru motivarea învăţării decât după ce le-aţi

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7 epuizat pe toate cele pozitive şi v-aţi convins pe deplin de ineficacitatea lor.


(EXERCIŢII ŞI PROBLEME)

Nr.1. Pe ce fapte ştiinţifice se întemeiază „regula nr. 3”? Comentaţi-le!

Nr.2. Ce lege psihologică s-ar încălca prin nerespectarea „regulii nr.4”?

Nr.3. Ce s-ar întâmpla dacă educatorul nu ar lua în considerare „regula nr.5”?

Nr.4. Numiţi câteva tehnici de motivare a învăţării pe care le cunoaşteţi din experienţă. Aprofundaţi-vă cunoştinţele studiind capitolul 12 din cartea Învăţarea în şcoală de D.P.Ausubel şi F.G.Robinson (ed.E.D.P., 1981)

( Dacă aveţi dificultăţi în rezolvarea acestor exerciţii, consultaţi titularii de curs şi de seminar )

B. SELECŢIONAŢI CONŢINUTUL ESENŢIAL

NECESAR ÎNVĂŢĂRII ÎN CLASĂ

Această operaţie dificilă solicită din competenţa dumneavoastră de specialitate. Grijă extremă! Sensul expresiei subliniate anterior este altul în pedagogie decât cel folosit în vorbirea obişnuită.

Psihopedagogii oferă educatorilor sofisticate instrumente şi tehnici de analiză a conţinutului în vederea alegerii conţinuturilor esenţiale în procesul de proiectare a instruirii. Le puteţi studia în Anexe şi în diverse lucrări. Dar este vorba, în ultimă instanţă, de o chestiune de...mândrie profesională!

Într-adevăr, competenţa de specialitate poate avea diverse grade. Gradul ridicat de competenţă de specialitate este dat de profunzimea stăpânirii problemelor dintr-un anumit domeniu şi nu de mulţimea cunoştinţelor într-un subdomeniu limitat al acestuia. Prima îl ajută pe competent să sesizeze exact logica ştiinţifică a disciplinei în timp ce celălalt îl determină pe specialist „să nu vadă pădurea din cauza copacilor”. Un profesor de matematică care ştie foarte bine algebră, dar prea puţină geometrie, trigonometrie, teoria mulţimilor, logică matematică, teoria

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PENTRU PRACTICAREA INSTRUIRII, COMPETEN A DE SPECIALITATEŢ PRESUPUNE MAI ALES CAPACITATEA DE A DISCRIMINA INFORMA IILEŢ ESEN IALE DE AM NUNTE, ÎNTR-UN DOMENIU DAT.Ţ Ă

numerelor etc., nu va putea să-i înveţe pe elevii săi esenţialul din aceste domenii care reprezintă marea construcţie care este matematica; ci, mult dintr-un domeniu, algebra.

Extragerea esenţialului dintr-un capitol, lecţie, grup de lecţii este doar prima operaţie dintr-un lanţ întreg de activităţi care conduc subordonarea logicii ştiinţifice a disciplinei, logicii pedagogice a învăţării.

Criteriile de alegere a conţinuturilor esenţiale sunt, de fapt, două: unul impus de logica ştiinţifică, altul impus de logica pedagogică (didactică).

Aşadar,

Fig. nr. 23 Logica selecţiei conţinuturilor esenţiale

Considerând această definiţie ca un instrument de discriminare în cadrul prevederilor programelor de învăţământ, orice educator specialist va putea decide cu uşurinţă în legătură cu fiecare obiectiv operaţional pe care şi-l propune, câte informaţii să furnizeze elevului astfel încât aceasta să poată atinge cel puţin un nivel acceptabil de performanţă şcolară în clasă şi să continue instruirea în mod independent prin aprofundare şi detaliere.

E drept că, în acest sens, factorii responsabili ar trebui să ia în considerare posibilitatea optimizării autentice a programelor şi manualelor şcolare de la multe discipline de învăţământ, să favorizeze construirea modelelor pedagogice ale disciplinelor – ca fundament solid pentru un Curriculum nou, gândit infailibil, şi pentru reelaborarea manualelor alternative, atât pentru elevi, cât şi pentru educatori.

C. ANALIZAŢI RESURSELE MATERIALE

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orice con inut care nu poate fi asimilat de elevţ prin efort propriu pe baza altor achizi ii realizate,ţ ci numai sub îndrumarea profesorului (LOGICA PEDAGOGIC ).Ă

orice con inut care condi ioneaz achizi ia altorţ ţ ă ţ con inuturi mai complexe în domeniul respectivţ (LOGICA ŞTIIN IFIC )Ţ Ă

CON INUTŢ ESEN IAL esteŢ

Proiectarea instruirii nu pretinde resurse materiale costisitoare. Majoritatea şcolilor le au în dotare. Unele obiective pot solicita educatorul să confecţioneze el însuşi materiale de instruire (fişe, folii transparente, teste etc.)

Apreciem că avem de-a face cu o obligaţie elementară, impusă de profesia de dascăl prin definiţie, fără a o mai comenta stăruitor.

Esenţial este ca fiecărui obiectiv să-i fie asigurate toate condiţiile necesare pentru a putea fi realizat de către toţi elevii cât mai repede, cât mai uşor, cât mai plăcut, cât mai temeinic.

ETAPA A III-A.

ELABORAŢI STRATEGII DIDACTICE

„FOCALIZATE” ASUPRA OBIECTIVELOR URMĂRITe!

A. CE TREBUIESĂ ÎNŢELEGEM

PRIN „STRATEGIA DIDACTICĂ”

Multitudinea sensurilor cu care expresia „strategie” este folosită de către psihopedagogi ne obligă să precizăm sensul pe care i-l acordăm aici:

Reţineţi schema care urmează:

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PRIN STRATEGIE DIDACTIC ÎN ELEGEM CUPLUL DINTREĂ Ţ SARCINA DE ÎNV AREĂŢ ŞI SITUA IA DE ÎNV AREŢ ĂŢ

ELABORATE PENTRU A-I OFERI ELEVULUI OCAZIA S REALIZEZEĂ UN ANUMIT OBIECTIV OPERA IONAL.Ţ

Fig.nr. 24. Structura strategiei didactice „focalizate” pe un obiectiv operaţional

B. CUM SE DERIVĂ

SARCINILE DE ÎNVĂŢARE ÎN CLASĂ

Nu uitaţi, de asemenea, câteva caracteristici ale fiecărei componente ale unei strategii didactice:

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metode, materiale, mijloace, instruc iuni, ţsprijin direct, îndrum ri ăastfel organizate încât s ădeclanşeze şi s între in ă ţ ăcondi iile interne ale ţînv rii eficiente.ăţă

mecanisme de înv are, ăţaptitudini, motiva ie etc.ţ

CONDI II INTERNEŢ

STRATEGIA DIDACTICĂ

CONDI II EXTERNEŢ

SITUA IA DE ÎNV AREŢ ĂŢ

Enun imperativ adresat ţelevilor în mod diferen iat pentru a ţrealiza prin ac iune ţobiectivul

Expresii care desemneaz ăNIVELUL DE PERFORMAN ŢĂscontat

Cumul de condi ii ţasigurate elevului pentru a putea realiza sarcina conex în minimum de ătimp şi cu maximum de satisfac ie a înv rii.ţ ăţă

Expresii care desemneaz ăNATURA SARCINII

SARCINA DE LUCRU

SARCINA DE ÎNVĂŢARE

1. Se construieşte prin derivare directă din obiectivul operaţional urmărit.

2. Prin natura sa este identică cu obiectivul urmărit şi aceeaşi pentru toţi elevii din clasă.

3. Diferenţiază instruirea solicitând elevii să realizeze niveluri de performanţă diferită, în funcţie de capacităţile lor.

4. Obligă elevii să realizeze un „minimum” de performanţă de învăţare, dar nu-i opreşte să-l depăşească

În construirea sarcinilor de învăţare aplicaţi consecvent aceste două reguli:

4.1. Regula „ţintirii” obiectivului operaţional: „Solicitaţi elevii să facă exact acţiunea care defineşte capacitatea (comportamentul) specificat în obiectivul operaţional urmărit”

4.2. Regula diferenţierii: „Cereţi tuturor să facă în acelaşi timp acelaşi lucru, dar niciodată mai puţin decât poate fiecare”.

Exemplu:

Fig.nr 25. Corelaţia dintre obiectiv şi sarcina de învăţare în clasă

În exemplu, G1 = grupul de elevi cu ritm lent de învăţare; G2 = elevi cu ritm mediu; G3 = elevi cu ritm rapid.

Recitiţi încă o dată exemplul.

Analizaţi sugestiile generate de sintagma „cel puţin” în formularea unei sarcini de învăţare.

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Citi i cu aten ie textul, ţ ţidentifica i adjectivele şi ţsublinia i cu o linie:ţ

G1- cel pu in 5 adjectiveţ



La sfârşitul activit ii ăţdidactice to i elevii vor fi capabili ţs identifice adjectivele într-un ătext dat: obiectivul va fi atins dac vor fi subliniate cel pu in 5 ă ţdin cele 10 adjective existente şi nu va fi subliniat vre-un cuvânt care nu este adjectiv.

OBIECTIV OPERA IONALŢSARCINA DE ÎNV AREĂŢ

SATISFAC IEŢ

NULĂ

D. CUM SE CONSTRUIESC

SITUAŢII OPTIME DE ÎNVĂŢARE

Fig nr.26. Structura şi exigenţele situaţiei optime de învăţare

Analizaţi atent schema din figura 32. Ea cuprinde “marele secret” al învăţării eficiente (

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SITUA IAŢ DE

INV AREĂŢ

1. SE CONSTRUIEŞTE CU PREC DERE PENTRU A Ă ADECVA OBIECTIVELE URM RITE LA MECANISMELE ŞIĂ POSIBILIT ILE DE ÎNV ARE NECESARE PRODUCERIIĂŢ ĂŢ ÎNV RII ÎN CONDI IILE LEGILOR ECONOMIEI DE EFORTĂŢĂ Ţ ŞI DE TIMP ŞI ALE LEGII EFECTULUI.

2. Se construieşte prin raportarea strict la NATURA sarcinii deă lucru, se ia în considerare NIVELUL DE PERFORMAN MINIM peŢĂ care trebuie s -l realizeze fiecare elev sau grup de elevi în parte.ă

3. Oblig la luarea în considerare a efectelor motiva ionale aleă ţ diverselor tipuri de înv are ca schema de mai jos:ăţ

NU UITA I NICIODAT S FOLOSI I EXPRESIA „Ţ Ă Ă Ţ CEL PU IN”Ţ CARE LIMITEAZ NIVELUL DE PERFORMAN „ÎN JOS” ŞI SUGEREAZĂ ŢĂ Ă TUTUROR ELEVILOR S SE DEP ŞEASC PE EI ÎNŞIŞI!Ă Ă Ă

SATISFAC IEŢ

NULĂ

SATISFAC IE ŢMAXIMĂ

INSATISFAC IE ŢMAXIMĂ

Aplicarea

Asocia ii ţverbale

Înv are ăţde

concepte

Lan uri ţmotorii

Discriminri ă

multiple

Înv area ăţde reguli

şi principii

Comprehensiunea

Rezolvare de

probleme

Leg turi ăS-R

Sinteza şi

evaluarea

Înv are ăţprin

descoperire

Domeniul

psihomotor

AnalizaCunoaşterea

Înv arăţe de

semnale

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Fig.nr.27 „Fluctuaţiile” efectelor îndeplinirii sarcinilor de învăţare derivate din obiective operaţionale

Poate părea “gongorică” afirmaţia următoare. În schema anterioară “se simte” intervenţia divină în natura umană. Se confirmă viziunea comeniană: Dumnezeu a vrut ca Homo Sapiens să poată învăţa totul – ca o condiţie a mântuirii şi desăvârşirii sale. Toţi copiii normali dispun de toate condiţiile interne pentru aceasta. Dar condiţiile externe trebuie să le fie asigurate de oamenii numiţi educatori.

Obiectivul prioritar al creării unui complex de condiţii externe instruirii îl constituie „declanşarea” şi „funcţiona-rea” eficientă a mecanismelor de învăţare.

Trebuie înţeles că:

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NU ESTE POSIBIL INSTRUIREA EFICIENT DAC SE IGNOR FAPTULĂ Ă Ă Ă C EA SE PRODUCE PE BAZA UNOR Ă MECANISME NATURALE DE

ÎNV ARE.ĂŢ

De fapt,

Mecanismele de învăţare sunt universale, în sensul că toate fiinţele normale posedă, chiar dacă funcţionarea lor este diferită de la un individ la altul.

Dar figura anterioară sugerează nu numai adevărurile de mai sus, ci o serie de reguli de acţiune.

Dacă vreţi să realizaţi situaţii optime de învăţare, pe care elevul le va resimţi ca „ocazii de a învăţa”, regăsindu-şi înclinarea firească spre cunoaştere, atunci studiaţi-le consecvent în practică:

Regula nr.1 Ori de câte ori obiectivul pe care îl urmăriţi face parte din clasa CUNOAŞTERII elevul va fi determinat să apeleze la mecanismul învăţării prin ASOCIAŢII VERBALE care îi vor procura doar o satisfacţie scăzută sau nici una; aveţi obligaţia să motivaţi intens instruirea prin sancţiuni pozitive puternice.

Regula nr.2 Ori de câte ori veţi solicita elevii să realizeze obiective de COMPREHENSIUNE, învăţaţi-i să DISCRIMINEZE şi/sau să GENERALIZEZE prevenind eşecurile, ori de câte ori acestea sunt iminenete; procedaţi ca la regula nr.1.

Regula nr.3 Orice obiectiv de APLICARE, ANALIZĂ, SINTEZĂ SAU EVALUARE constituie o ocazie pentru dumneavoastră de a-i face pe elevi conştienţi de faptul că posedă şi pot folosi mecanismele ÎNVĂŢĂRII PRIN DESCOPERIRE ajutându-i să-şi formeze un stil propriu de studiu eficient.

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A INSTRUI EFICIENT ÎNSEAMN A DIRIJA MECANISMELE INTERNE ALEĂ ÎNV RII ÎN DIREC IA OBIECTIVELOR PEDAGOGICE STABILITE.ĂŢĂ Ţ

EFICACITATEA GENERAL A INSTRUIRII POATE FI DETERMINATĂ Ă ÎNTRUCÂT TO I CEI CARE ÎNVA DISPUN DE CONDI IILE INTERNEŢ ŢĂ Ţ NECESARE PRODUCERII ÎNV RII, IAR DIRIJAREA ACESTORA ESTEĂŢĂ

POSIBIL .Ă


( Exerciţii şi probleme)

Nr.1. Alegeţi un capitol oarecare din programa de învăţământ la o clasă pe care o cunoaşteţi bine şi la care veţi preda disciplina dvs. în trimestrul următor. Specificaţi obiectivele terminale şi apoi obiectivele operaţionale pentru întregul capitol. Elaboraţi sarcini de învăţare diferenţială corespunzătoare fiecărui obiectiv.

Nr.2. Elaboraţi situaţii de învăţare pentru zece dintre sarcinile pe care le-aţi derivat anterior, precizând condiţiile interne pentru fiecare. Imaginaţi-vă cum ar reacţiona elevii clasei în aceste condiţii.

Nr.3. Elaboraţi un material în care să contraziceţi cu argumente de care dispuneţi afirmaţia ”eficacitatea generală a instruirii poate fi determinată”. Păstraţi cu grijă acest material. Recitiţi-l după ce veţi fi realizat succesiv, la aceeaşi clasă, trei lecţii proiectate în conformitate cu cele expuse în această lucrare.

Nr.4. Procuraţi-vă lucrarea Condiţiile învăţării de R.M. Gagné (E.D.P., 1975), studiaţi-o atent şi redactaţi un referat. Prezentaţi referatul într-o şedinţă a comisiei metodice sau a catedrei. Notaţi-vă opiniile colegilor pe marginea referatului dvs. dar nu daţi nici o contrareplică.

( Dacă aveţi dificultăţi în rezolvarea acestor exerciţii, consultaţi colegii sau, în ultimă instanţă, titularul de curs )

ETAPA A IV-A.

ELABORAŢI TESTE PENTRU EVALUAREA PROGRESULUI INSTRUIRII

Dacă dorim să avem permanent ”sub control” modul în care se desfăşoară instruirea pentru a preveni la timp dereglările procesului sau pentru a le corecta oportun atunci când s-au produs, trebuie să practicăm două tipuri de evaluare:

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- EVALUAREA FORMATIV CONTINUĂ Ă

- EVALUAREA SUMATIV PERIODICĂ Ă

A. De la ”MSD” la “MLD”

Învăţarea umană se “consumă” la nivelul a două tipuri de memorie: memoria de scurtă durată (MSD) şi memoria de lungă durată (MLD). Reţineţi câteva dintre caracteristicile lor:

MSD MLD

Funcţionează un timp foarte scurt, limitat la câteva secunde sau minute;

Înregistrează complet (sau aproape complet) informaţiile dând posibilitatea subiectului să le actualizeze cu maximum de fidelitate;

Este puternic şi rapid afectată de uitare;

Condiţionează achiziţiile în MLD

Funcţionează un timp îndelungat ;

Înregistrează numai parţial informaţiile şi nu permite subiectului să le actualizeze cu fidelitate;

Este puţin şi numai în timp îndelungat afectată de uitare;

Funcţionează pe baza unei părţi din achiziţiile MSD.

Fig.nr. 29 Raporturile dintre MSD şi MLD

Observaţi cu atenţie figura de mai jos:

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Fig. nr. 30. Înregistrarea informaţiilor în MSD şi MLD în procesul învăţării

Fără îndoială, MLD este cea care asigură temeinicia învăţării; observăm însă că aceasta nu se poate obţine decât în baza retenţiei imediate.

AŞADAR, nu uitaţi că:

este aşadar imperios necesar ca:

Acest proces trebuie să fie permanent controlat.

REGULA DE AUR:

EVALUAREA FORMATIVĂ TREBUIE SĂ FIE CONTINUĂ IAR

EVALUAREA SUMATIVĂ SĂ NU FIE IGNORATĂ NICIODATĂ !

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ÎN MDL NU EXIST NIMIC CARE S NU FI FOST ANTERIOR ÎN MSD.Ă Ă

ORICE CUNOŞTIN ESEN IAL S FIE ACHIZI IONAT MAI ÎNTÂI ÎN MSDŢĂ Ţ Ă Ă Ţ Ă

SARCINA DE ÎNV AREĂŢ

A ceasta înseamnă că trebuie să...

PRACTICAŢI DUPĂ ORICE ÎNVĂŢARE ÎN CLASĂ EVALUAREA FORMATIVĂ A PROGRESULUI INSTRUIRII

Evaluarea continuă a progreselor instruirii vă va permite, atât dvs. cât şi elevilor să...

PREVENIŢI LA TIMP ŞI SĂ CORECTAŢI IMEDIAT APARIŢIA UNOR LACUNE ESENŢIALE ÎN CUNOŞTINŢELE ELEVILOR.

ÎN plus, periodic trebuie să verificaţi modul în care se realizează transferul cunoştinţelor din msd în mld. în acest sens se impune practicarea evaluării sumative sau cumulative.

reţineţi câteva deosebiri între cele două tipuri de evaluare:

EVALUAREA FORMATIVĂ EVALUAREA SUMATIVĂ

Verifică achiziţia cunoştinţelor în MSD.

Se realizează în baza unor standarde de performanţă unitare, fiind deci, nivelatoare.

Se realizează imediat după încheierea învăţării.

Depistează erorile şi lacunele instrucţionale care nu vor permite continuarea instruirii.

Îndeplineşte rol de conexiune inversă imediată.

Se raportează strict la obiectivele operaţionale ale activităţii didactice.

Verifică reintegrarea cunoştinţelor în MLD şi temeinicia învăţăturii.

Se realizează în raport cu puterea de păstrare şi integrare a cunoştinţelor în MLD fiind diferenţiatoare.

Se realizează la perioade şi date de timp care marchează încheierea unor unităţi (capitole, grup de lecţii, etc.) de instruire.

Depistează pierderile de cunoştinţe şi dificultăţile provocate de uitare.

Se raportează la obiectivele terminale ale unităţii de instruire.

Este de dorit ca evaluarea formativă şi evaluarea sumativă să se bazeze pe MĂSURAREA OBIECTIVĂ a cunoştinţelor şi capacităţilor de a opera cu ele, dar nu trebuie să excludă APRECIEREA PERSONALĂ, nuanţată, a performanţelor elevilor.

104


În vederea asigurării OBIECTIVIŢĂŢII MĂSURĂRII educatorii trebuie să facă apel la TESTE DOCIMOLOGICE elaborate de ei înşişi în chiar procesul planificării şi proiectării instruirii.

Cum se pot realiza acestea?

Înainte de a studia cele ce urmează, mai recitiţi încă o dată cap. Diagnosticaţi starea iniţială a instruirii, stăruiţi asupra paragrafelor dedicate problemei elaborării testelor predictive.

C. CUM SE ELABOREAZĂ TESTELE FORMATIVE

PENTRU EVALUAREA CONTINUĂ?

Reţineţi!

PRINCIPIUL FUNDAMENTAL AL ELABORĂRII TESTELOR ESTE URMĂTORUL: PUNE-L PE ELEV ÎN SITUAŢIA DE A MAI REALIZA ÎNCĂ O DATĂ OBIECTIVELE URMĂRITE CEL PUŢIN LA UN NIVEL ACCEPTABIL.

Prin urmare, testul formativ face parte integrantă din proiectul pedagogic; itemii săi conţin

NOI SARCINI DE LUCRU DERIVATE DIN OBIECTIVELE OPERAŢONALE URMĂRITE DIFERIT SUB RAPORTUL CONŢINUTULUI DAR DE ACEEAŞI NATURĂ CU SARCINILE DE ÎNVĂŢARE ÎN CLASĂ.

105

10. Rezolva i cel ţpu in primele 3 ţprobleme din cele date mai jos:

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

g)

Aplica i regula de 3 ţsimpl şi rezolva i:ă ţ

G1

– cel pu in 3 ţ

probleme date

G2

– cel pu in 5 ţ

probleme date

G3

– cel pu in 6 ţ

probleme date

La sfârşitul activit ii ăţdidactice to i ţelevii vor fi capabili s aplice ăregula de 3 simpl , rezolvând ăun set de probleme date; obiectivul va fi considerat atins dac vor fi ărezolvate 3 din cele 7 probleme date

ITEM ÎN TESTUL FORMATIV


OBIECTIV OPERA IONALŢ

Fig.31. Corelaţiile “obiective – sarcini – evaluare”

Reţineţi:

Regula nr.1 Itemii testului formativ trebuie astfel formulat încât să vizeze EXACT natura obiectivului urmărit.

Regula nr.2 Itemii testului formativ trebuie să ofere posibilitatea de a depăşi standardul minimal de performanţă şcolară, dar reuşita sau nereuşita se vor judeca în funcţie de acest standard.

Regula nr.3 Nu formulaţi niciodată itemii diferiţi: toţi elevii trebuie puşi în faţa aceloraşi sarcini.

Regula nr. 4 Nu ajutaţi niciodată elevii în timpul rezolvării unui test formativ şi nici nu-i lăsaţi să se ajute între ei.

D. CUM SE ELABOREAZĂ

TESTELE SUMATIVE?

Revedeţi exemplu anterior.

Înlocuiţi expresia “obiectiv operaţional” cu expresia “obiectiv terminal”(sau „competenţă/capacitate”) şi eliminaţi “sarcina de învăţare” şi veţi obţine formula de derivare a itemilor testului sumativ.

De fapt, ea prezintă analogii cu cea de elaborare a testelor predictive. Deosebirea dintre testele sumative şi cele predicative constă în faptul că primele vizează un ciclu de instruire aflat în curs de desfăşurare şi nu unul încheiat anterior.

Reţineţi:

Este de dorit ca testele sumative să fie aplicate de cel puţin 3-4 ori într-un semestru; ultimul test sumativ trebuie să conţină itemi care verifică întreaga

106

EVENIMENTELE

INSTRUCTIONALE

materie parcursă într-un trimestru.

Este firesc ca teza semestrială să se constituie după principiile evaluării sumative.

4.5..ELABORAREA SCENARIILOR DIDACTICE

4.5.1. Ce sunt şi ce nu sunt evenimentele instrucţionale

Înainte de a studia cele ce urmează mai citiţi cu atenţie teoria şi modelul celor „nine events” propuse de către Robert Mainard Gagne. ( Folosiţi Documentarul ataşat la această lucrare).

Străduiţi-vă să înţelegeţi cât mai exact conceptul de “eveniment instrucţional”. Veţi constata că următoarele:

107

EVENIMENTELE

INSTRUCTIONALE

Figura Nr. 32 Deosebirile dintre „evenimentele instrucţionale” şi „treptele/momentele lecţiei”

108

SUNT

EVENIMENTELE

INSTRUCTIONALE

-ac iuni al educatorului menite s ț ădecla eze categrii diferite de motiva ie i ș ț șmotivare a înv riiăță

- fenomene psihologice menite s ăîntre in activ înv area pân la sfâr itul ț ă ăț ă șactivit ii didactice;ăț

- o succesiune de procedee menite s ăfocalizeze efortul de înv are asupra ățobiectivelor i sarcinilor de lucru;ș

- efectul cumulat al mai multor procedee de motivare menit s accelereze ritmurile ăindividuale de înv are;ăț

- asigurarea continuit ii în înv are dup ăț ăț ăce dirijarea ei în clas a încetată

NU SUNT

-conduite ale educatorului

-„momente” sau „trepte formale” ale lec iei;ț

- zece p r i distincte ale timului de ă țînv are în clas ;ăț ă

Din cele de mai sus se pot deduce câteva reguli de declanşare şi realizare a evenimentelor instrucţionale.

Nu le uitaţi:

Regula nr.1

“Produceţi” evenimente instrucţionale pe cât posibil în succesiunea arătată.

Regula nr.2

Evitaţi “procedura” formală a evenimentelor instrucţionale.

Regula nr.3

Parcurgeţi fiecare eveniment în ritmul cel mai rapid cu putinţă.

Regula nr.4

Asiguraţi legături “organice” între evenimentele instruirii, conferind ansamblului lor funcţia de feed-back permanent.

Regula nr.5

Acordaţi importanţă tuturor evenimentelor dar rezervaţi maximum de importanţă evaluării progresului învăţării.

În fine, nu uitaţi sugestiile pe care vi le propunem în legătură cu fiecare dintre evenimentele instruirii.

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4.5.2.CUM SE CAPTEAZĂ ATENŢIA TUTUROR ELEVILOR

PÂNĂ LA SFÂRŞITUL ACTIVITĂŢII?

Nu vă lăsaţi induşi în eroare de expresia de mai sus. Expresia “captarea atenţiei” este formulată în termenii specifici psihologiei behavioriste.

Dincolo de “atenţie” ca proces de focalizare a energiei trebuie avute în vedere celelalte procese psihice care furnizează această energie. Folosiţi-vă de această sugestie care pare bizară.

DACĂ DORIŢI SĂ CAPTAŢI ŞI SĂ MENŢINEŢI ATENŢIA ELEVILOR CEL PUŢIN PÂNĂ L A SFÂRŞITUL ACTIVITĂŢII, PUNEŢI-I “SĂ CÂNTE”…”AIDA”!

Adică:

A

I

D

A

- stârnindu-le ATENŢIA şi

- INTERESUL pentru învăţare

- declanşându-le DORINŢA de a învăţa

- în mod ACTIV, prin efort propriu

Captarea atenţiei elevilor vă solicită să daţi dovadă de…întreaga dvs. măiestrie pedagogică. Acesta încât…

NUMAI DACĂ PROCEDEUL DE CAPTARE A ATENŢIEI ESTE EFICACE. ATUNCI SE POATE SCONTA CĂ OBIECTIVELE ACTIVITĂŢII VOR FI REALIZATE.

Din păcate, nu vă putem recomanda procedee universal valabile. Puteţi apela, desigur, la:

-tehnicile de condiţionare a comportamentului;

110

-la procedeul “sarcinilor întrerupte”;

-implicarea în sarcină;

-simulări didactice; etc.

Dar…

VĂ SUNT PERMISE ORICE PROCEDEE CARE STRÂRNESC ATENŢIA ŞI INTERESUL ELEVILOR PENTRU ACTIVITATEA DIDACTICĂ ŞI GENEREAZĂ DORINŢA DE A ÎNVĂŢA ACTIV.

Imaginaţia pedagogică şi creativitatea didactică vă sunt solicitate la maximum. Dacă nu vă puteţi transpune prin EMPATIE în personalitatea şi mentalitatea celui care învaţă, veţi putea susţine doar cu mare dificultate că sunteţi un educator autentic…

4.5.3. DE CE ŞI CUM

SE ENUNŢĂ OBIECTIVELE URMĂRITE?

Acestor două întrebări li se poate oferi un singur răspuns:

OBIECTIVELE PEDAGOGICE SE ENUNŢĂ ÎNTOTDEAUNA PE ÎNŢELESUL ELEVULUI.

Aşa cum am mai spus, activitatea de instruire trebuie să fie şi…educativă. Or,

EDUCAŢIA ESTE, PRIN DEFINIŢIE, UN PROCES CONŞTIENT.

Orice instruire rămâne doar… dresaj câtă vreme cel “instruit” nu cunoaşte scopurile pentru care este instruit. Urmaţi schema de mai jos:

111

Fig. Nr. 33. „Scurt -circuitul şcolar”

În acest mod încerca să reprezinte, pe la jumătatea secolului XX Eduard Claparede evoluţia psihologică a activităţii umane în condiţiile şcolii tradiţionale. Renumitul pedagog deplângea faptul că în şcoala tradiţională sarcinile de instruire formulate de educatorul magistral erau, de regulă, fără sens pentru elev.

Sunteţi obligat – nu numai de raţiuni pedagogice, dar şi etice – să evitaţi manifestările didactice de tipul celor criticate de Claparede.

În plus,

CONŞTIENTIZAREA REZULTATELOR SCONTATE ALE NVĂŢĂRII DE CĂTRE ELEV CONSTITUIE ŞI UN FACTOR DE MOTIVARE PUTERNICĂ A ACESTUIA.

Se poate ignora faptul că fiecare fiinţă omenească doreşte, în chip natural, să se perfecţioneze, să-şi îmbunătăţească în mod permanent capacităţile?

Această ultimă întrebare este retorică. Educatorul raţional şi pasionat îi va răspunde întotdeauna negativ.

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4.5.4. CUM SE ACTUALIZEAZĂ

“ANCORELE ÎNVĂŢĂRII”

O dată enunţate clar obiectivele instruirii, educatorul este dator să verifice dacă acestea…pot fi realizate!

Reţineţi:

ORICE ÎNVĂŢARE NOUĂ ESTE CONDIŢIONATĂ DE ALTA ANTERIOARĂ

Problema este însă de a VERIFICA CEEA CE TREBUIE! Ce înseamnă “a verifica ceea ce trebuie?”

În şcoala noastră tradiţia verificării lecţiei anterioare are o lungime considerabilă. Modelul pe care vi-l propunem vă solicită… modificarea atitudinii faţă de această obligaţie.

ÎN LOCUL VERIFICĂRII DETALIATE A LECŢIEI PRECEDENTE ESTE NECESAR SĂ VERIFICAŢI PERMANENT ÎNTREAGA MATERIE PARCURSĂ DE ELEV ÎN “CHEI ESENŢIALE”.

Orice obiectiv operaţional se “leagă” de alte obiective realizate anterior. Aceste “legături” trebuie să vă fie dumneavoastră înşivă foarte clare şi le actualizaţi solicitând elevii.

SĂ DEMONSTREZE CĂ MAI PĂSTREAZĂ ÎN MEMORIE CUNOŞTINŢELE NECESARE PENTRU A PUTEA REALIZA NOILE OBICTIVE.

Chiar dacă nu toţi elevii vor reuşi acest lucru, este suficient ca unul (unii) să realizeze acest lucru: actualizarea va antrena reamintirea cunoştinţelor respective de către elevi, citind considerabil continuarea instruirii.

Atenţie însă:

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Nu vă străduiţi să verificaţi altceva decât ceea ce se referă la obiectivele pe care le urmaţi!

Nu intraţi în amănunte nesemnificative!

Nu pierdeţi cu “actualizarea ancorelor” mai mult de 5-6 minute într-o lecţie!

Nu transformaţi “actualizarea ancorelor” într-un eveniment de verificare severă!

Evitaţi stresul şi demotivarea!

Acordaţi note în timpul “actualizării ancorelor”, dar …nu pedepsiţi pe cei care au pierdut informaţii sau capacităţi anterior câştigate.

Raţiunea ultimă a actualizării ancorelor o constituie…

DIMINUAREA PIERDERILOR LA NIVELUL MEMORIEI DE LUNGĂ DURATĂ

Prin urmare, acest eveniment instrucţional constituie un “moment delicat” pentru elevi, în special pentru elevii la care fenomenele de uitare se manifestă mai intens.

De aceea:

Este de dorit ca în actualizarea ancorelor să fie antrenaţi cât mai mulţi elevi, dar nu trebuie să insistaţi când unii dintre ei întâmpină dificultăţi;

Este preferabil să desfăşuraţi acest eveniment adresând elevilor întrebări frontale şi să-i solicitaţi să răspundă, dar nu mereu pe aceiaşi elevi;

Este recomandabil să transformaţi evenimentul într-un moment de încurajare a tuturor elevilor în vederea noii învăţări.

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4.5.5. PREZENTAREA SARCINILOR DE LUCRU,

DIRIJAREA ÎNVĂŢĂRII, OBŢINEREA PERFORMANŢELOR

ŞI ASIGURAREA CONEXIUNII INVERSE.

Îndată ce v-aţi asigurat că elevii pot continua învăţarea, “atacaţi”, obiectivele pe rând.

Transmiteţi mai întâi sarcina de lucru, apoi oferiţi condiţii pentru a o realiza; nu pierdeţi din vedere că acestea din urmă trebuie să fie suficiente pentru ca elevii să:

trăiască sentimentul că au OCAZIA DE A ÎNVĂŢA;

poate realiza sarcina cu ECONOMIE DE EFORT, DE TIMP şi cu

SATISFACŢIA REUŞITEI.

Nu uitaţi că din situaţia de învăţare fac parte şi informaţiile de care elevii au nevoie pentru a realiza sarcina de învăţare, dar evitaţi cât mai mult “predarea” cunoştinţelor. Procedaţi astfel încât

ELEVII SĂ “ÎNVEŢE FĂCÂND” ACŢIUNILE MENTALE SPECIFICATE ÎN OBIECTIVELE OPERAŢIONALE ALE ACTIVITĂŢII.

Stabiliţi un timp limită pentru realizarea fiecărei sarcini, precizaţi-l elevilor şi nu permiteţi depăşirea lui. Ajutaţi-i cu precădere pe elevii cu ritm lent să se încadreze în acest timp.

Răspundeţi însă oricăror solicitări de sprijin şi preveniţi dificultăţile unor elevi. Lăsaţi-i, ba chiar îndemnaţi-i pe elevi să colaboreze în grupuri mici. Fiţi permanent în alertă faţă de grupul elevilor cu viteză de lucru scăzută, încurajai-i să se autodepăşească. Concentraţi-vă atenţia în dirijarea învăţării acestui aspect:

ELEVII NU TREBUIE LĂSAŢI CU NICI UN PREŢ SĂ ÎNCERCE SĂ REZOLVE SARCINILE DE ÎNVĂŢARE ÎNTR-UN MOD INADECVAT OBIECTIVULUI URMĂRIT.

115

Nu uitaţi că toţi elevii, inclusiv cei cu ritmuri şi potenţial mare de învăţare, manifestă tendinţa de a realiza sarcinile de lucru cu mecanisme de învăţare aflate pe trepte inferioare ale ierarhiei prezentate în subcapitolele anterioare.

Preveniţi permanent acest efect de “împingere în jos” a comportamentului de învăţare.

Faceţi-i pe elevi conştienţi de acest lucru. Explicaţi-le că nu fac economie de efort şi de timp abordând cu metode simple probleme care li se par dificile.

Ajutaţi-i să-şi conştientizeze exact resursele interne de învăţare şi ajutaţi-i să le adecveze precis la natura fiecărei sarcini de lucru.

Informaţi-i, după fiecare sarcină, în legătură cu corectitudinea utilizării de către ei a condiţiilor interne de învăţare.

Încurajaţi-i să persevereze în depăşirea dificultăţilor. Informaţi-i că fiecare dintre ei poate să înveţe ceea ce trebuie învăţat. Explicaţi-le că aceasta nu este o afirmaţie gratuită, ci una demonstrată ştiinţific.

Încurajaţi-i prin orice alte mijloace.

4.5. 6. EVALUAREA PROGRESULUI INSTRUIRII

Acesta constituie momentul cel mai important al instruirii.

Evaluarea formativă a învăţării este de fapt, tot învăţare. Este „învăţarea de consolidare” adică de asigurarea a retenţiei mnemonice şi de asigurare anticipată a TRANSFERULUI PROACTIV.

Prin urmare...

ABORDAŢI EVALUAREA FORMATIVĂ CA PE

UN PRILEJ ACORDAT ELEVULUI

SĂ-ŞI FIXEZE TEMEINIC CUNOŞTINŢELE şi de

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A-ŞI IDENTIFICA ÎN TIMP OPORTUN LACUNELE ŞI DIFICULTĂŢILE ÎN PREGĂTIRE.

Instruirea prin evaluare formativă trebuie să fie exclusive una independentă.

Reţineţi

DOUĂ INTERDICŢII:

• Nu-i sprijiniţi pe elevi în nici un fel în timpul testului de progres!

• Nu permiteţi elevilor în timpul rezolvării testelor de progres să se ajute între ei!

Pentru evaluarea formativă trebuie rezervat, de la început, un cuantum de timp rezonabil din timpul disponibil. Acesta trebuie subîmpărţit în două părţi:

• timp destinat REZOLVĂRII testului

• timp destinat AUTOCORECTĂRII testului

Educatorul înţelept va căuta să desfăşoare întreaga activitate didactică făcând economie de timp. Orice astfel de “economie” trebuie făcută în beneficiul evaluării progresului şcolar.

Reţineţi

DOUĂ NOI REGULI:

Regula nr.1 PENTRU REZOLVAREA TESTULUI STABILIŢI UN TIMP LIMITĂ ŞI NU PERMITEŢI DEPĂŞIREA LUI DE CĂTRE ELEVI.

Regula nr.2 “PIERDEŢI CÂT MAI MULT TIMP POSIBIL CU AUTOCORECTAREA TESTELOR DE PROGRES DE CĂTRE ELEVI.

Raţiunea care întemeiază aceste două reguli este uşor de dedus: cunoaşterea rezultatelor este momentul de maximă intensitate a învăţării, reprezentând producerea conexiunii inverse. Chiar şi elevii care îşi descoperă greşeli învaţă; probabilitatea ca ei să greşească a doua oară în acelaşi fel scade vertiginos. Aceasta atrage atenţia asupra importanţei autocorectării este net mai avantajoasă decât corectarea testelor de către educator prin efectul formativ imediat pe care îl

117

produce asupra oricărui elev, intensificând retenţia la nivelul memoriei de scurtă durată şi asigurând condiţii de “ trecere” masivă a cunoştinţelor în memoria de lungă durată.

4.5.7.ASIGURAŢI RETENŢIA, INTENSIFICAŢI TRANSFERUL ŞI…

PREGĂTIŢI ÎNVĂŢAREA ACASĂ

Rezultatele testului de progres trebuie folosit în tot ceea ce interesează asigurarea continuităţii învăţării. Încă din timpul autocorectării puteţi stabili

SARCINI DIFERENŢIATE DE LUCRU PENTRU ACASĂ

pentru a “acoperi” lacunele descoperite la unii elevi, a intensifica RETENŢIA cunoştinţelor de către toţi elevii şi a sprijini TRANSFERUL acestora:

PE VERTICALĂ

PE ORIZONTALĂ

TRANSFERUL VERTICAL presupune aprofundarea, adâncirea cunoştinţelor esenţiale, întărirea capacităţilor formate,

TRANSFERUL ORIZONTAL presupune lărgirea cunoştinţelor, adăugarea de detalii la conţinuturile esenţiale deja însuşite.

Ambele se pot soluţiona furnizând elevilor noi sarcini de învăţare ca “teme pentru acasă” şi asigurând condiţii interne şi externe de realizare.

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TEMELE PENTRU ACASĂ VOR FI REZOLVATE ÎN AFARA CONTROLULUI DVS. NEMIJLOCIT.

*

APLICAŢII

( titularii de seminar au libertatea de a folosi aceste aplicaţii îmn momentele cele mai adecvate pentru desfăşurarea cursului )

Aplicaţia Nr.7

Elaboraţi scenariile didactice de implementare la 5 proiecte de română/franceză/engleză realizate pe parcurs/anterior respectând exigenţele de tehnologie educaţională şi în conformitate strictă cu cele „nine instructional events” ( Gagne).

Aplicaţia Nr.8

Continuaţi aplicaţia nr.7 transformând cel puţin unul dintre scenariile didactice într-un scenariu care ar putea fi transpus pe film şifolosit ca material didacic modern ( lucru în echipe de 7-6 cursanţi, cu asistenţă tehnică avizată ).

Aplicaţia Nr. 9

Dacă aplicaţiile nr. 7 şi nr.8 au fost realizate cu succes atunci scrieţi un text explicativ, redactat corespunzător, şi plasaţi-l pe site-ul ISJ-Braila pentru a recomanda experienţa şi opera dvs. didactică tuturor colegilor din alte regiuni ale României şi chiar în străinătate

* * *

119

AUTOTESTAŢI-VĂ CUNOŞTINŢELE!

I. Alăturat sunt reproduse micro-proiecte foarte simple din învăţământul primar, accesibile oricărui profesor, numerotate de la 1 la 5. S-au ales intenţionat teme simple şi diferite de specialitatea dvs. pentru a putea sesiza în mod obiectiv aspectele pozitive şi erorile. Atenţie, numai unele dintre micro-proiecte ele sunt corecte. Citiţi-le cu atenţie şi spuneţi câte dintre ele conţin erori grave.

II. Numiţi proiectele incorecte.

III. Identificaţi şi numiţi cel puţin 5 erori în fiecare proiect incorect pe care l-aţi găsit.

IV. Deduceţi pentru fiecare eroare identificată consecinţele negative care s-ar produce în practică dacă proiectul(ele) ar fi aplicat(e).

V. Corectaţi proiectele eronate. Ce modificări veţi aduce?

VI. Argumentaţi pe scurt ameliorările propuse la pct. V.

*

120

OBIECTUL: GRAMATICA

TEMA: SUBIECTUL

clasa a III-a

PROIECT DIDACTIC NR. 1

OBIECTIVE

OPERATIONALE

CONŢINUT

ADECVAT

CAPACITĂŢI DE ÎNVĂŢARE

STRATEGII DIDACTICE

ITEMII TESTULUI DE EVALUARE

La sfârşitul activităţii didactice elevii vor fi capabili:

O1 – Să se scrie definiţia subiectului rezolvând exerciţiul 1 pag. 14. Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă vor scrie că subiectul este partea de propoziţie care arată despre cine se vorbeşte în propoziţie.

O2 – Să identifice subiectele într-un text dat, sublinindu-le

CO1-Definiţia subiectului:

Partea de propoziţie care arată despre cine se vorbeşte în propoziţie se numeşte subiect.

CO2-Toamna natura amorţeşte. Animalele se pregătesc pentru iernat. Soarele încălzeşte tot mai puţin. Vântul bate puternic. Pe drum, copiii merg la şcoală.

Se apropie iarna. Se scutură din salcâm o ploaie de miresme. Bunicul stă pe prispă. Pletele lui albe şi creţe flutură în vânt.

Clasa are un efectiv de 34 de elevi; toţi apţi pentru învăţătura fiind de niveluri:

RITM LENT 5 elevi

RITM MEDIU 18 elevi

RITM RAPID 11 elevi

S1-Scrieţi cel puţin:

G1 + G2: definiţia subiectului

G3: definiţia subiectului + întrebările acestuia

S2-Subliniaţi în textul de mai jos:

G1 – cel puţin 6 subiecte


G3 – toate subiectele existente

Sit. tip de învăţare rezolvate de probleme

S3-Introduceţi în

IO1-Scrieţi definiţia subiectului

IO2-Identificaţi cel puţin 6 subiecte în textul de mai jos:

Fluieră mierlele. Cucul îşi cântă numele. Adie vântul. Pădurea vuieşte. Pe sus norii aleargă ameninţători. A început ploaia. Ceaţa este deasă. Cu greu se pot zări trecătorii.

IO3-Introduceţi cel puţin 3 subiecte în textul de mai jos:

………lucrează în fabrici. Pe ogoare muncesc cu spor ………. La şcoală ……… învaţă bine. ……… au creioane roşii. ……… iubesc copiii (părinţi, elevi, muncitorii,

121

cu o linie. Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă vor sublinia cel puţin 6 din cele 10 subiecte şi nu vor sublinia alt cuvânt care nu este subiect.

O3 – Să introducă într-un text dat lacunar subiectele în locul spaţiilor libere. Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă vor completa cu altă parte de propoziţie.

O4 – Să creeze propoziţii utilizând cuvintele: iarnă, ger, zăpadă, gheţuş, animale, ca subiecte (o singură dată). Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă vor scrie cel puţin 3 propoziţii

Ochii bunicului au rămas ca odinioară.

CO3-Elevii merg la şcoală. Le-a explicat o lecţie nouă învăţătoarea. Pe bănci cărţile stau deschise. Ei deschid caietele. Stilourile sunt pline cu cerneală albastră.

CO4-Propoziţii cu cuvintele: iarnă, ger, gheţuş, zăpadă, animale.

textul următor:


G2 – toate subiectele date

Sit. tip de învăţare discriminări multiple

S4-Creaţi propoziţii utilizând cuvintele date (o singură dată) ca subiect



G3 – 5 propoziţii

profesorii, ţăranii)

IO4--Scrieţi cel puţin 3 propoziţii utilizând cuvintele de mai jos ca subiecte: Decebal, Traian, strămoşii, viteaz, ocupaţii (o singură dată)

122

din 5 propoziţii posibile, cuvintele date fiind subiecte şi nu altă parte de propoziţie.

123

OBIECTUL: MATEMATICA

TEMA: ADUNAREA CU 3

CONSOLIDAREA ADUNĂRII

ŞI A SCĂDERII CU 0,1,2


OBIECTIVE OPERAŢIONALE

CONŢINUT ADECVAT


STRATEGII DIDACTICE



O1 – Să aplice tehnica în cazul adunării cu 3, rezolvând două coloane de exerciţii din caietul tip.

Obiectivul va di considerat atins dacă elevii vor rezolva cel puţin 5 exerciţii din cele 8 şi nu vor confunda adunarea cu scăderea

CO1 –

1+3= 4+3= 2+3= 5+3= 3+0= 6+3= 3+3= 7+3=

Fişă de îmbogăţire

3+ =6

5+ =8

+ 7=10

Clasa are un efectiv de 38 de elevi; toţi apţi pentru învăţătură. Nivelurile:

RITM LENT: G1

D.A., S.M., F.N., N.M.

RITM MEDIU: G2

L.I., T.T., G.C., C.F., M.S., M.R., C.A., B.G., B.I.

RITM RAPID : G3

U.C., D.A., D.I., D.O., P.A., L.G., S.S., D.C., B.A., B.M., S.O., Z.A., D.L., P.A.,

SO1 Scrieţi (rezolvaţi):

G1 – cel puţin 5 din cele 8 exerciţii

G2 – cel puţin 6 din 8

G3 – toate cele 8 + fişa de îmbogăţire

Sit. tip de învăţare – rezolvate de probleme

I(O1)-

2+3= 3+4=

6+3= 3+6=

0+3= 3+5=

7+3= 3+3=

124

C.C., A.F., S.V., I.M., S.A., T.E., P.M., C.G., M.A., M.M., P.I.

O2 – Să completeze spaţiile punctate cu semnul corespunzător operaţiei + sau –

Obiectivul va fi atins dacă vor pune cel puţin 4 semne din 6

CO2

3….=6 7….=5

8….=7 9….=10 7….=10 7….3=10 6….1=5

Fişă de îmbogăţire 7= + 9= +

SO2 Puneţi +sau – în:

G1 – cel puţin 4 operaţii din 6

G2 – 5 din 6

G3 – 6 din 6 + fişa de îmbogăţire

Sit. tip de învăţare – discriminări multiple

I(O2)

2….2=4

5….1=4

0….0=0

3….4=7

5….1=6

8….1=9

O3 – Să distingă rezultatele greşite şi cele corecte, dându-se 5 egalităţii. Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă elevii vor reuşi să recunoască cel puţin 3 rezultate corecte din cele 5 egalităţi existente.

CO3 Tăiaţi cu o linie rezultatele greşite:

3+3=

5+2=

6+3=

8+2=

7-1=

SO3


G2 – 4 din 5

G3 – 5 din 5

Sit. tip de învăţare – rezolvare de probleme

I(O3)

4+3=

1+1=

3+5=

4+2=

6-1=

O4 – Să creeze probleme dându-se 3

CO4 Creaţi problemele după operaţiile

SO4

G1 – cel puţin o

I(O4) Punându-se în faţa elevilor 3 probleme ilustrate, ei

125

operaţii. Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă vor compune cel puţin o problemă

3+6=9

5-1=4

3+3=6

probleme

G2 – cel puţin două probleme

G3 – 3 din 3

Sit. tip de învăţare – învăţare prin descoperire

să scrie operaţia.

O5 – Să completeze pătrăţelele libere cu cifrele corespunzătoare, dându-se două coloane de exerciţii din manual. Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă elevii vor rezolva corect cel puţin 5 exerciţii din 8 existente, fără a confunda cifrele.

CO5

6+ =9

5+ =8

7+ =10

4+ =6

+2 =42

3+ =5

- 2 =22

10- =8

SO5

G1 – cel puţin 5 operaţii din 8


G3 – 8 din 8

Sit. tip de învăţare – rezolvare de probleme

I(O5)

6+ =8

+2 =52

3+ =4

4 - =2

8 - =8

- 0 =02

7 - =6

3+ =6

126

OBIECTUL: CITIRE

SUBIECTUL:SUNETUL ŞI LITERELE “I, L”


OBIECTIVELE OPERAŢIONALE

CONŢINUT ADECVAT


STRATEGII DIDACTICE



O1 - să recunoască literele “I, L”, dându-se fişele pe care sunt scrise cuvinte. Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă cel puţin 3 litere din cele existente şi nu le vor confunda cu alte litere.

CO1:

Încercuiţi literele “I,L”

lalele

Alina

ele

Elena

Clasa are un efectiv de 38 elevi; toţi apţi pentru învăţământ. Nivelele:

RITM LENT:G1

C.F.,V.D.,O.G.,P.C.

RITM MEDIU:G2

B.L.,G.I.,L.I.,M.A.,B.I.,A.N.,F.M.,V.R.,D.G.,I.I.

RITM RAPID: G3

S.N.,A.D.,C.A.,M.D.,N.M.,D.G.,P.F.,G.A.,R.D.,S.M.,B.R.,C.N.,I.G.,M.V.,F.I.,A.I.,P.C.,B.V.,B.A.,G.B.,N.C.

SO1

SCRIEŢI (rezolvaţi):

G1 - cel puţin 3 din 5


G3 - 5 din 5+încercuirea tuturor literelor învăţate

I(O1) - Tăiaţi o linie literele “I,L”

orar

Cornelia

lalea

alune

O2 - să creeze independent, din literele alfabetului, 4 cuvinte care să conţină litera nou învăţată. Ova fi

CO2: -

ele

lalele

Alina

Lina

SO2


G2 - cel puţin 3 din

I(O2)

Scrieţi după dictare:

lalea

Alina

Alo

127

considerat atins dacă vor crea cel puţin 2 cuvinte din cele 4.

4

G3 - cele 4 cuvinte propoziţia “Lina e mare”

ale

O1 - să completeze propoziţiile cu semnele de punctuaţie învăţate, dându-se o fişă pe care sunt scrise 4 propoziţii (!...?). Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă elevii vor pune corect cel puţin 2 semne de punctuaţie din 4.

Alina are mere.

Ea e mare.

Elena are alune.

Lina are un anumit.

SO3 -G1 - cel puţin 2 din 4


G3 - 4 din 4

I(O3) -Puneţi semnele de punctuaţie potrivite (pe fişă):

Ea are alune. Corina e mare. Alin are mere. Rica e mică.

O4 - să cuvintele cu silaba care lipseşte, dându-se fişa cu 6 cuvinte. Obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă elevii vor pune cel

CO4 -

a_na

e_

la_le

_ca

SO4- G1 - cel puţin 3 din 6


G3 - 6 din 6

Sit. ţin de învăţare-în

I(O4)

Li_

Ma_

_re

_na

128

GRAMATICA

CLASA A III-A

PROIECT DIDACTIC NR.4

Pentru desfăşurarea activităţii didactice cu tema “VERBUL”

- recapitulare -

OBIECTIVE OPERAŢIONALE

CONŢINUT ADECVAT


STRATEGII DIDACTICE

SITUIAŢII DE ÎNVĂŢARE


La sfârşitul activităţii didactice elevii vor fi capabili :

O1 - să utilizeze cuvinte care arată acţiunea, starea, existenţa fiinţelor, lucrurilor, fenomenelor naturii, în alcătuirea unui text scurt, fără ajutor din afară, text alcătuit din cel puţin 4 propoziţii.

CO1:

a stat, i-a căutat, este, se gândeşte, era, nu va face, mulţumeşte

G1

G2

G3

cu ritmuri de învăţare diferite

SO1

Continuaţi povestirea începută mai jos, alcătuind cel puţin 4 propoziţii folosind acţiuni, stări din cele date: “A sosit noaptea. Sandu, un copil neascultător, nu a venit acasă

Învăţarea de concepte, exerciţii

I(O1)

Subliniază şi grupează cel puţin câte 3 verbe găsite în textul alcătuit de tine.

O2 – să CO2 G1 SO2 exerciţiul, I(O2)

129

analizeze verbele din textul alcătuit, pe baza cunoştinţelor dobândite; vor fi analizate complet cel puţin 5 verbe; obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă vor fi precizate numărul, timpul, rolul în propoziţie.

Compunerea gramaticală alcătuită la punctual 1.

G2

G3 Analizaţi în scris cel puţin:

G1 - 5 verbe

G2 - 6 verbe

G3 - 7 verbe

din textul alcătuit, specificând numărul, timpul, rolul în propoziţie.

explicaţia, învăţarea de concepte şi învăţarea de reguli.

Analizând cel puţin 5 verbe din poezia: “În lan erau feciori şi fete, Şi ei cântau o doină-n cor. Juca viaţa-n ochii lor, Şi vântul le juca în plete. Miei albi fugeau către izvor. Şi grauri mari zburau în cete” (G. Coşbuc-Vara)

O3 - să utilizeze verbe cu înţeles opus celor exprimate; obiectivul va fi considerat atins dacă fiecare elev va reuşi să utilizeze cel puţin 5 verbe.

CO2 -

a merge, a vorbi, a vrea, a veni, a răsări, a se culca, a scădea, a râde, a dezlega, a pleca, a coborî

SO3 - Găsiţi cuvinte care arată acţiuni opuse celor exprimate de cel puţin 5 dintre verbele date.

explicaţia, muncă independentă, discriminări multiple

I(O3): Alcătuiţi cel puţin 5 propoziţii cu verbe care arată acţiuni opuse celor găsite anterior (la IO2)

130

O4 - să alcătuiască schema unor propoziţii date, folosind simbolurile. Obiectivul va fi atins dacă fiecare elev va reuşi să schematizeze o propoziţie.

CO4

1.Plopul mlădios îşi tremură frunzele foşnitoare.

2.”După sălcii urmau pâlcuri de salcâmi înfloriţi” (M.Sadoveanu)

3.Pereţii stâncoşi ai palatului sunt înalţi şi vopsiţi

G1

G2

G3

SO4 -

Alcătuieşte în scris cel puţin o schemă a uneia dintre cele 5 propoziţii date.

Învăţarea de principii, exerciţiul, rezolvarea de probleme.

I(O3)- Cu ajutorul simbolurilor gramaticale alcătuiţi cel puţin o schemă completă

I.S. s.p. s.p.

…. …. ….

s adj p

p s.p. s.p.

…. ….. ….

V s s

(model)

131

SCENARIUL DESFĂŞURĂRII ACTIVITĂŢII

EVENIMENTUL INSTRUCŢIONAL

ACTIVITATEA DE ÎNVĂŢARE DURATA

Captarea atenţiei Vom desfăşura un rebus de unde va reieşi tipul lecţiei: RECAPITULARE (pe coloana A-B)

3’

A1. V E R B U L 1.Parte de vorbire care arata actiunea, starea, existenta;

2. C I N E 2.O intrebare a subiectului;3. C E 3.Alta intrebare a subiectului;

4. N U M E R A L 4.Parte de vorbire care arata un numar;5. P R O P O Z I T I A 5.O comunicare cu un singur predicat;

6. A D J E C T I V U L 6.Arata insusiri;7. P A R T E 7. ……..de vorbire si de propozitie;

8. N U M A R U L 8.Arata o fiinta sau mai multe;9. L U N I 9. Ziua cand incepe saptamana;

10. S U B S T A N T I V U L 10.Parte de vorbire care se numara;11. O R A R 11.Programul scolarului

12. C A R T E 12."Cine are…are patru ochi"B

Enunţul obiectivelor

Obiectivele sunt trecute în prima parte a proiectului didactic 2’

Reactualizarea celor învăţate anterior – ideile ancoră

Verificăm cantitativ – frontal tema dată acasă: de analizat în scris cel puţin primele 10 verbe din lecţia de citire “Delta Dunării”, ocazie cu care repetăm definiţia verbului, cu 3 exemple.

5’

Prezentarea sarcinilor de învăţare şi dirijarea învăţării: obţinerea performanţelor

SO1 - Continuaţi povestirea începută cu cel puţin patru propoziţii, folosind acţiuni, stări din cele scrise pe tablă;

SO2 - Analizaţi în scris cel puţin 5 verbe din cele descoperite în compunerea creată de tine la punctual 1;

SO3 - Găsiţi acţiuni opuse celor date de mine, la cel puţin 5 verbe;

SO4 - Alcătuiţi în scris cel puţin o schemă a unei propoziţii din cele date;

25’

Evaluarea Prezentarea şi rezolvarea testului formative: 10’

132

performanţei a) Subliniază şi grupează cel puţin 3 acţiuni la fiecare din timpurile verbului;

b) Analizează în scris cel puţin 5 verbe din poezia “Vara” de G. Coşbuc ;

c) Alcătuieşte cel puţin 3 propoziţii cu verbele care arată acţiuni opuse celor date mai sus;

d) Cu ajutorul simbolurilor gramaticale, alcătuieşte cel puţin o schemă completă pentru propoziţiile date.

Asigurarea retenţiei

Comentăm eventualele erori apărute la testele formative 4’

Asigurarea transferului

Tema pentru acasă: Exerciţiul 19 pag.83 (să se alcătuiască propoziţii după scheme date).

1’

BIBLIOGRAFIE

133

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ANEXECUPRINS

1. INSTRUMENTE ŞI TEHNICI NECESARE PENTRU A REALIZA UN PROIECT BINE GÂNDIT

1.1. Taxonomiile de obiective pedagogice

Studiile lui Benjamin S. Bloom

Taxonomia lui Krathwohl

Taxonomia lui Harrow

Studiile lui J. P. Guilford

Tipologia transdisciplinară a demersurilor intelectuale

Lista de verbe şi complemente directe pentru domeniul afectiv

1.2. Procedurile de definire şi operaţionalizare a obiectivelor pedagogice

Schema generală a definirii obiectivelor pedagogice

Procedura lui G. de Landsheere

1.3. Tehnici de analiză a conţinutului

1.3.1. Analiza conţinutului instruirii

“Arborii logici”

Sistemul mathetic şi “analiza sarcinilor”

“Grafuri şi reţele de cunoştinţe”

“Băncile de conţinuturi”

2. ALTE MODALITĂŢI DE PROIECTARE PEDAGOGICĂ

3. STRUCTURI GRAFICE DE PROIECTE PEDAGOGICE

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1. INSTRUMENTE ŞI TEHNICI NECESARE

PENTRU A REALIZA UN PROIECT PEDAGOGIC BINE GÂNDIT

Am prezentat în cursurile Abilitaare curriculară şi Diferenţierea instruirii – aspecte teoretice şi practice referitoare la proiectarea pedagogică şi exigenţele generale ale acestei activităţi educative fundamentale insistând asupra unui model de instuire eficientă (mastery learning) elaborat pentru condiţiile specifice ale învăţământului românesc şi experimentat între anii 1982 –1988 (Jinga şi Negreţ,1993, 2005).

Dar acesta nu este singurul model de proiectare pedagogică; în acest capitol-anexă vom prezenta şi alte modele cu eficienţă la fel de ridicată. Considerăm că este posibilă o varietate de forme grafice de redactare a proiectelor pedagogice. Esenţialul este ca educatorii să stăpânească câteva “instrumente “ şi tehnici care sunt invocate de către toţi specialiştii domeniului care le consideră condiţii sine-qua-non pentru orice redactare a oricărui tip de proiect pedagogic. Acestea sunt: taxonomiile de obiective pedagogice, procedurile de operaţionalizare a obiectivelor educaţionale, tehnicile de selecţie a conţinuturilor esenţiale pentru instruire şi educare, câteva teorii ale învăţării care descriu mecanisme psihice solicitate întotdeauna în instruirea şi învăţarea şcolară. Deşi unele dintre ele au mai fost amintite, considerăm strict necesar să revenim asupra lor cu unele informaţii şi detalii strict necesare pentru a realiza proiecte pedagogice bine gândite.

1.1. TAXONOMIILE DE OBIECTIVE PEDAGOGICE Iniţiatorul acestora a fost Benjamin S. Bloom. La apariţie s-a apreciat că taxonomia de obiective

pedagogice are pentru ştiinţele educaţiei importanţa pe care a avut-o în chimie tabloul realizat de Mendeleev. S-a susţinut chiar că pedagogia a devenit ştiinţă autentică, depăşind “faza alchimică” odată cu B. S. Bloom. Sunt, desigur, aprecieri exagerate. Ulterior, s-au construit taxonomii de obiective şi finalităţi pedagogice superioare celei a lui B. S. Bloom. Din păcate condiţiile impuse de învăţământul românesc nu ne permite să o folosim pe cea mai bună dintre ele.

1.1.1. Studiile lui Benjamin S. Bloom1

Prima taxonomie este şi cea care s-a răspândit mai mult: cea a lui Bloom; ea pare să răspundă necesităţii de a raţionaliza, sistematiza şi evalua, aducând o clarificare, o punere în ordine relativ uşoară într-o activitate eminamente complexă. Taxonomiile lui Bloom servesc drept surse de inspiraţie dar şi ca modele pentru cele următoare. Sunt stabilite pe temeiul a patru principii: didactic, psihologic, logic şi obiectiv.

141

Se ştie că în taxonomia lui Bloom sunt articulate trei planuri: domeniul cognitiv, domeniul afectiv şi domeniul psihomotor. Aceste trei aspecte ne vor ajuta să structurăm o prezentare şi un studiu metodic al principalelor taxonomii existente.

Aşa cum aminteşte Bloom în prefaţa “Taxonomiei” sale, ideea elaborării studiului, i-a apărut la Boston, în 1948, “cu ocazia unei simple întruniri a examinatorilor din învăţământul superior care participau la un congres al Asociaţiei americane de psihologie”.

A elabora o taxonomie a obiectivelor pedagogice înseamnă:

a) A evalua problema educaţiei;

b) A clasifica scopurile învăţământului;

c) A pregăti programele şcolare;

d) A pregăti exerciţiile de învăţare.

Pe măsură ce înaintăm în ierarhia taxonomiei, importanţa legăturilor dintre nivelurile adiacente scade şi apar numeroase legături la nivelurile neadiacente. Introducerea factorului g ca agent explicativ, limpezeşte situaţia. (Madaus şi colaboratorii lui, apropie definiţia dată de Spearman factorului g de definiţia propusă de Bloom pentru analiză. Similitudinea este izbitoare. Pentru Spearman g este capacitatea de a desprinde relaţii şi corelaţii, de a descoperi în elementul particular un exemplu al generalului.

Or, Bloom, scrie: ”În analiză, ceea ce se scoate în relief este faptul de a descompune materialul în părţile sale componente şi de sesiza raporturile existente dintre aceste părţi şi modul în care ele sunt organizate”.2

Iată în schemă, ierarhia propusă:

Analiză – Evaluare Sinteză

Aplicare

Comprehensiune

Cunoaştere

142

Fig.1. Ierarhia claselor în taxonomia lui Bloom

Taxonomia lui Bloom este formulată în plan abstract. Pentru a ajuta pe practicieni să treacă la un nivel mai concret, acela al obiectivelor operaţionale, N. Matfessell, W. Michael şi D. Kirshner propun un tablou unde se găseşte o listă de verbe şi o listă de obiective, care, combinate în mod adecvat, oferă scheletul unui obiectiv operaţional.

Spre exemplificare, vom lua nivelurile taxonomiei lui Bloom din domeniul cognitiv.

1.1.2. Lista verbelor care definesc comportamente observabile şi a complementelor necesare operaţionalizării obiectivelor

(Jinga şi Negreţ, 1983, Negreţ-Dobridor, 2005; după Metfessell, Michael şi Kirshner)

Ori de câte oriVerbul potrivit a defini obiectivul operaţional al activităţii dv. va fi unul dintre cele de mai jos:

Verbul se va “lega”în obiectiv cu un compliment din categoria celog de mai jos:

Finalitatea generală este:

Obiectivul de generalitate medie fiind

1 2 3 4

CUNOAŞTEREA(nivelul elementar al clasificării obiectivelor în taxonomia lui Bloom; exprimă toate obiectivele de simplă achiziţie a informaţiilor de către elev, în special prin memorare)

1.10. Cunoaşterea datelor particulare

- -

1.11. Cunoaşterea terminologiei

A identifica, a distinge , a defini, a aminti, a recunoaşte

Vocabular, terminologie, semnificaţii, definiţii, referinţe, elemente

1.12.Cunoaşterea faptelor particulare

A aminti, a recunoaşte, a dobândi, a identifica

Fapte, informaţii faptice (nume, date, evenimente, persoane, locuri, exemple, proprietăţi etc.)

1.20. Cunoaşterea mijloacelor care permit utilizarea datelor particulare

- -

1.21. Cunoaşterea convenţiilor

A aminti, a identifica, a recunoaşte, a dobândi

Forme, convenţii, uzanţe, reguli, modalităţi, simboluri, reprezentări, stiluri, etc.

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1.22. Cunoaşterea tendinţelor şi secvenţelor


Acţiuni, procese, mişcări, dezvoltări, tendinţe, secvenţe, cauze, relaţii, forţe, influenţe

1.23. Cunoaşterea clasificărilor şi categoriilor


Arii, tipuri, caracteristici, clase, ansambluri, clasificări, categorii, diviziuni, ansambluri

1.24. Cunoaşterea metodelor


Criterii, baze, elemente.

1.25. Cunoaşterea metodelor


Metode, tehnici, abordări, procedee, tratamente.

1 2 3 4

1. 30 Cunoaşterea reprezentărilor abstracte şi a legilor

- -

1.31. Cunoaşterea principiilor şi legilor


Principii, legi, părţi esenţiale, generalizări, elemente fundamentale.

1.32. Cunoaşterea teoriilor

A aminti, a recunoaşte, a dobândi, a identifica.

Teorii, baze, intercalităţi, structuri organizate, formulări

2.00 COMPRENHENSIUNEA (al doilea nivel în taxonomia lui Bloom; este nivelul elementar al înţelegerii – care permit celui care învaţă să cunoască ceea ce a studiat fără a stabili cu necesitate o legătură între acest material şi un altul, a-şi da

2.10. Transpunere A traduce, a transforma, a exprima în cuvinte proprii, a ilustra, a pregăti, a citi, a reprezenta, a schimba, a scrie, a redefini.

Semnificaţii, exemple, definiţii, abstracţii, cuvinte, fraze

2. 20. Interpretare A interpreta, a reorganiza, a diferenţia, a distinge, a face, a stabili, a demonstra

Pertinenţe, relaţii, fapte esenţiale, aspecte, puncte de vedere, caracterizări, concluzii, metode, teorii, abstracţii

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seama de însemnătatea a ceea ce studiază

2. 30. Extrapolare A estima, a introduce, a conchide, a prevedea, a diferenţia, a determina, a extinde, a interpela, a extrapola, a completa, a stabili

Consecinţe, implicaţii, concluzii, factori, semnificaţii, corelare, efecte, probabilităţi

3.00. APLICARE(elevul învaţă să utilizeze la cazuri particulare şi concrete reprezentările abstracte)

A aplica, a generaliza, a stabili legături, a culege, a dezvolta, a organiza, a utiliza, a se servi de, a transfera, a restructura, a clasifica

Principii, legi, concluzii, efecte, metode, teorii, abstracţii, situaţii, generalizări, procese, fenomene, procedee

1 2 3 4

4. 00. ANALIZA (obiectivelor din al 4-lea nivel al taxonomiei lui Bloom presupune a-l învăţa pe elev să separe părţi constitutive ale unei comunicări în aşa fel încât să lămurească ierarhia relativă a raporturilor ideilor exprimate)

4.10. CĂUTAREA ELEMENTELOR

A distinge, a detesta, a identifica, a discrimina, a recunoaşte, a categorisi, a deduce

Elemente, ipoteze, concluzii, supoziţii, enunţuri, de intenţii, argumente, particularităţi

4.20. CĂUTAREA RELAŢIILOR

A analiza, a contrasta, a compara, a distinge, a deduce

Relaţii, interrelaţii, teme, evidenţe, erori, argumente, cauze, efecte, consistenţe, părţi, idei, căi indirecte

4.30. CĂUTAREA PRINCIPIILOR DE ORGANIZARE

A analiza, a distinge, a detecta, a deduce

Forme, metode, scopuri, puncte de vedere, tehnici, mijloace, indirecte, structuri, teme, aranjamente, organizări

5.00 SINTEZA (obiectivele prin care elevul este învăţat să îmbine elementele şi

5.1. CREAREA UNEI OPERE PERSONALE

A scrie, a povesti, a relata, a produce, a constitui, a crea, a transmite, a modifica, a documenta

Structuri, modele, produse, proiecte, performanţe, lucrări, comunicări, fapte originale

145

părţile pentru a forma ansambluri, întregi

5.20. ELABORAREA UNUI PLAN DE ACŢIUNE

A propune, a planifica, a produce, a proiecta, a modifica, a specifica

Planuri, obiective, specializări scheme, operaţii, soluţii, modalităţi, mijloace

5.30. DERIVAREA UNOR RELAŢII ABSTRACTE

A produce, a deriva, a dezvolta, a combina, a organiza, a sintetiza, a clarifica, a deduce, a formula, a modifica

Fenomene, taxonomii, concepte, scheme, teorii, relaţii, abstracţii, generalizări, ipoteze, percepţii, modalităţi, descoperiri

6.00 EVALUAREA (obiectivele prin care se urmăreşte formarea capacităţilor de a formula judecăţi de valoare)

6.10. CRITICA INTERNĂ

A judeca, a argumenta, a valida, a evalua, a decide

Pertinenţe, lacune, sofisme, precizia, grade de precizie

1 2 3 4

6.20. CRITICA EXTERNĂ

A judeca, a argumenta, a considera, a compara, a standardiza, a evalua

Scopuri, mijloace, eficienţă, economicitate, utilitate, alternative, planuri de acţiune, standarde, teorii, generalizări.

1. TAXONOMIA LUI KRATHWOHL3

Câtă vreme în domeniul cognitiv se examinează dacă un elev poate îndeplini sau nu o sarcină, în domeniul afectiv trebuie să vedem dacă elevul se comportă cum se cuvine în momentul respectiv. Se pune întrebarea: “Este el în stare să facă un anumit lucru?” iar în celălalt caz “Îl face afectiv?”.

În timp ce în domeniul cognitiv se propun numeroase taxonomii, în domeniul afectiv s-a impus una singură până astăzi: taxonomia lui Krathwohl (1974). Care este esenţa acestei taxonomii?

*

146

În adaptarea si interpretarea taxonomiei obiectivelor aşa cum apare ea la D. Krathwohl şi la B. S. Bloom, Gilbert De Landsheere distinge cinci trepte, cinci etape care merg de la comportamentul cel mai pasiv la comportamentul cel mai activ.

I. INDIVIDUL RĂSPUNDE LA UN STIMUL EXTERN

1. Este numai receptiv;

2. Receptează şi reacţionează;

3. Receptează şi reacţionează acceptând sau refuzând.

II. INDIVIDUL IA INIŢIATIVA

4. El încearcă spontan să înţeleagă, să judece, să simtă. Descoperă în măsură satisfăcătoare sensul valorilor pentru a adopta o filozofie anumită.

5. Acţionează potrivit cu opţiunile sale. Este stadiul adult din punct de vedere psihologic, aşa cum l-a definit P. Osterrieth.

*

Iată clasele de „comportamente”şi de „trăiri” descrise de Krathwohl:

1.0. RECEPTAREA: A-l incita pe elev să recepţioneze sau să dea atenţie unor

stimuli;

1.1.CONŞTIINŢA: Elevul trebuie să fie conştient, să-şi dea seama de un fapt,

de o situaţie, de un fenomen sau o stare de lucruri.

1.2. VOINŢA: Individul acceptă un stimul dat şi nu se eschivează.

1.3. ATENŢIA DIRIJATĂ: Diferenţierea aspectelor unui stimul perceput clar

ca foarte diferit de impresiile învecinate.

2.0. RĂSPUNSUL: Elevul să fie suficient de atras de un subiect, un fenomen,

pentru a încerca să le descopere şi să simtă plăcere

apofundându-le .

2.1. ASENTIMENTUL: Elevul dă un răspuns, dar nu acceptă deplin

necesitatea de a face acest lucru.

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2.2. VOINŢA DE A RĂSPUNDE: Elevul îşi afirmă comportamentul din plină adeziune.

2.3. SATISFACŢIA DE A RĂSPUNDE: Răspunde emoţional din plăcere, de bucurie.

3.0. VALORIZAREA: Elevul manifestă acest comportament cu destulă

coerenţă, în împrejurări corespunzătoare, pentru că

apreciază că el are o valoare.

3.1. ACCEPTAREA UNEI VALORI: Atribuirea unor valori unui fenomen.

3.2 PREFERINŢA PENTRU O VALOARE: Individul caută, doreşte o

angajare destul de profundă faţă de valoare.

3.3. ANGAJAREA: Convingerea implică un grad înalt de certitudine fără

umbre de îndoială, sinceritate, loialitate faţă de un

punct de vedere, un grup sau o cauză.

4.0. ORGANIZAREA: Stabilirea valorilor dominante şi mai profunde.

4.1. CONCEPTUALIZAREA UNEI VALORI: Permite individului să vadă

cum se leagă o valoare de cele pe care le posedă deja

sau cele pe care le va poseda.

4.2. ORGANIZAREA UNUI SISTEM DE VALORI: Elevul adună un

ansamblu de valori, stabileşte o ordine între ele.

5.0. CARACTERIZAREA PRINTR-O VALOARE A UNUI SISTEM DE VALORI : Fiecare valoare are un loc în ierarhia valorilor, fiind organizate

într-un fel de sistem intrinsec coerent.

5.1. DISPOZIŢIE GENERALIZATĂ: Individul îşi revizuieşte opiniile şi îşi

schimbă comportamentul.

5.2. CARACTERIZAREA: Concepţia despre univers, filosofia vieţii,

“viziunea lumii”, Weltanschaung; (concepţie despre

lume)

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1.1.3. Taxonomia lui Harrow

Taxonomia lui Harrow4 este astăzi cea mai dezvoltată şi mai riguroasă. Ea ar trebui considerată drept corespunzătoare, prin importanţă, taxonomiei lui Bloom (în domeniul cognitiv) şi celei a lui Krathwohl (domeniul afectiv).

Definit din punct de vedere operaţional de către Harrow, termenul “psihomotor” include “orice mişcare umană voluntară observabilă care ţine de domeniul învăţării”.

Principiul ierarhic adoptat de autor pare, la prima vedere, destul de vag: “Un continuum care merge de la nivelul inferior al mişcărilor observabile la nivelul superior”. În fapt, A. Harrow nu-şi construieşte edificiul după un criteriu general (de exemplu: coordonarea), ci caută o ordine critică: achiziţia nivelurilor inferioare este absolut necesară pentru a atinge nivelul imediat superior în ierarhia mişcărilor.

Concentrăm într-un tablou cele şase niveluri taxonomice stabilite de Harrow şi arătăm cum se articulează ele ierarhic.

Niveluri Clase de comportament Caracteristici şi posibilitate de optimizare

1.00 Mişcările

reflexe

Baza tuturor mişcărilor. Nu se învaţă. Sunt reacţii naturale la stimuli.

2.00 Mişcările

naturale

sau

fundamentale

Combinaţii de mişcări reflexe.

N.B. 1 şi 2 nu constituie obiective pentru educaţie, cel puţin în cazurile normale.a

Combinaţiile existente vor fi totuşi utilizate în mişcările voluntare.

149

3.00 Aptitudi-

nile percep-

tive

Acesta este nivelul la care începe în mod normal învăţarea şcolară.

Se dezvoltă prin maturizare şi învăţare. Într-adevăr, experienţa învăţării:

- face ca percepţiile să

devină mai acute;

- dezvoltă aptitudinile fizice4.00 Aptitudi-

nile fizice

5.00 Îndemână-

rile motorii

La acest nivel exista un continuum de îndemânări.

Depind:

- de controlul mişcărilor

fundamentale;

- de eficacitatea percepţiilor;

- de nivelul dezvoltării aptitudinilor fizice

6.00 Comuni-

carea ne-

verbală

La acest nivel există un continuum de expresivitate

6.1 Mimica spontană: nu constituie o perspectivă pentru obiectiveb

6.2 Interpretarea voluntară.

Când subiectul dispune de un repertoriu de îndemânări motorii, el este pregătit pentru crearea mişcărilor estetice.

Etapa 6.2 reprezintă apogeul ierarhiei: exprimarea prin dans, mimul* etc.

a Exemplu: mersul. Totuşi, când subiectul este handicapat sau supus reeducării, mersul poate deveni un obiect educativ.

b Anumite mimici pot fi totuşi învăţate voluntar; de asemenea, putem ajunge să dorim transformarea mimicilor instalate spontan.

PREZENTAREA ANALITICĂ

1.00 Mişcările reflexe

* Amintim c ă mimul este un gen de comedie în care actorul se exprim prin gesturi şiă mimic . Originile spectacolului pot fi g site în antichitatea greco-roman . (Nota trad.)ă ă ă

150

Răspunsuri la un stimul independent de voinţa conştientă a learner-ului.

Funcţionale la naştere, mişcările reflexe se dezvoltă prin maturizare.

1.10 Reflexe segmentare (medulare).

Fac să intervină un segment spinal.

1.11 Reflex de flexiune.

1.12 Reflex miotatic*.

1.13 Reflex de extensiune.

1.14 Reflex de extensiune încrucişată.

1.20 Reflexe intersegmentare.

Fac să intervină un segment spinal.

1.21 Reflex cooperativ.

1.22 Reflex antagonic.

1.23 Inducţie succesivă.

1.24 Figură reflexă.

1.30 Reflexe suprasegmentare.

Cer participarea creierului.

1.31 Rigiditatea muşchilor extensori.

1.32 Reacţii plastice.

1.33 Reflexe posturale.

1.331 Reacţii de sprijinire.

1.332 Reacţii de deplasare.

1.333 Reflexe de atitudine tonică.

1.334 Reacţii de redresare.

1.335 Reflexe de prehensiune.

1.336 Reacţii de aşezare în poziţie de executare a salturilor.

2.00 Mişcările fundamentale de bază.

Scheme motorii înnăscute.

151

2.10 Mişcări locomotorii.

2.20 Mişcări specifice în cazul muncii care cere îndemânare (a duce, a lupta a arunca etc.).*

2.30 Mişcări de manipulare.

2.31 Prehensiune.

2.32 Dexteritate.

3.00 Aptitudinile perceptive.

Ajută learner-ul să interpreteze stimuli şi îi permit deci să se adapteze la mediu.

3.10 Discriminare chinestezică.

Subiectul este conştient de corpul său şi de modul în care se mişcă, de

poziţia sa în spaţiu şi de relaţiile dintre corpul său şi mediu.

3.11 Conştiinţa corpului.

Aptitudinea subiectului de a-şi recunoaşte şi controla corpul.

3.111 Bilateralitatea.

Exemplu: a prinde o minge cu ambele mâini.

3.112 Lateralitatea.

Exemplu: a face mingea să salte de mai multe ori bătând-o cu o

singură mână.

3.113 Dominanta stânga-dreapta.

Exemple: a mânca, a scrie, a juca tenis.

3.114 Echilibrul.

Exemplu: a juca şotron.

3.12 Imaginea corporală.

Sentimentele copilului faţă de structura propriului corp .

3.13 Relaţiile dintre corp şi obiectele care-l înconjură în spaţiu.

Referinţă la conceptele de direcţie ale subiectului, la conştiinţa

propriului corp şi la o figură pe care el o creează în spaţiu.

* Reflex de întindere muscular .(Nota trad.)ă

152

3.20 Discriminarea vizuală.

3.21 Acuitatea vizuală.

Aptitudinea subiectului de a recepta şi de a diferenţia diverse obiecte,

evenimente şi medii observate.

Exemple: a distinge un cerc de un pătrat, a distinge un b de un d, a

alege un obiect mic dintr-un grup de obiecte de mărime variabilă.

3.22 A putea urmări cu ochii (tracking).

Aptitudinea subiectului de a urmări simboluri sau obiecte prin mişcări

oculare coordonate.

Exemple: a urmări zborul unui avion sau traiectoria unei mingi de tenis

de masă, a urmări mişcările unei pendule.

3.23 Memoria vizuală.

Exemple: a desena din memorie simboluri geometrice, a scrie

alfabetul, a silabisi un cuvânt, a reproduce mişcări observate în trecut,

o secvenţă de paşi dintr-un dans clasic.

3.24 Diferenţierea figură-fond.

Exemple: a face să salte de mai multe ori o minge, a juca tenis de

masă, a juca tenis.

3.25 Persistenţa perceptivă (consistancy).

Aptitudinea subiectului de a fi constant în interpretarea sa când vede

obiecte de acelaşi tip.

Exemplu: deşi au mărimi diferite, toate monedele sunt rotunde.

3.30 Discriminarea auditivă.

Este legată mai mult de comportamentele cognitive.

3.31 Acuitatea auditivă.

Aptitudinea subiectului de a recepta şi diferenţia sunete, de a descrie

intensitatea şi înălţimea corespunzătoare.

153

Exemple: a diferenţia sunetele emise de diferite instrumente, a

identifica sunetele emise de animale domestice, a identifica, auzind un

cuvânt, vocalele şi consoanele care îl compun.

3.32 Orientarea auditivă (tracking).

Aptitudinea subiectului de a distinge direcţia sunetului şi de a urmări acest sunet.

3.33 Memoria auditivă.

Aptitudinea de a recunoaşte şi reproduce experienţe postauditive.

Exemple: a cânta din memorie o melodie la pian, a prezenta trei

persoane care ne-au fost prezentate cu puţin timp mai înainte, a repeta

alfabetul.

3.40 Discriminarea tactilă.

Aptitudinea subiectului de a diferenţia diverse ţesături folosind numai pipăitul.

3.50 Aptitudinile coordonate.

Exemple: a prinde o minge, a face să salte o minge mare.

3.51 Coordonarea oculo-manuală.

Aptitudinea de a alege un obiect din mediul său ambiant, de a coordona

o percepţie vizuală cu o mişcare de manipulare.

Exemple: un desen, o copie.

3.52 Coordonarea ochi-picioare.

Aptitudinea de a coordona o percepţie vizuală cu o mişcare a

membrelor inferioare.

4.00 Calităţi fizice.

Caracteristicile funcţionale de vigoare organică.

4.10 Rezistenţa.

4.11 Rezistenţa musculară.

4.12 Rezistenţa cardio-vasculară.

4.20 Forţa.

154

4.30 Supleţea.

4.40 Agilitatea.

Aptitudinea de a se mişca repede, ceea ce implică dexteritatea şi rapiditatea mişcării.

Exemple: un violonist trebuie să aibă dexteritate pentru a cânta un pizzicato; un copil mic trebuie să dovedească un anumit grad de agilitate pentru a evita o minge, portarul unei echipe de hochei pe gheaţă trebuie să aibă un timp de reacţie foarte scurt.

4.41 Schimbarea de direcţie.

Aptitudinea de a schimba direcţia unei mişcări fără a încheia complet activitatea.

4.42 Opriri şi porniri.

Aptitudinea de a începe şi de a termina o mişcare cu un minimum

de ezitare. Este legată foarte strâns de timpul de răspuns.

4.43 Timpul de reacţie.

Timpul dintre apariţia unui stimul şi apariţia răspunsului.

4.44 Dexteritatea.

Priveşte îndemânările motorii fine care implică mişcări precise ale

mâinii şi degetelor.

5.00 Mişcările de dexteritate (skilled movements).

Implică dezvoltarea la un anumit grad de competenţă sau măiestrie.

5.10 Skill adaptativ simplu.

Mişcările de bază (nivelul 2) sunt schimbate sau modificate pentru a se a adapta la situaţii sau circumstanţe noi.

Exemple: a bate la maşina de scris, a cânta la pian.

5.11 Nivel iniţial.

5.12 Intermediar.

5.13 Avansat.

5.14 Foarte avansat.

5.20 Skill adaptativ compus.

Implică mânuirea unui instrument sau a unei unelte.

155

Exemple: toate skills-urile care intervin în jocurile cu racheta (tenis,

badminton, tenis de masă), hocheiul şi golful.


5.22 Intermediar.

5.23 Avansat.


5.30 Skill adaptativ complex.

Aplicarea legilor fizice ale corpului uman în repaus sau în mişcare.

Exemple: acrobaţii la gimnastică, sărituri la trambulină, dans.


5.32 Intermediar.

5.33 Avansat.


6.00 Comunicarea neverbală.

6.10 Mişcarea expresivă.

6.11 Poziţia corpului şi mersul.

6.12 Gesturile.

6.13 Expresia feţei.

6.20 Mişcarea interpretativă.

Mijloc de care dispune subiectul pentru a traduce printr-un simţ obiectiv (figura pe care corpul său o execută în spaţiu prin mişcare) evenimente subiective (sentimente sau emoţii).

6.21 Mişcările estetice.

Toate skills-urile dintr-un sport în care subiectul ajunge în alt nivel de performanţă şi obţine graţia şi fluiditatea mişcării.

6.22 Mişcare creatoare destinată să transmită un mesaj sau expresie.

Dansul, mimul.

1.3.TEHNICI DE ANALIZĂ A CONŢINUTULUI9

156

Am anticipat şi analizat necesitatea de a nu porni în proiectarea lecţiei sau a unui sistem de lecţii de la conţinuturi, ci de la obiectivele ( “ rezultatele aşteptate “ ) ale înstruirii. Ori de câte ori obiectivele activităţii didactice sunt definite în termeni operaţionali, cadrul didactic şi elevii se află în situaţia de a cunoaşte cu precizie “ce trebuie să ştie” sau “ce trebuie sa ştie să facă” elevii.

Încă din 1972, Sidney Ştrauss a încercat să găsească o legătură între modelul ierarhic al învăţării şi un model consistent al dezvoltării. El a reuşit să pună în acord la data aceea ierarhia lui Gagne cu teoria stadială a dezvoltării intelectuale, elaborate de către Jean Piaget. Este cunoscut educatorilor pricipiul didactic formulat de Comenius şi susţinut de Jean - Jacques Rousseau: respectarea particularităţilor de vârstă şi individuale. Aceasta este o evidenţă clară. Ea este valabilă în sine, dar nu poate fi urmată dacă nu sunt cunoscute ştiinţific aceste “particularităţi”. Integrarea propusă de către Strauss (1972), reprezintă o tentativă de fundamentare a cerinţei pe care acest principiu o formulează. Ierarhiei lui Gagne i s-au găsit însă, o serie de limite importante. Acestea se referă la prea stricta delimitare a primelor două trepte ale modelului (legături S-R, asociaţii verbale, discriminări) şi mai ales la ultima treaptă (rezolvarea de probleme). A stârnit critici absenţa din modul lui Gagne a învăţăturii creative. R.M.Gagne şi L.J.Briggs (1964) au încercat să arate că prin rezolvarea de probleme se pot înţelege şi comportamente ale învăţării creative. Odată cu revoluţia ştiinţifică şi “explozia informaţională” s-a pomenit în faţa unui obstacol mult mai grav. Este vorba de … alegerea informaţiilor esenţiale pentru învăţarea eficientă.

1.3.1.Analiza conţinutului instruirii

Analiza conţinutului instruirii – care putea fi ignorată în şcoala clasică – a devenit astăzi o stringenţă; ea poate fi realizată mult mai riguros în condiţiile proiectării activităţii didactice pentru determinarea eficacităţii generale a învăţării ( “mastery learning” ). Definirea operaţională a obiectivelor activităţii didactice permite alegerea raţională a conţinuturilor de învăţare. Această sarcină prezintă o serie de dificultăţi mai ales în cadrul sistemului de învăţământ organizat pe clase şi lecţii, unde învăţarea şcolară se derulează într-un cadru spaţio-temporal limitat, în care educatorul trebuie să adapteze o serie imensă de cunoştinţe.

Au fost elaborate o serie de tehnici de analiză a conţinutului care pot fi utilizate de către educatori în funcţie de specificul disciplinelor pe care le predau, a resurselor psihopedagogice disponibile şi a obiectivelor urmărite. Se propun trei asemenea tehnici : tehnica arborilor logici, tehnica grafurilor de cunoştinţe şi tehnica băncilor de conţinuturi.

1.3.2.“Arborii logici”

Structura logică a unei materii de învăţământ poate fi reprezentată ca o reţea de componente ce cresc progresiv la fiecare nivel, precum ramurile unui arbore. Acest model de organizare presupune o “structură în arbore” şi permite o “analiză în arbore”.

Cel mai cunoscut exemplu de “analiză în arbore” este cel propus de către Le Xuan

( 1965 ), “Arborele de conţinut”. Este un exemplu tipic de analiză a conţinutului bazată pe comportamente bine definite şi pe ordonarea materiei în funcţie de aceste comportamente. Analiza începe cu enunţul unui obiectiv terminal al unui capitol din materia de învăţământ, apoi pe o coloană în stânga se

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notează acest enunţ : pe coloana din dreapta se scriu unităţile de conţinut în care poate fi descompus acest obiectiv, se notează fiecare unitate în subunităţi, de asemenea numerotate ( 1.1., 1’.2.).

După terminarea acestei operaţii se revine la coloana din stânga şi se descompune ficare unitate de conţinut cu cifre arabe : 1, 2, 3.

1.3.3.Sistemul mathetic şi “analiza sarcinilor”

Un alt exemplu de analiză regresivă este aşa-numitul “sistem mathetic” al lui Gilbert (1962). Conform acestei tehnici, fiecare unitate de analiză comportă o legătură S-R proprie, unde S, reprezintă situaţiile de învăţare şi R rezultatele acestora. Dacă presupunem un comportament terminal oarecare,

atunci legăturile sale vor fi : S0--- R1 ; S1--- R2 ; S2--- R3. Ordinea învăţării acestor legături se va face de la S0 către R3, dar analiza conţinutului acestei învăţări se va face regresiv : se va începe cu legătura

S2--- R3 apoi cu S1--- R2 şi în fine S0--- R1.

Se produce astfel o translare a logicii ştiinţifică în logică a învăţării care respectă şi principiul simplificării controlate (sau al “înaintării de la simplu la complex, de la uşor la greu”.)

Unii autori au regăsit la “sistemul mathetic” o analogie cu ierarhia tipurilor a lui Gagne (1965).

Pentru Gagne “logica internă” a materiei de învăţământ trebuie să urmeze logica internă a învăţării. Prin urmare, o analiză regresivă, cu ajutorul ierarhiei învăţării, a conţinuturilor de învăţământ ar presupune următoarea ordine : rezolvarea de probleme, învăţare de principii, învăţare de concepte, discriminări multiple, asociaţii verbale, înlănţuiri motrice, legături S-R, învăţare de semnale.

O altă tehnică analogă cu “analiza în arbore” este cea propusă de către Annett şi Duncan (1967) : “analiza sarcinilor”.

Modelul utilizat de către cei doi autori, se sprijină pe analogia reţelei de sarcini de învăţare cu circuitele electronice: în orice materie de învăţământ ar exista “blocuri” ale grupurilor de operaţii cognitive şi “legături” corespunzând rezultatelor (produselor) acestor operaţii.

Cunoscând un comportament terminal A, se pot “calcula” produsele (rezultatele) învăţării şi regăsi operaţiile care fac posibile aceste produse. Pe această bază se pot formula sarcinile de învăţare care conduc prin îndeplinire la comportamentul terminal dorit.

1.3.4. “Grafuri şi reţele de cunoştinţe”

În principiu, orice materie de învăţământ comportă două elemente fundamentale: unităţi de conţinut şi reţele de conexiuni între aceste unităţi.

Regnier şi Montmollin (1969) observaseră că orice materie de învăţământ poate fi caracterizată.

Fiecare “unitate de conţinut” va putea fi definită în termeni de performanţă observabilă şi măsurabilă, cu ajutorul unei proceduri oarecare de operaţionalizare a obiectivelor.

Regăsirea legăturilor unei “unităţi de conţinut” este o relaţie binară cu alte unităţi. Orice “unitate de conţinut” care trebuie studiată, este un mijloc de reacţie: constituie Răspuns faţă de o “unitate de conţinut” achiziţionată anterior şi Stimul faţă de o “unitate de conţinut” ce va fi învăţată ulterior. Orice ansamblu de învăţare va putea fi reprezentat ca un graf de “unităţi de conţinut”.

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O altă tehnică de analiză a conţinutului din perspectiva grafurilor, este “analiza reţelelor” propusă de către Wyant (1971).

O “reţea” este un ansamblu de “noduri” (conţinuturi), legate între ele prin vectori. Conform teoriei grafurilor, orice materie de învăţământ va putea fi reprezentată ca, reţele de arcuri orientale (săgeţi) reprezentând relaţiile între componentele unui program instrucţional dat. Aceste săgeţi indică grafic caracteristicile generale ale vectorilor.

1.3.5. “Băncile de conţinuturi”

Quere (1975) a propus organizarea ansamblului informaţiilor dintr-un anumit domeniu, în vederea învăţării lor, sub forma unor aşa numite “bănci de conţinuturi”.

O “bancă de conţinuturi” ar fi alcătuită din cel puţin trei elemente: un ansamblu “A”, reprezentând un grup de conţinuturi interdependente; un sistem de relaţii în interiorul lui A, notat cu “R”; o aplicare a lui A, notată “a”, reprezentând utilizarea operaţională a lui A în raport cu alte subansambluri de informaţii. Corelaţia A,R,a, constituie un modul ce poate fi considerat ca unitate de bază în care va putea fi organizată o “bancă de conţinuturi”.

Conform aprecierilor actuale, se consideră că viitorul instruirii eficiente este legat în mare măsură de elaborarea “băncilor de conţinuturi” pentru una sau mai multe discipline de învăţământ, de construirea “modulelor” instrucţionale ( DE LANDSHEERE, 1976; LAVALLEE, 1975; DONNAY şi DE BAL, 1977).

“Băncile de conţinuturi” ar putea devenii un fel de “rezervoare educaţionale” (naţionale sau internaţionale) care ar facilita în mod apreciabil, activitatea cadrelor didactice. Ar fi, probabil, cea mai bună utilizare pedagogică a calculatorului în educaţie.

2. ALTE MODALITĂŢI DE PROIECTARE PEDAGOGICĂ

Aşa cum am mai menţionat, modelul de proiectare pedagogică prezentat în această carte aparţine lui Ion Negreţ-Dobridor, care a colaborat mulţi ani cu prof.Ioan Jinga. Ar fi însă greşit să se

creadă că aceasta este singura modalitate de proiectare pedagogică. Există, cei drept, şi multe năzbâtii care s-au scris pe această temă de către autori insuficient avizaţi şi iresponsabili în raport cu eigenţele şi dificultăţile aplicării acestor "producţii" în practică; dar există şi alte modalităţi valoroase de proiectare

pedagogică propuse de către autori români. Spaţiul tipografic alocat acestui capitol nu permite descrierea lor detaliată. Trimitem însă la lucrările respective cu scurte caracterizări:

Modelul lui Lazăr Vlăsceanu. Este un model ingenios care are în vedere locul proiectării în ansamblul activităţii pedagogice:

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Timpul Acţiunile

Din păcate, acest model este ipotetic şi nu a fost experimentat (sau cel puţin rezultatele experimentelor nu au fost publicate până în prezent). Modelul a fost descris în Cap.13 (p.225-250) din Curs de pedagogie (coordonatori Ioan Cerghit şi L. Vlăsceanu), Tipografia Univ. Bucureşti; 1984.)

Modelul lui Eugen Noveanu. Este un model care insistă asupra “învăţării formative” fiind un produs tipic al “pedagogiei prin obiective”. Prezentarea sa a fost însoţită de proiecte pedagogice pentru predarea-învăţarea matematicii (Dan Mihalea), fizicii (Andrei Ionescu Zanetti) şi chimiei (Demetra Preoteasa).

Modelul este descris în lucrarea Modele de instruire formativă la disciplinele fundamentale de învăţământ (E. D. P., Bucureşti, 1983) care are ca autori pe toţi cei numiţi mai sus, coordonaţi de Eugen P. Noveanu.

Modelul lui Ioan Cerghit. Acest model are meritul de a fi încercat să evite riscurile “algoritmizării forţate” pe care le implică “didactica prin obiective”. Profesorul Cerghit este adeptul a ceea ce se cheamă “management by men” în educaţie şi pledează, cu argumente greu de contrazis, pentru o “proiectare creativă”.

Modelul este descris in Perfecţionarea lecţiei în şcoala modernă (E.D. P., Bucureşti, 1983) coordonată de autorul în discuţie.

Modelul lui I. C. Roman. Acest model pledează pentru “învăţarea în clasă” bazându-se pe o practică structurată eclectic din teorii destul de diferite (Skinner, Galperin, Okon etc.). Se pare însă că

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demonstraţiile experimentale organizate în şcoli ieşene au condus spre rezultate bune. I. C. Roman a fost însă şi criticat, unii autori acuzându-l chiar că ar fi adeptul eliminării “studiului independent” al elevilor.

Modelul este descris în Lecţii în spiritul metodelor active (E.D.P., Bucureşti, 1980), lucrare realizată împreună cu Pelaghia Popescu.

Modelul lui Miron Ionescu. În lucrarea sa Lecţia între proiect şi realizare (Ed. Dacia, Cluj, 1982) se află idei valoroase privind rolul comunicării non-verbale în eficientizarea lecţiilor. Din nefericire, modelul lui Miron Ionescu este însoţit de comentarii uimitoare, referitoare la estetica produselor şi “designul industrial” pe care le consideră ca având legătură cu “lecţiile frumoase”. Dar proiectarea pedagogică nu are legături cu calistica sau estetica – ci cu rigoarea, coerenţa, eficienţa şi instruirea. Educatorul interesat poate însă ignora aceste “scăpări” ale ilustrului psihopedagog clujean.

Modelul lui Vasile Bunescu. Profesorul Vasile Bunescu a organizat şi prezentat în “Revista de pedagogie” în anii 1982-1985 o serie de experimente de aplicare a modelului mastery learning al lui John B. Carrol căruia i-a adus corective menite să îl facă aplicabil la sistemul de învăţământ bazat pe clase şi lecţii.

Modelul lui I. T. Radu. Proiectarea pedagogică, în viziunea profesorului I. T. Radu nu trebuie să se bazeze pe o “didactică prin obiective”, ci pe o bizară “pedagogie a conţinuturilor”. După I. T. Radu proiectarea începe cu consultarea programei analitice - fie bună, fie rea, dar aprobată de Ministerul Educaţiei – şi se sfârşeşte cu evaluarea conţinuturilor însuşite de elevi.

În ciuda acestui neajuns, profesorul I. T. Radu a adus contribuţii fundamentale la teoria “evaluării prin obiective pedagogice”. Lucrarea sa Teorie şi practică în evaluarea eficienţei învăţământului (E.D.P., Bucureşti, 1961) rezolvă în chip magistral întreaga problematică a “proiectării pedagogice prin obiective” chiar dacă, în chip surprinzător, autorul a pledat adesea pentru alternative de proiectare contrare acesteia.

3. STRUCTURI GRAFICE DE PROIECTE

PEDAGOGICE

A. În capitolele anterioare am figurat structura grafică pe care o socotim cea mai potrivită pentru realizarea în scris a unui proiect pedagogic. Acestui proiect i se poate ataşa şi ceea ce am numit, după o expresie a lui Katims (1977) “scenariul didactic” al activităţii care este figurat în paragraful “Câteva sugestii practice privind utilizarea eficientă a timpului de învăţare în clasă”.

B. Sunt posibile însă şi alte “scheme grafice”. O recomandăm şi pe cea propusa de catre Lazăr Vlăsceanu:

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Eşalonarea in timp Obiective

operaţional

e

Unităţi de conţinut

(sarcini de învăţare)

Tipuri de standarde

pentru evaluare

Observaţii

T1

.

.

.Tn

O1

.

.

.On

S1

.

.

.Sn

SP1

.

.

.SPn

C. Evident, are puţină importanţă forma grafică în care este redactat un proiect pedagogic. Totuşi, forma recomandată de noi permite unele avantaje. Exersând vreme mai îndelungată proiecte precum exemplul care urmează, educatorii ajung la simplificări succesive. În ultima fază, educatorul ajunge să redacteze în scris numai lista de obiective operaţionale, având capacitatea de a “vedea” activităţile didactice prin prisma unor rezultate măsurabile şi abilitatea de a deriva uşor celelalte componente ale “drumului” de la obiective la rezultate. Proiectul care urmează a fost redactat de o învăţătoare de elită ,sub coordonarea mea, la începutul procesului de iniţiere a sa în tainele designului instrucţional. A perseverat mai mulţi ani. Astăzi, ilustra dăscăliţă reuşeşte să îi inveţe pe toţi totul, “proiectând doar mintal” activităţi mastery learning.

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DOCUMENTAREDocumentarul Nr.1

MANAGEMENTUL CARIEREI

1.1. CE ESTE CARIERA

Career is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as a person's "course or progress through life (or a distinct portion of life)". It is usually considered to pertain to remunerative work (and sometimes also formal education).

The etymology of the term comes from the Latin word carrera, which means race (as in "rat race", see Careerism).

Historical changes

By the late 20th century, a wide range of choices (especially in the range of potential professions) and more widespread education had allowed it to become possible to plan (or design) a career: in this respect the careers of the career counselor and of the career advisor have grown up. It is also not uncommon for adults in the late 20th/early 21st centuries to have dual or multiple careers, either sequentially or concurrently. Thus, professional identities have become hyphenated or hybridized to reflect this shift in work ethic. Economist Richard Florida notes this trend generally and more specifically among the "creative class".

Supporting careers

Career Assessments are tests that come in a variety of forms and rely on both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Career Assessments can help individuals identify and better articulate their unique interests, values, and skills. Career counselors, executive coaches, career development centers, and outplacement companies often administer career assessments to help individuals focus their search on careers that closely match their unique personal profile.

Career counseling advisors assess people's interests, personality, values and skills, and also help them explore career options and research graduate and professional schools. Career counseling provides one-on-one or group professional assistance in exploration and decision making tasks related to choosing a major/occupation, transitioning into the world of work or further professional training. The field is vast and includes career placement, career planning, learning strategies and student development.

For a pre-modernist notion of "career", compare cursus honorum.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursus_honorum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career_counseling

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outplacement

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaching#Business_coaching

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career_counselors

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career_Assessments

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_class

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Florida

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_careers

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_careers

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profession

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Careerism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat_race

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat_race


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary

1.2. MANAGEMENTUL CARIEREI

Career Management is the combination of structured planning and the active management choice of one's own professional career.

The outcome of successful career management should include personal fulfilment, work/life balance, goal achievement and financial assurity.

Introduction

The word career covers all types of employment ranging from semi-skilled through skilled, and semi professional to professional. The term careers has often been restricted to suggest an employment commitment to a single trade skill, profession or business firm for the entire working life of a person. In recent years, however, career now refers to changes or modifications in employment during the foreseeable future.

There are many definitions by management scholars of the stages in the managerial process. The following classification system with minor variations is widely used:

1. Development of overall goals and objectives, 2. Development of a strategy (a general means to accomplish the selected goals/objectives), 3. Development of the specific means (policies, rules, procedures and activities) to implement

the strategy, and 4. Systematic evaluation of the progress toward the achievement of the selected

goals/objectives to modify the strategy, if necessary.

Goals or objectives development

The career management process begins with setting goals/objectives. A relatively specific goal/objective must be formulated. This task may be quite difficult when the individual lacks knowledge of career opportunities and/or is not fully aware of their talents and abilities. However, the entire career management process is based on the establishment of defined goals/objectives whether specific or general in nature. Utilizing career assessments may be a critical step in identifying opportunities and career paths that most resonate with someone. Career assessments can range from quick and informal like those on CareerBuilder or may be more indepth like those such as Myers-Briggs and CareerLeader supported assessments found on MyPath. Regardless of the ones you use, you will need to evaluate them. Most assessments found today for free (although good) do not offer an in-depth evaluation.

The time horizon for the achievement of the selected goals or objectives - short term, medium term or long term - will have a major influence on their formulation.

1. Short term goals (one or two years) are usually specific and limited in scope. Short term goals are easier to formulate. Make sure they are achievable and relate to your longer term career goals.

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http://connect.mypath.com/mypath/community/tools-and-assessments

http://www.careerleader.com/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs

http://www.careerpath.com/careerpath/career-tests/default.aspx?utm_source=cbhome&utm_medium=ardrop&utm_content=careertests&cbRecursionCnt=1&cbsid=3d7bc739a3f54621a12b7315e866329e-334834324-RC-4

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning

2. Intermediate goals (3 to 5 years) tend to be less specific and more open ended than short term goals. Both intermediate and long term goals are more difficult to formulate than short term goals because there are so many unknowns about the future.

3. Long term goals (more than 5 years), of course, are the most fluid of all. Lack of life experience and knowledge about potential opportunities and pitfalls make the formulation of long term goals/objectives very difficult. Long range goals/objectives, however, may be easily modified as additional information is received without a great loss of career efforts because of experience/knowledge transfer from one career to another.

4. Making career choices and decisions – the traditional focus of careers interventions. The changed nature of work means that individuals may now have to revisit this process more frequently now and in the future, more than in the past.

5. Managing the organizational career – concerns the career management tasks of individuals within the workplace, such as decision-making, life-stage transitions, dealing with stress etc.

6. Managing 'boundaryless' careers – refers to skills needed by workers whose employment is beyond the boundaries of a single organisation, a workstyle common among, for example, artists and designers.

7. Taking control of one's personal development – as employers take less responsibility, employees need to take control of their own development in order to maintain and enhance their employability.

Other elements include:

• Career change (Ibarra 2003) (Strenger 2008)

1.3. Career Planning

Career planning is a subset of career management. Career planning applies the concepts of Strategic planning and Marketing to taking charge of one's professional future.

CAREER DEVELOPMENT

In organizational development (or OD), the study of career development looks at:

• how individuals manage their careers within and between organizations and, • how organizations structure the career progress of their members, it can also be tied into

succession planning within some organizations.

In personal development, career development is:

• " ... the total constellation of psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic, and chance factors that combine to influence the nature and significance of work in the total lifespan of any given individual." [1]

• The evolution or development of a career - informed by (1) Experience within a specific field of interest (2) Success at each stage of development - and (3), educational attainment.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career_Development#cite_note-0

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_development

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession_planning


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_development

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_planning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career_management#CITEREFStrenger2008

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career_management#CITEREFIbarra2003

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career_change

http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Workplace


• "... the lifelong psychological and behavioral processes as well as contextual influences shaping one’s career over the life span. As such, career development involves the person’s creation of a career pattern, decision-making style, integration of life roles, values expression, and life-role self concepts." [2]

Figures in career development

• JESSE B. DAVIS [3] • JOHN L. HOLLAND • FRANK PARSONS • EDGAR SCHEIN • RINO SCHREUDER

JOHN L. HOLLAND

John L. Holland is an American psychologist who spent much of his career at Johns Hopkins University. He received his B.S. from the University of Omaha and Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota.

Holland is the creator of the RIASEC career development model often referred to as the Holland Codes.

Holland CodesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Holland hexagon

The Holland Codes represents a set of personality types described in a theory of careers and vocational choice formulated by psychologist John L. Holland.[1] Holland's theory argued that "the choice of a vocation is an expression of personality" and that the six factor typology he articulated could be used to describe both persons and work environments.[1] His typology provides an interpretative structure for a number of different vocational interest surveys, including the two measures he developed: The Vocational Preference Inventory and the Self Directed Search. His model has been adopted by the U.S. Department of Labor for categorizing jobs relative to interests.[2] Holland's theory does not assume that a person is just one type or that there are "only six types of people in the world." [1] Instead, he assumed that any person could be described as having interests associated with each of the six types in a descending order of preference. This

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Codes#cite_note-1



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_L._Holland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Codes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Codes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesota

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesota

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph.D.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Omaha

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.S.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rino_H._C._Schreuder

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Schein

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Parsons

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_L._Holland


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_B._Davis


assumption allows the Holland Codes to be used to describe 720 (6!) different personality patterns. As the theory is applied in interest inventories and job classifications, it is usually only the two or three most dominant codes that are used for vocational guidance.

In presenting his theory, Holland graphically represented the six types as arrayed on a hexagon.[1] This graphic representation serves to describe the empirically determined correlations between the types. The shorter the distance between their corners on the hexagon, the more closely they are related.

Taken together, the Holland Codes are usually referred to by their first letters: RIASEC.

The six personality and work environment types described by Holland are as follows:

• Realistic - practical, physical, hands-on, tool-oriented • Investigative - analytical, intellectual, scientific, explorative • Artistic - creative, original, independent, chaotic • Social - cooperative, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing • Enterprising - competitive environments, leadership, persuading • Conventional - detail-oriented, organizing, clerical

DOER (REALISTIC)

Working with one's hands, with tools, machines, and things; practical, mechanically inclined, and physical:

• Archaeologist • Architect • Astronaut • Baseball player • Carpenter • Chef • Computer scientist • Driver • Engineer: Chemical, Civil, Electrical, Mechanical, etc. • Farmer • Firefighter • Gardener/Horticulturist • Information technologist • Instructional technologist • Laborer • Martial arts specialist • Mechanic /Automobiles • Paramedic • Pharmacist • Physical therapist • Pilot • Police Officer • Soldier

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldier

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_Officer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_therapist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramedic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanic

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martial_arts_specialist&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laborer

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Instructional_technologist&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technologist

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gardener/Horticulturist&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmer

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Engineer:_Chemical,_Civil,_Electrical,_Mechanical,_etc.&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driving

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_scientist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chef

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpenter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball_player

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architect

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeologist


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factorial

• Veterinarian THINKER (INVESTIGATIVE)

Working with theory and information, analytical, intellectual, scientific:

• Actuary • Computer science • Economist • Engineer • Finance • Lawyer • Mathematics • Pharmacy • Physician /Medical school • Professor (all fields) • Psychologist • Psychiatrist • Science • Statistics • Surgeon

CREATOR (ARTISTIC)

Non-conforming, original, independent, chaotic, creative:

• Actor • Writer /Poet • Dancer • Painter /Graphic designer • Musician • Cosmetology

HELPER (SOCIAL)

Cooperative environments, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing:

• Therapist • Audiologist • Babysitter • Caretaker • Mental Health Counselor • Education • Instructional technology • Martial arts • Nurse • Nutritionist • Physician • Professor • Psychologist

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritionist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurse

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martial_arts

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_technology


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_Health_Counselor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caregiver

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babysitter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audiologist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmetology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musician

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_designer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatrist


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_school

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawyer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuary

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinarian

• Receptionist • Social Worker • Teacher • Theology • Trainer (business) • Speech-language pathologist

PERSUADER (ENTERPRISING)

Competitive environments, leading, persuading, selling, dominating, promoting, status:

• Administration • Academic administration • Business /MBA • Communications • Insurance • Investment Banker • Journalism • Law / Politics • Marketing / Advertising • Management • Management Consultant • Public Health • Publishing • Public relations • Public policy • Real Estate • Retail • Stockbroker • Salesmen

ORGANIZER (CONVENTIONAL)

Precise, perfect attention to detail, orderly, organizing, status:

• Accountant • Actuary • Administration • Banking /Investment bank • Business /MBA • Clerk • Copy Editing • Instructional technology • Lexicographer • Librarian • Payroll • Proofreader • Secretary • Technical writer

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payroll

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Librarian

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicographer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_technology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copy_Editing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerk_(position)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_bank

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banking

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuary

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountant

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salesmen

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockbroker

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retailer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Estate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_policy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_relations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publishing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Health

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_consulting

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_Banker

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_studies

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBA


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_administration

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(business)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech-language_pathologist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trainer_(business)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Worker

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptionist

HOPKINS PROFESSOR

MAKES CAREER CHOICES HIS JOB

Retired Johns Hopkins University professor John Holland enjoys his career of examining the occupational options of others; he recently finished revisions on the third edition of "Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments." The work, published by Psychological Assessment Resources, first made its debut in 1959 with another publisher. Since then, it has been updated several times.

Holland, 77, retired from what is now the Sociology Department in 1980, but he has hardly stopped working. "This book is my sixth attempt to create a more satisfying theory of careers," he writes in the preface. "I never seem to get it quite right."

Holland's theory states that all people fit into one or more personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. (These are the basis for his RIASEC theory, which is widely used by career counseling professionals.) He applies the same six characteristics to work and home environments and says some outcomes can be determined by examining the combinations of personality types and environments. For example, professional choices and levels of achievement may be predicted, he says.

PAR also publishes several varieties of evaluations titled Self-Directed Searches, including "The Occupations Finder," "You and Your Career" and "A Guide to Educational and Career Planning" that may accompany the book.

Holland is convinced that students can be better prepared for professional lives if they evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. His Self-Directed Search forms, which have also been adapted for those with reading and learning difficulties, include statements such "I understand the 'Big Bang' theory of the universe" and "I can refinish furniture or woodwork." Participants then total the number of statements with which they agree and interpret the findings on their own.

"The techniques are childlike they're so simple," Holland says. "Personality and interest inventories are kind of an interview about life histories."

While some may balk at being pigeonholed into one of six areas, Holland says inevitably most people remain where they excel.

"Certain changes are hard to make. The artistic types rarely seem to move. And the science types tend to stay there," he says. "Some engineers frequently become entrepreneurs who are using their background."

Holland believes the simplicity of his tests and theories is what makes them effective. "Some scientists think that because this is so easy to understand, it can't amount to anything," he said. "In science there is often a sales mission, though people don't like to admit that. In fact, anybody can get this message if they want it."

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Holland's own makeup includes artistic, social and investigative components. "I've got a relatively flat profile, actually," he says. "That makes you more versatile, complex and quite a bit confused."

A graduate of the University of Omaha who received his master's degree and Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Minnesota, Holland arrived at Hopkins in 1969. He served as a professor and director of the Center for Social Organization of Schools before his "quasi-retirement."

FRANK PARSONS

Frank Parsons (1854-1908) is known as the Father of Vocational Guidance. Although he was educated as an engineer at Cornell University, he wrote several books on social reform movements and articles related to women's suffrage, taxation, and education for all. Additionally, he taught history, math, and French in public schools, worked as a railroad engineer, and passed the state bar examination for lawyers in Massachusetts in 1881. His university occupations included teaching at Boston University School of Law and at Kansas State Agricultural College (See Kansas State University), and serving as dean of the extension division of Ruskin College in Trenton, Missouri. However, Parsons is best known for his interests in helping individuals make occupational and career choices (Zunker, 2002).

Accomplishments

In 1901, Mrs. Quincy Agassiz Shaw, a philanthropist, established the Civic Service House in Boston as an effort to provide educational opportunities for immigrants and young persons seeking work. Later in 1905, Parsons became director of one of the Civic Service House programs called the Breadwinner's Institute (Zunker, 2002). Afterwards, Parsons organized the Bureau of Vocational Guidance. Nine months later, Parsons used the Bureau to train young men to be counselors and managers for YMCA's schools, colleges, and businesses. A few years later, the School Committee of Boston created the first counselor certification program, and eventually the program was adopted by Harvard University as the first college-based counselor education program (Schmidt 2003). Also, the superintendent of Boston schools designated 100 elementary and secondary teachers to become vocational counselors, this became known as the Boston Plan. Within a few years, school systems across the country followed suit.

On May 1, 1908, Parsons presented a lecture that had tremendous impact on the career guidance movement, by presenting a report that described systematic guidance procedures used to counsel 80 men and women who used the bureau for help. Shortly later, he died on September 26, 1908, and his major work, Choosing a Vocation, was published in May 1909. Parsons developed a framework to help individuals decide on a career. This framework contained a three part formulation.

1. First, a clear understanding of yourself, aptitudes, abilities, interests, resources, limitations, and other qualities

2. Second, a knowledge of the requirements and conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages, compensations, opportunities, and prospects in different lines of work

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_certification

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YMCA

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bureau_of_Vocational_Guidance&action=edit&redlink=1

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civic_Service_House&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philanthropist

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quincy_Agassiz_Shaw&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trenton,_Missouri

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trenton,_Missouri

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruskin_College

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_State_University

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_State_University

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_University_School_of_Law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women's_suffrage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_reform

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University

http://scov.csos.jhu.edu/

3. Third, true reasoning of the relations of these two groups of facts (Parsons, 1909, p. 5, as cited in Zunker, 2002)

According to Parsons, ideal career choices are based on matching personal traits (aptitude, abilities, resources, personality) with job factors (wages, environment, etc) to produce the best conditions of vocational success. Parson's framework later became the basis of the contemporary trait/factor theory of career development.

EDGAR HENRY SCHEIN

Edgar Henry Schein (born 1928), a former professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management, has made a notable mark on the field of organizational development in many areas, including career development, group process consultation, and organizational culture. He is generally credited with inventing the term "corporate culture". (The Oxford English Dictionary traces the phrase "corporate culture" as far back as "1966 Acad. Managem. Jrnl. 9 362/2".)

Illustration of Schein's model of organizational culture

Schein's model of organizational culture originated in the 1980s. Schein (2004) identifies three distinct levels in organizational cultures:

1. artifacts and behaviours 2. espoused values 3. assumptions

The three levels refer to the layers of corporate culture.

• Artifacts include any tangible or verbally identifiable elements in an organization. Architecture, furniture, dress code, office jokes, and history all exemplify organizational artifacts.

• Values are the organization's stated or desired cultural elements. This is most often a written or stated tone that the CEO or President hope to exude throughout the office

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_culture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_process_consultation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career_development

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_development

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Sloan_School_of_Management

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Sloan_School_of_Management

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trait/factor_theory&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trait/factor_theory&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aptitude

environment. Examples of this would be employee professionalism, or a "family first" mantra.

• Assumptions are the actual values that the culture represents, not necessarily correlated to the values. These assumptions are typically so well integrated in the office dynamic that they are hard to recognize from within.[1]

The model has undergone various modifications, such as the Raz update of Schein's organizational culture model (2006), and others.

Coercive persuasion

Schein has written on the issues surrounding coercive persuasion, comparing and contrasting brainwashing as a use for "goals that we deplore and goals that we accept."[2]

Publications

• Brainwashing and Totalitarianization in Modern Society (1959) • Coercive Persuasion: A socio-psychological analysis of the "brainwashing" of American

civilian prisoners by the Chinese Communists (1961), W. W. Norton (publishers) • Organizational Psychology (1980) ISBN 0-13-641332-3 • Organizational Culture and Leadership (1985) ISBN 1-55542-487-2 • Process Consultation Revisited (1999) ISBN 0-201-34596-X

1.4. Programul KUDOS

pentru alegerea carierei de c[tre tineri

Kudos is a program used mostly in schools for young people deciding on their career choices and what qualifications they may need to get reach careers. It is designed primarily for use in the United Kingdom, and is used by public and government-operated schools and school systems. It is aimed at students ages 13–20 years.

The Kudos software is available in both CD and online formats. It is one of a range of career resources produced by CASCAiD, a Loughborough University company.

Young people answer a set of 50 questions, followed by a further 67 questions should the user wish to do so. The responses for each question could be one of five answers: dislike very much, dislike, does not matter, like and like very much.

This will then give the young person a list of careers, that match their preferences from the questions. They can then click on these careers and it will enable them to look at the aspects of the career and the qualifications needed for it.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1555424872


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Schein#cite_note-1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwashing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercive_persuasion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raz_update_of_Schein's_organizational_culture_model

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raz_update_of_Schein's_organizational_culture_model

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Schein#cite_note-0

Other areas

Cascaid also produces the Careerscape program accessible from the link below. This is an information program that gives advice on careers, qualifications, subjects and lifestyle issues.

Kudos and Careerscape are produced by cascaid.

1.5. JOB INTERVIEW(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

A job interview is a process in which a potential employee is evaluated by an employer for prospective employment in their company, organization, or firm. During this process, the employer hopes to determine whether or not the applicant is suitable for the job.

Role

A job interview typically precedes the hiring decision, and is used to evaluate the candidate. The interview is usually preceded by the evaluation of submitted résumés from interested candidates, then selecting a small number of candidates for interviews. Potential job interview opportunities also include networking events and career fairs. The job interview is considered one of the most useful tools for evaluating potential employees.[1] It also demands significant resources from the employer, yet has been demonstrated to be notoriously unreliable in identifying the optimal person for the job.[1] An interview also allows the candidate to assess the corporate culture and demands of the job.

Multiple rounds of job interviews may be used where there are many candidates or the job is particularly challenging or desirable. Earlier rounds may involve fewer staff from the employers and will typically be much shorter and less in-depth. A common initial interview form is the phone interview, a job interview conducted over the telephone. This is especially common when the candidates do not live near the employer and has the advantage of keeping costs low for both sides.

Once all candidates have been interviewed, the employer typically selects the most desirable candidate and begins the negotiation of a job offer.

Interview Constructs

In light of its popularity, a stream of research has attempted to identify the constructs (ideas or concepts) that are measured during the interview to understand why interviews might help us pick the right people for the job. Several reviews of the research on interview constructs revealed that the interview captures a wide variety of applicant attributes.[2] [3] [4] These constructs can be classified into three categories: job-relevant interview content (constructs interview questions are designed to assess), interviewee performance (applicant behaviors unrelated to the applicant characteristics the interview questions are designed to assess but nevertheless influence interviewer evaluations of interviewee responses), and potentially job-irrelevant interviewer biases

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment

(personal and demographic characteristics of applicants that may influence interviewer evaluations of interviewee responses in an illegal, discriminatory way).

Job-relevant interview content

Interview questions are generally designed to tap applicant attributes that are specifically relevant to the job for which the person is applying. The job-relevant applicant attributes the questions purportedly assess are thought to be necessary for one to successfully perform on the job. The job-relevant constructs that have been assessed in the interview can be classified into three categories: general traits, experiential factors, and core job elements. The first category refers to relatively stable applicant traits. The second category refers to job knowledge that the applicant has acquired over time. The third category refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities associated with the job.

General Traits:

• Mental ability: Applicants’ capacity to learn and process information[5] • Personality: Conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional stability, extroversion, openness

to new experiences[6] [7] [8] • Interest, goals, and values: Applicant motives, goals, and person-organization fit[9]

Experiential Factors:

• Experience: Job-relevant knowledge derived from prior experience[10] [11] • Education: Job-relevant knowledge derived from prior education • Training: Job-relevant knowledge derived from prior training

Core Job Elements:

• Declarative knowledge: Applicants’ learned knowledge[12] • Procedural skills and abilities: Applicants’ ability to complete the tasks required to do the

job[13] • Motivation: Applicants’ willingness to exert the effort required to do the job[14]

Interviewee Performance

Interviewer evaluations of applicant responses also tend to be colored by how an applicant behaves in the interview. These behaviors may not be directly related to the constructs the interview questions were designed to assess, but can be related to aspects of the job for which they are applying. Applicants without realizing it may engage in a number of behaviors that influence ratings of their performance. The applicant may have acquired these behaviors during training or from previous interview experience. These interviewee performance constructs can also be classified into three categories: social effectiveness skills, interpersonal presentation, and personal/contextual factors.

Social Effectiveness Skills:

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• Impression management: Applicants’ attempt to make sure the interviewer forms a positive impression of them[15] [16]

• Social skills: Applicants’ ability to adapt his/her behavior according to the demands of the situation to positively influence the interviewer[17]

• Self-monitoring: Applicants’ regulation of behaviors to control the image presented to the interviewer[18]

• Relational control: Applicants’ attempt to control the flow of the conversation[19]

Interpersonal Presentation:

• Verbal expression: Pitch, rate, pauses[20] • Nonverbal behavior: Gaze, smile, hand movement, body orientation[21]

Personal/Contextual Factors:

• Interview training: Coaching, mock interviews with feedback[22] • Interview experience: Number of prior interviews[23] • Interview self-efficacy: Applicants’ perceived ability to do well in the interview[24] • Interview motivation: Applicants’ motivation to succeed in an interview[25]

Job-irrelevant interviewer biases

The following are personal and demographic characteristics that can potentially influence interviewer evaluations of interviewee responses. These factors are typically not relevant to whether the individual can do the job (that is, not related to job performance), thus, their influence on interview ratings should be minimized or excluded. In fact, there are laws in many countries that prohibit consideration of many of these protected classes of people when making selection decisions. Using structured interviews with multiple interviewers coupled with training may help reduce the effect of the following characteristics on interview ratings.[26] The list of job-irrelevant interviewer biases is presented below.

• Attractiveness: Applicant physical attractiveness can influence interviewer’s evaluation of one’s interview performance[27]

• Race: Whites tend to score higher than Blacks and Hispanics[28]; racial similarity between interviewer and applicant, on the other hand, has not been found to influence interview ratings[29] [30]

• Gender: Females tend to receive slightly higher interview scores than their male counterparts[31]; gender similarity does not seem to influence interview ratings[32]

• Similarities in background and attitudes: Interviewers perceived interpersonal attraction was found to influence interview ratings[33]

• Culture: Applicants with an ethnic name and a foreign accent were viewed less favorably than applicants with just an ethnic name and no accent or an applicant with a traditional name with or without an accent[34]

The extent to which ratings of interviewee performance reflect certain constructs varies widely depending on the level of structure of the interview, the kind of questions asked, interviewer or applicant biases, applicant professional dress or nonverbal behavior, and a host of other factors. For example, some research suggests that applicant’s cognitive ability, education,

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training, and work experiences may be better captured in unstructured interviews, whereas applicant’s job knowledge, organizational fit, interpersonal skills, and applied knowledge may be better captured in a structured interview.[35]

Further, interviews are typically designed to assess a number of constructs. Given the social nature of the interview, applicant responses to interview questions and interviewer evaluations of those responses are sometimes influenced by constructs beyond those the questions were intended to assess, making it extremely difficult to tease out the specific constructs measured during the interview.[36] Reducing the number of constructs the interview is intended to assess may help mitigate this issue. Moreover, of practical importance is whether the interview is a better measure of some constructs in comparison to paper and pencil tests of the same constructs. Indeed, certain constructs (mental ability and skills, experience) may be better measured with paper and pencil tests than during the interview, whereas personality-related constructs seem to be better measured during the interview in comparison to paper and pencil tests of the same personality constructs.[37] In sum, the following is recommended: Interviews should be developed to assess the job relevant constructs identified in the job analysis.[38] [39]

Process

A typical job interview has a single candidate meeting with between one and three persons representing the employer; the potential supervisor of the employee is usually involved in the interview process. A larger interview panel will often have a specialized human resources worker. While the meeting can be over in as little as 15 minutes, job interviews usually last less than two hours.

The bulk of the job interview will entail the interviewers asking the candidate questions about his or her job history, personality, work style and other factors relevant to the job. For instance, a common interview question is "What are your strengths and weaknesses?" The candidate will usually be given a chance to ask any questions at the end of the interview. These questions are strongly encouraged since they allow the interviewee to acquire more information about the job and the company, but they can also demonstrate the candidate's strong interest in them.

Candidates for lower paid and lower skilled positions tend to have much simpler job interviews than do candidates for more senior positions. For instance, a lawyer's job interview will be much more demanding than that of a retail cashier. Most job interviews are formal; the larger the firm, the more formal and structured the interview will tend to be. Candidates generally dress slightly better than they would for work, with a suit (called an interview suit) being appropriate for a white-collar job interview.

Additionally, some professions have specific types of job interviews; for performing artists, this is an audition in which the emphasis is placed on the performance ability of the candidate.

In many companies, assessment days are increasingly being used, particularly for graduate positions, which may include analysis tasks, group activities, presentation exercises, and psychometric testing.

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In recent years it has become increasingly common for employers to request job applicants who are successfully shortlisted to deliver one or more presentations at their interview. The purpose of the presentation in this setting may be to either demonstrate candidates' skills and abilities in presenting, or to highlight their knowledge of a given subject likely to relate closely to the job role for which they have applied. It is common for the applicant to be notified of the request for them to deliver a presentation along with their invitation to attend the interview. Usually applicants are only provided with a title for the presentation and a time limit which the presentation should not exceed.

A bad hiring decision nowadays can be immensely expensive for an organization—cost of the hire, training costs, severance pay, loss of productivity, impact on morale, cost of re-hiring, etc. (Gallup international places the cost of a bad hire as being 3.2 times the individual's salary). Studies indicate that 40% of new executives fail in their first 18 months in a new job.[40] This has led to organizations investing in onboarding for their new employees to reduce these failure rates.

Process Model

One way to think about the interview process is as three separate, albeit related, phases: (1) the preinterview phase which occurs before the interviewer and candidate meet, (2) the interview phase where the interview is conducted, and (3) the postinterview phase where the interviewer forms judgments of candidate qualifications and makes final decisions[41]. Although separate, these three phases are related. That is, impressions interviewers form early on may affect how they view the person in a later phase. For instance, consider the first time you met someone you had heard about (maybe from a mutual friend). If the mutual friend had mentioned where this new person is from, what they are like, or what they do in their spare time, this may influence how you act towards them compared to a stranger you had never heard about. If you heard the person was not friendly or nice, perhaps you may choose not to even talk to them. Such a similar situation can occur during the process of an interview. Following is a model depicting these phases, as well as a brief discussion of each stage.

Preinterview Phase:

The preinterview phase encompasses the information available to the interviewer beforehand (e.g., resumes, test scores, social networking site information) and the perceptions interviewers form about applicants from this information prior to the actual face-to-face interaction between the two individuals. In this phase, interviewers are likely to already have ideas about the characteristics that would make a person ideal or qualified for the position[42]. Interviewers also have information about the applicant usually in the form of a resume, test scores, or prior contacts with the applicant[41]. Interviewers then often integrate information that they have on an applicant with their ideas about the ideal employee to form a preinterview evaluation of the candidate. In this way, interviewers typically have an impression of you even before the actual face-to-face interview interaction. Nowadays with recent technological advancements, we must be aware that interviewers have an even larger amount of information available on some candidates. For example, interviewers can obtain information from search engines (e.g. Google, Bing, Yahoo), blogs, and even social networks (e.g. Linkedin, Facebook, Twitter). While some of this information may be job-related, some of it may not be. Despite the relevance of the information, any information interviewers obtain about the applicant before the interview is likely to influence their preinterview impression of the candidate. And, why is all this important? It is important

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because what interviewers think about you before they meet you, can have an effect on how they might treat you in the interview and what they remember about you[41] [43] . Furthermore, researchers have found that what interviewers think about the applicant before the interview (preinterview phase) is related to how they evaluate the candidate after the interview, despite how the candidate may have performed during the interview[44].

Interview Phase:

The interview phase entails the actual conduct of the interview, the interaction between the interviewer and the applicant. Initial interviewer impressions about the applicant before the interview may influence the amount of time an interviewer spends in the interview with the applicant, the interviewer’s behavior and questioning of the applicant[45], and the interviewer’s postinterview evaluations[44]. Preinterview impressions also can affect what the interviewer notices about the interviewee, recalls from the interview, and how an interviewer interprets what the applicant says and does in the interview[43]. As interviews are typically conducted face-to-face, over the phone, or through video conferencing[46] (e.g. Skype), they are a social interaction between at least two individuals. Thus, the behavior of the interviewer during the interview likely “leaks” information to the interviewee. That is, you can sometimes tell during the interview whether the interviewer thinks positively or negatively about you[41]. Knowing this information can actually affect how the applicant behaves, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy effect[45] [47] . For example, interviewees who feel the interviewer does not think they are qualified may be more anxious and feel they need to prove they are qualified. Such anxiety may hamper how well they actually perform and present themselves during the interview, fulfilling the original thoughts of the interviewer. Alternatively, interviewees who perceive an interviewer believes they are qualified for the job may feel more at ease and comfortable during the exchange, and consequently actually perform better in the interview. It should be noted again, that because of the dynamic nature of the interview, the interaction between the behaviors and thoughts of both parties is a continuous process whereby information is processed and informs subsequent behavior, thoughts, and evaluations.

Postinterview Phase:

After the interview is conducted, the interviewer must form an evaluation of the interviewee’s qualifications for the position. The interviewer most likely takes into consideration all the information, even from the preinterview phase, and integrates it to form a postinterview evaluation of the applicant. In the final stage of the interview process, the interviewer uses his/her evaluation of the candidate (i.e., in the form of interview ratings or judgment) to make a final decision. Sometimes other selection tools (e.g., work samples, cognitive ability tests, personality tests) are used in combination with the interview to make final hiring decisions; however, interviews remain the most commonly used selection device in North America[48].

For interviewees: Although the description of the interview process above focuses on the perspective of the interviewer, job applicants also gather information on the job and/or organization and form impressions prior to the interview[42]. The interview is a two-way exchange and applicants are also making decisions about whether the company is a good fit for them. Essentially, the process model illustrates that the interview is not an isolated interaction, but rather a complex process that begins with two parties forming judgments and gathering information, and ends with a final interviewer decision.

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Types of Questions

History of Interview Questions

In interviews that are considered “structured interviews,” there are typically two types of questions interviewers ask applicants: situational questions [49] and behavioral questions (also known as patterned behavioral description interviews)[50]. Both types of questions are based on “critical incidents” that are required to perform the job [51] but they differ in their focus (see below for descriptions). Critical incidents are relevant tasks that are required for the job and can be collected through interviews or surveys with current employees, managers, or subject matter experts [52] [53] One of the first critical incidents techniques ever used in the United States Army asked combat veterans to report specific incidents of effective or ineffective behavior of a leader. The question posed to veterans was “Describe the officer’s actions. What did he do?” Their responses were compiled to create a factual definition or “critical requirements” of what an effective combat leader is.[54]

Previous meta-analyses have found mixed results for which type of question will best predict future job performance of an applicant. For example, some studies have shown that situational type questions have better predictability for job performance in interviews [55] [56] [57], while, other researchers have found that behavioral type questions are better at predicting future job performance of applicants.[58] In actual interview settings it is not likely that the sole use of just one type of interview question (situational or behavioral) is asked. A range of questions can add variety for both the interviewer and applicant.[59] In addition, the use of high-quality questions, whether behavioral or situational based, is essential to make sure that candidates provide meaningful responses that lead to insight into their capability to perform on the job.[60]

Behavioral Questions

Behavioral (experience-based or patterned behavioral) interviews are past-oriented in that they ask respondents to relate what they did in past jobs or life situations that are relevant to the particular job relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities required for success[61] [62] The idea is that past behavior is the best predictor of future performance in similar situations. By asking questions about how job applicants have handled situations in the past that are similar to those they will face on the job, employers can gauge how they might perform in future situations.[63]

Behavioral Interview Question Examples:.

• Describe a situation in which you were able to use persuasion to successfully convince someone to see things your way.

• Give me an example of a time when you set a goal and were able to meet or achieve it. • Tell me about a time when you had to use your presentation skills to influence someone's

opinion. • Give me an example of a time when you had to conform to a policy with which you did not

agree.

One way individuals can prepare for behavioral type questions is to practice the STAR method. The STAR method is a structured manner of responding to a behavioral-based interview

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question by discussing the specific situation, task, action, and result of the situation you are describing.

Situation: Describe the situation that you were in or the task that you needed to accomplish. This should describe specifics rather than general descriptions of past behavior.

Task: What goal were you working toward?

Action: Describe the actions you took to address the situation with detail and focus on yourself. What specific steps did you take and what was your contribution?

Result: Describe the outcome of your actions. What happened? How did the event end? What did you accomplish? What did you learn? Make sure your answer contains multiple positive results.

Situational Interview Questions

Situational interview questions[64] ask job applicants to imagine a set of circumstances and then indicate how they would respond in that situation; hence, the questions are future oriented. One advantage of situational questions is that all interviewees respond to the same hypothetical situation rather than describe experiences unique to them from their past. Another advantage is that situational questions allow respondents who have had no direct job experience relevant to a particular question to provide a hypothetical response. [65] Two core aspects of the SI are the development of situational dilemmas that employees encounter on the job, and a scoring guide to evaluate responses to each dilemma.[66]

Situational Examples

• You are managing a work group and notice that one of your employees has become angry and hostile in recent weeks, to the point of disrupting the entire group. What would you do? [67]

• You are in a meeting. Your manager blames you for not doing well on a task, in front of all your peers and managers from other divisions. You believe that your manager is wrong in his critique, and that he might have come to this conclusion hastily without knowing all the information. You feel you are being treated unfairly in front of your peers. You feel that your reputation may be affected by this critique. What would you do in this situation? [68].

• A general request has been issued by the Dean for someone to serve on a new joint government/industry/university committee on business education. The objective of the committee is to design the budgeting allocation for the Faculty for the next fiscal year. It is well known that you have the necessary skill and expertise to improve the chances that the Faculty will receive budget increases for future operations. You have been told that it will require 2- 3 days per month of your time for the next 9 months. Your tenure review is one year away. Although you think you have a good publication record, you have no guarantee of tenure at this point. You are concerned because you have already fallen behind on an important research project that you are pursuing with a colleague at another university. What, if anything, would you do?[69]

• You are in charge of truck drivers in Toronto. Your colleague is in charge of truck drivers in Montreal. Both of you report to the same person. Your salary and bonus are affected

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100% by your costs. Your colleague is in desperate need of one of your trucks. If you say no, your costs will remain low and your group will probably win the Golden Flyer award for the quarter. If you say yes, the Montreal group will probably win this prestigious award because they will make a significant profit for the company. Your boss is preaching costs, costs, costs, as well as co-operation with one's peers. Your boss has no control over accounting who are the score keepers. Your boss is highly competitive; he or she rewards winners. You are just as competitive; you are a real winner! What would you do in this situation?[70] Other types of questions

Other possible types of questions that may be asked in an interview include: background questions, job experience questions, and puzzle type questions. A brief explanation of each follows.

• Background questions include a focus on work experience, education, and other qualifications. [71] For instance, an interviewer may ask “What experience have you had with direct sales phone calls?”

• Job experience questions may ask candidates to describe or demonstrate job knowledge. These are typically highly specific questions.[72] For example, one question may be “What steps would you take to conduct a manager training session on safety?”

• The puzzle interview was popularized by Microsoft in the 1990s, and is now used in other organizations. The most common types of questions either ask the applicant to solve puzzles or brainteasers (e.g., “Why are manhole covers round?”) or to solve unusual problems (e.g., “How would you weigh an airplane without a scale?”).[73] Illegal Questions

Current EEOC guidelines state “the information obtained and requested through the pre-employment process should be limited to those essential for determining if a person is qualified for the job; whereas, information regarding race, sex, national origin, age, and religion are irrelevant in such determinations” (EEOC website, 2011). In general, any questions, which may indicate the applicant's race, sex, national origin, disability status, age, religion, color or ancestry, should be avoided. Despite the legal implications, interviewers have been found to request information from job applicants regarding their membership in a protected group. For example, a business magazine sampling of small business respondents indicated most of those employers would ask at least one of following five illegal interview questions: Have you ever filed a workers' compensation claim? Do you have any physical problems or injuries? How many days were you sick last year? Are you currently taking any medications? Have you ever been treated for drug abuse?[74] Other interviewees report being asked questions concerning their age, marital status, and language abilities[75] [76],and organizations report that they frequently ask questions about arrest record and convictions, age, and handicaps.[77] All of these questions could put the company and interviewer at legal risk. For more information about illegal questions please visit the EEOC.gov website.

Case

A case interview is an interview form used mostly by management consulting firms and investment banks in which the job applicant is given a question, situation, problem or challenge

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and asked to resolve the situation. The case problem is often a business situation or a business case that the interviewer has worked on in real life.

Panel

Another type of job interview found throughout the professional and academic ranks is the panel interview. In this type of interview the candidate is interviewed by a group of panelists representing the various stakeholders in the hiring process. Within this format there are several approaches to conducting the interview. Example formats include;

• Presentation format - The candidate is given a generic topic and asked to make a presentation to the panel. Often used in academic or sales-related interviews.

• Role format - Each panelist is tasked with asking questions related to a specific role of the position. For example one panelist may ask technical questions, another may ask management questions, another may ask customer service related questions etc.

• Skeet shoot format - The candidate is given questions from a series of panelists in rapid succession to test his or her ability to handle stress filled situations.

The benefits of the panel approach to interviewing include: time savings over serial interviewing, more focused interviews as there is often less time spend building rapport with small talk, and "apples to apples" comparison because each stake holder/interviewer/panelist gets to hear the answers to the same questions.[78]

Stress

Stress interviews are still in common use. One type of stress interview is where the employer uses a succession of interviewers (one at a time or en masse) whose mission is to intimidate the candidate and keep him/her off-balance. The ostensible purpose of this interview: to find out how the candidate handles stress. Stress interviews might involve testing an applicant's behavior in a busy environment. Questions about handling work overload, dealing with multiple projects, and handling conflict are typical.[79]

Another type of stress interview may involve only a single interviewer who behaves in an uninterested or hostile manner. For example, the interviewer may not make eye contact, may roll his eyes or sigh at the candidate's answers, interrupt, turn his back, take phone calls during the interview, or ask questions in a demeaning or challenging style. The goal is to assess how the interviewee handles pressure or to purposely evoke emotional responses. This technique was also used in research protocols studying stress and type A (coronary-prone) behavior because it would evoke hostility and even changes in blood pressure and heart rate in study subjects. The key to success for the candidate is to de-personalize the process. The interviewer is acting a role, deliberately and calculatedly trying to "rattle the cage". Once the candidate realizes that there is nothing personal behind the interviewer's approach, it is easier to handle the questions with aplomb.

Example stress interview questions:

• Sticky situation: "If you caught a colleague cheating on his expenses, what would you do?" • Putting you on the spot: "How do you feel this interview is going?"

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• Popping the balloon: (deep sigh) "Well, if that's the best answer you can give ... " (shakes head) "Okay, what about this one ...?"

• Oddball question: "What would you change about the design of the hockey stick?" • Doubting your veracity: "I don't feel like we're getting to the heart of the matter here. Start

again - tell me what really makes you tick."

Candidates may also be asked to deliver a presentation as part of the selection process. The "Platform Test" method involves having the candidate make a presentation to both the selection panel and other candidates for the same job. This is obviously highly stressful and is therefore useful as a predictor of how the candidate will perform under similar circumstances on the job. Selection processes in academic, training, airline, legal and teaching circles frequently involve presentations of this sort.

Technical

This kind of interview focuses on problem solving and creativity. The questions aim at your problem-solving skills and likely show your ability and creativity. Sometimes these interviews will be on a computer module with multiple-choice questions.

Telephone

Telephone interviews take place if a recruiter wishes to reduce the number of prospective candidates before deciding on a shortlist for face-to-face interviews. They also take place if a job applicant is a significant distance away from the premises of the hiring company, such as abroad or in another state or province.

Interviewee Strategies and Behaviors

Nonverbal Behaviors

It may not only be what you say in an interview that matters, but also how you say it (e.g., how fast you speak) and how you behave during the interview (e.g., hand gestures, eye contact). In other words, although applicants’ responses to interview questions influence interview ratings,[80] their nonverbal behaviors may also affect interviewer judgments.[81] Nonverbal behaviors can be divided into two main categories: vocal cues (e.g., articulation, pitch, fluency, frequency of pauses, speed, etc.) and visual cues (e.g., smiling, eye contact, body orientation and lean, hand movement, posture, etc.).[82] Oftentimes physical attractiveness is included as part of nonverbal behavior as well.[83] There is some debate about how large a role nonverbal behaviors may play in the interview. Some researchers maintain that nonverbal behaviors affect interview ratings a great deal,[84] while others have found that they have a relatively small impact on interview outcomes, especially when considered with applicant qualifications presented in résumés.[85] The relationship between nonverbal behavior and interview outcomes is also stronger in structured interviews than unstructured,[86] and stronger when interviewees’ answers are of high quality.[87]

Applicants’ nonverbal behaviors may influence interview ratings through the inferences interviewers make about the applicant based on their behavior. For instance, applicants who engage in positive nonverbal behaviors such as smiling and leaning forward are perceived as more likable, trustworthy, credible,[88] warmer, successful, qualified, motivated, competent,[89] and

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socially skilled.[90] These applicants are also predicted to be better accepted and more satisfied with the organization if hired.[91]

Applicants’ verbal responses and their nonverbal behavior may convey some of the same information about the applicant.[92] However, despite any shared information between content and nonverbal behavior, it is clear that nonverbal behaviors do predict interview ratings to an extent beyond the content of what was said, and thus it is essential that applicants and interviewers alike are aware of their impact. You may want to be careful of what you may be communicating through the nonverbal behaviors you display.

Physical Attractiveness

To hire the best applicants for the job, interviewers form judgments, sometimes using applicants’ physical attractiveness. That is, physical attractiveness is usually not necessarily related to how well one can do the job, yet has been found to influence interviewer evaluations and judgments about how suitable an applicant is for the job. Once individuals are categorized as attractive or unattractive, interviewers may have expectations about physically attractive and physically unattractive individuals and then judge applicants based on how well they fit those expectations.[93] As a result, it typically turns out that interviewers will judge attractive individuals more favorably on job-related factors than they judge unattractive individuals. People generally agree on who is and who is not attractive and attractive individuals are judged and treated more positively than unattractive individuals.[94] For example, people who think another is physically attractive tend to have positive initial impressions of that person (even before formally meeting them), perceive the person to be smart, socially competent, and have good social skills and general mental health.[95]

Within the business domain, physically attractive individuals have been shown to have an advantage over unattractive individuals in numerous ways, that include, but are not limited to, perceived job qualifications, hiring recommendations, predicted job success, and compensation levels.[96] As noted by several researchers, attractiveness may not be the most influential determinant of personnel decisions, but may be a deciding factor when applicants possess similar levels of qualifications.[97] In addition, attractiveness does not provide an advantage if the applicants in the pool are of high quality, but it does provide an advantage in increased hiring rates and more positive job-related outcomes for attractive individuals when applicant quality is low and average.[98]

Just as physical attractiveness is a visual cue, vocal attractiveness is an auditory cue and can lead to differing interviewer evaluations in the interview as well. Vocal attractiveness, defined as an appealing mix of speech rate, loudness, pitch, and variability, has been found to be favorably related to interview ratings and job performance.[99] [100] In addition, the personality traits of agreeableness and conscientiousness predict performance more strongly for people with more attractive voices compared to those with less attractive voices.[101]

As important as it is to understand how physical attractiveness can influence the judgments, behaviors, and final decisions of interviewers, it is equally important to find ways to decrease potential bias in the job interview. Conducting an interview with elements of structure is a one possible way to decrease bias.[102]

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Coaching

An abundance of information is available to instruct interviewees on strategies for improving their performance in a job interview. Information used by interviewees comes from a variety of sources ranging from popular how-to books to formal coaching programs, sometimes even provided by the hiring organization. Within the more formal coaching programs, there are two general types of coaching. One type of coaching is designed to teach interviewees how to perform better in the interview by focusing on how to behave and present oneself. This type of coaching is focused on improving aspects of the interview that are not necessarily related to the specific elements of performing the job tasks. This type of coaching could include how to dress, how to display nonverbal behaviors (head nods, smiling, eye contact), verbal cues (how fast to speak, speech volume, articulation, pitch), and impression management tactics. Another type of coaching is designed to focus interviewees on the content specifically relevant to describing one’s qualifications for the job, in order to help improve their answers to interview questions. This coaching, therefore, focuses on improving the interviewee’s understanding of the skills, abilities, and traits the interviewer is attempting to assess, and responding with relevant experience that demonstrates these skills.[103] For example, this type of coaching might teach an interviewee to use the STAR approach for answering behavioral interview questions. An example coaching program might include several sections focusing on various aspects of the interview. It could include a section designed to introduce interviewees to the interview process, and explain how this process works (e.g., administration of interview, interview day logistics, different types of interviews, advantages of structured interviews). It could also include a section designed to provide feedback to help the interviewee to improve their performance in the interview, as well as a section involving practice answering example interview questions. An additional section providing general interview tips about how to behave and present oneself could also be included.[104]

It is useful to consider coaching in the context of the competing goals of the interviewer and interviewee. The interviewee’s goal is typically to perform well (i.e. obtain high interview ratings), in order to get hired. On the other hand, the interviewer’s goal is to obtain job-relevant information, in order to determine whether the applicant has the skills, abilities, and traits believed by the organization to be indicators of successful job performance.[105] Research has shown that how well an applicant does in the interview can be enhanced with coaching.[106] [107] [108] [109] The effectiveness of coaching is due, in part, to increasing the interviewee’s knowledge, which in turn results in better interview performance. Interviewee knowledge refers to knowledge about the interview, such as the types of questions that will be asked, and the content that the interviewer is attempting to assess.[110] Research has also shown that coaching can increase the likelihood that interviewers using a structured interview will accurately choose those individuals who will ultimately be most successful on the job (i.e., increase reliability and validity of the structured interview).[111] Additionally, research has shown that interviewees tend to have positive reactions to coaching, which is often an underlying goal of an interview.[112] Based on research thus far, the effects of coaching tend to be positive for both interviewees and interviewers.

Faking

Interviewers should be aware that applicants can intentionally distort their responses or fake during the interview and such applicant faking has the potential to influence interview outcomes if present. Two concepts that relate to faking include social desirability (the tendency for people to

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present themselves in a favorable light [113]), and impression management (conscious or unconscious attempts to influence one’s image during interactions [114]). Faking in the employment interview, then, can be defined as “deceptive impression management or the conscious distortion of answers to the interview questions in order to obtain a better score on the interview and/or otherwise create favorable perceptions” [115]. Thus, faking in the employment interview is intentional, deceptive, and aimed at improving perceptions of performance.

Faking in the employment interview can be broken down into four elements [116].

The first involves the interviewee portraying him or herself as an ideal job candidate by exaggerating true skills, tailoring answers to better fit the job, and/or creating the impression that personal beliefs, values, and attitudes are similar to those of the organization.

The second aspect of faking is inventing or completely fabricating one’s image by piecing distinct work experiences together to create better answers, inventing untrue experiences or skills, and portraying others’ experiences or accomplishments as ones’ own.

Thirdly, faking might also be aimed at protecting the applicant’s image. This can be accomplished through omitting certain negative experiences, concealing negatively perceived aspects of the applicant’s background, and by separating oneself from negative experiences.

The fourth and final component of faking involves ingratiating oneself to the interviewer by conforming personal opinions to align with those of the organization, as well as insincerely praising or complimenting the interviewer or organization.

Of all of the various faking behaviors listed, ingratiation tactics were found to be the most prevalent in the employment interview, while flat out making up answers or claiming others’ experiences as one’s own is the least common [117]. However, fabricating true skills appears to be at least somewhat prevalent in employment interviews. One study found that over 80% of participants lied about job-related skills in the interview [118], presumably to compensate for a lack of job-required skills/traits and further their chances for employment.

Most importantly, faking behaviors have been shown to affect outcomes of employment interviews. For example, the probability of getting another interview or job offer increases when interviewees make up answers [119].

Different interview characteristics also seem to impact the likelihood of faking. Faking behavior is less prevalent, for instance, in past behavioral interviews than in situational interviews, although follow-up questions increased faking behaviors in both types of interviews. Therefore, if practitioners are interested in decreasing faking behaviors among job candidates in employment interview settings, they should utilize structured, past behavioral interviews and avoid the use of probes or follow-up questions [120].

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Validity and predictive power

There is extant data[121] which puts into question the value of job interviews as a tool for selecting employees. Where the aim of a job interview is ostensibly to choose a candidate who will perform well in the job role, other methods of selection provide greater predictive power and often lower costs. Furthermore, given the unstructured approach of most interviews they often have almost no useful predictive power of employee success.

While unstructured interviews are commonly used, structured interviews have yielded much better results and are considered a best practice [122]. Interview structure is defined as “the reduction in procedural variance across applicants, which can translate into the degree of discretion that an interviewer is allowed in conducting the interview” [123]. Structure in an interview can be compared to a typical paper and pencil test: we would not think it was fair if every test taker was given different questions and a different number of questions on an exam, or if their answers were each graded differently. Yet this is exactly what occurs in an unstructured interview; thus, a structured interview attempts to standardize this popular selection tool. While there is debate surrounding what is meant specifically by a structured interview [124], there are typically two broad categories of standardization: 1) content structure, and 2) evaluation structure [125]. Content structure includes elements that refer to the actual content of the interview:

• Base questions on attributes that are representative of the job, as indicated by a job analysis • Ask the same questions of all interviewees • Limit prompting, or follow up questions, that interviewers may ask • Ask better questions, such as behavioral description questions • Have a longer interview • Control ancillary information available to the interviewees, such as resumes • Don’t allow questions from applicants during interview

Evaluation structure includes aspects that refer to the actual rating of the interviewee:

• Rate each answer rather than making an overall evaluation at the end of the interview • Use anchored rating scales (for an example, see BARS ) • Have the interviewer take detailed notes • Have more than one interviewer view each applicant (i.e. have panel interviews) • Have the same interviewers rate each applicant • Don’t allow any discussion about the applicants between interviewers • Train the interviewers • Use statistical procedures to create an overall interview score

It is important to note that structure should be thought of as a continuum; that is, the degree of structure present in an interview can vary along these various elements listed above [126].

In terms of reliability, meta-analytic results provided evidence that interviews can have acceptable levels of interrater reliability, or consistent ratings across interviewers interrater reliability (i.e. .75 or above), when a structured panel interview is used [127]. In terms of criterion-related validity, or how well the interview predicts later job performance criterion validity, meta-analytic results have shown that when compared to unstructured interviews, structured interviews

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have higher validities, with values ranging from .20-.57 (on a scale from 0 to 1), with validity coefficients increasing with higher degrees of structure [128] [129] [130]. That is, as the degree of structure in an interview increases, the more likely interviewers can successfully predict how well the person will do on the job, especially when compared to unstructured interviews. In fact, one structured interview that included a) a predetermined set of questions that interviewers were able to choose from, and b) interviewer scoring of applicant answers after each individual question using previously created benchmark answers, showed validity levels comparable to cognitive ability tests (traditionally one of the best predictors of job performance) for entry level jobs [131].

Honesty and integrity are attributes that can be very hard to determine using a formal job interview process: the competitive environment of the job interview may in fact promote dishonesty. Some experts on job interviews express a degree of cynicism towards the process.[who?]

Legal Issues

In many countries laws are put into place to prevent organizations from engaging in discriminatory practices against protected classes when selecting individuals for jobs.[132] In the United States, it is unlawful for private employers with 15 or more employees along with state and local government employers to discriminate against applicants based on the following: race, color, sex (including pregnancy), national origin, age (40 or over), disability, or genetic information (note: additional classes may be protected depending on state or local law). More specifically, an employer cannot legally “fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privilege of employment” or “to limit, segregate, or classify his employees or applicants for employment in any way which would deprive or tend to deprive any individual of employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect his status as an employee.”[133] [134]

The Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1991 (Title VII) were passed into law to prevent the discrimination of individuals due to race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. The Pregnancy Discrimination Act was added as an amendment and protects women if they are pregnant or have a pregnancy-related condition.[135]

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 prohibits discriminatory practice directed against individuals who are 40 years of age and older. Although some states (e.g. New York) do have laws preventing the discrimination of individuals younger than 40, no federal law exists.[136]

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 protects qualified individuals who currently have or in the past have had a physical or mental disability (current users of illegal drugs are not covered under this Act). A person may be disabled if he or she has a disability that substantially limits a major life activity, has a history of a disability, is regarded by others as being disabled, or has a physical or mental impairment that is not transitory (lasting or expected to last six months or less) and minor. In order to be covered under this Act, the individual must be qualified for the job. A qualified individual is “an individual with a disability who, with or without reasonable accommodation, can perform the essential functions of the employment position that such individual holds or desires.”[137] Unless the disability poses an “undue hardship,” reasonable accommodations must be made by the organization. “In general, an accommodation is any change in the work environment or in

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the way things are customarily done that enables an individual with a disability to enjoy equal employment opportunities.”[138] Examples of reasonable accommodations are changing the workspace of an individual in a wheelchair to make it more wheelchair accessible, modifying work schedules, and/or modifying equipment.[139] Employees are responsible for asking for accommodations to be made by their employer.[135]

The most recent law to be passed is Title II of the [[Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act] of 2008. In essence, this law prohibits the discrimination of employees or applicants due to an individual’s genetic information and family medical history information.

In rare circumstances, it is lawful for employers to base hiring decisions on protected class information if it is considered a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification, that is, if it is a “qualification reasonably necessary to the normal operation of the particular business.” For example, a movie studio may base a hiring decision on age if the actor they are hiring will play a youthful character in a film.[140]

Given these laws, organizations are limited in the types of questions they legally are allowed to ask applicants in a job interview. Asking these questions may cause discrimination against protected classes, unless the information is considered a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification. For example, in the majority of situations it is illegal to ask the following questions in an interview as a condition of employment:

• What is your date of birth?[141] • Have you ever been arrested for a crime?[142] • Do you have any future plans for marriage and children?[143] • What are your spiritual beliefs?[144] • How many days were you sick last year? Have you ever been treated for mental health

problems?[145] • What prescription drugs are you currently taking?[146]

Applicants with Disabilities

Applicants with disabilities may be concerned with the effect that their disability has on both interview and employment outcomes. Research has concentrated on four key issues: how interviewers rate applicants with disabilities, the reactions of applicants with disabilities to the interview, the effects of disclosing a disability during the interview, and the perceptions different kinds of applicant disabilities may have on interviewer ratings.

The job interview is a tool used to measure constructs or overall characteristics that are relevant for the job. Oftentimes, applicants will receive a score based on their performance during the interview. Research has found different findings based on interviewers’ perceptions of the disability. For example, some research has found a leniency effect (i.e., applicants with disabilities receive higher ratings than equally qualified non-disabled applicants) in ratings of applicants with disabilities [147] [148] Other research, however, has found there is a disconnect between the interview score and the hiring recommendation for applicants with disabilities. That is, even though applicants with disabilities may have received a high interview score, they are still not recommended for employment [149] [150]. The difference between ratings and hiring could be detrimental to a company because they may be missing an opportunity to hire a qualified applicant.

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A second issue in interview research deals with the applicants’ with disabilities reactions to the interview and applicant perceptions of the interviewers. Applicants with disabilities and able-bodied applicants report similar feelings of anxiety towards an interview.[151] Applicants with disabilities often report that interviewers react nervously and insecurely, which leads such applicants to experience anxiety and tension themselves. The interview is felt to be the part of the selection process where covert discrimination against applicants with disabilities can occur.[151] Many applicants with disabilities feel they cannot disclose (i.e., inform potential employer of disability) or discuss their disability because they want to demonstrate their abilities. If the disability is visible, then disclosure will inevitably occur when the applicant meets the interviewer, so the applicant can decide if they want to discuss their disability. If an applicant has a non-visible disability, however, then that applicant has more of a choice in disclosing and discussing. In addition, applicants who were aware that the recruiting employer already had employed people with disabilities felt they had a more positive interview experience.[151] Applicants should consider if they are comfortable with talking about and answering questions about their disability before deciding how to approach the interview.

Research has also demonstrated that different types of disabilities have different effects on interview outcomes. Disabilities with a negative stigma and that are perceived as resulting from the actions of the person (e.g., HIV-Positive, substance abuse) result in lower interview scores than disabilities for which the causes are perceived to be out of the individual’s control (e.g., physical birth defect)[152]. A physical disability often results in higher interviewer ratings than psychological (e.g., mental illness) or sensory conditions (e.g., Tourette Syndrome).[153] [148] In addition, there are differences between the effects of disclosing disabilities that are visible (e.g., wheelchair bound) and non-visible (e.g., Epilepsy) during the interview. When applicants had a non-visible disability and disclosed their disability early in the interview they were not rated more negatively than applicants who did not disclose. In fact, they were liked more than the applicants who did not disclose their disability and were presumed not disabled.[154] Interviewers tend to be impressed by the honesty of the disclosure.[153] Strong caution needs to be taken with applying results from studies about specific disabilities, as these results may not apply to other types of disabilities. Not all disabilities are the same and more research is needed to find whether these results are relevant for other types of disabilities.

Some practical implications for job interviews for applicants with disabilities include research findings that show there are no differences in interviewer responses to a brief, shorter discussion or a detailed, longer discussion about the disability during the interview[153]. Applicants, however, should note that when a non-visible disability is disclosed near the end of the interview, applicants were rated more negatively than early disclosing and non-disclosing applicants. Therefore it is possible that interviewers feel individuals who delay disclosure may do so out of shame or embarrassment. In addition, if the disability is disclosed after being hired, employers may feel deceived by the new hire and reactions could be less positive than would have been in the interview[155]. If applicants want to disclose their disability during the interview, research shows that a disclosure and/or discussion earlier in the interview approach may afford them some positive interview effects[156]. The positive effects, however, are preceded by the interviewers perception of the applicants’ psychological well-being. That is, when the interviewer perceives the applicant is psychologically well and/or comfortable with his or her disability, there can be positive interviewer effects. In contrast, if the interviewer perceives the applicant as uncomfortable or anxious discussing the disability, this may either fail to garner positive effect or result in more negative interview ratings for the candidate. Caution must again be taken when

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applying these research findings to other types of disabilities not investigated in the studies discussed above. There are many factors that can influence the interview of an applicant with a disability, such as whether the disability is physical or psychological, visible or non-visible, or whether the applicant is perceived as responsible for the disability or not. Therefore applicants should make their own conclusions about how to proceed in the interview after comparing their situations with those examined in the research discussed here.

Other Applicant Discrimination: Weight and Pregnancy

Employers are using social networking sites like Facebook and LinkedIn to obtain additional information about job applicants [157] [158] [159] . While these sites may be useful to verify resume information, profiles with pictures also may reveal much more information about the applicant, including issues pertaining to applicant weight and pregnancy [160].

Job applicants who are underweight (to the point of emaciation), overweight or obese may face discrimination in the interview [161] [162]. The negative treatment of overweight and obese individuals may stem from the beliefs that weight is controllable and those who fail to control their weight are lazy, unmotivated, and lack self-discipline [163]. Alternatively, underweight individuals may be negatively treated partly due to their lack of physical attractiveness [162]. These characteristics, lazy, unmotivated, lacks self-discipline, physically unattractive are not ideal for a future employee [164]. Underweight, overweight and obese applicants are not protected from discrimination by any current United States laws [161]. However, some individuals who are morbidly obese and whose obesity is due to a physiological disorder may be protected against discrimination under the Americans with Disabilities Act [165]. In short, men and women should be aware that their weight, whether underweight, overweight or obese, could hinder their chances of getting hired.

Pregnant job applicants are a group that may face discrimination because of their “disability”. Discrimination against pregnant applicants is illegal under the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, which views pregnancy as a temporary disability and requires employers to treat pregnant applicants the same as all other applicants [166]. Yet, discrimination against pregnant applicants continues both in the United States and internationally [166] [167] . Research shows that pregnant applicants compared to non-pregnant applicants are less likely to be recommended for hire [168] [169] . Interviewers appear concerned that pregnant applicants are more likely than non-pregnant applicants to miss work and even quit [169]. Organizations who wish to reduce potential discrimination against pregnant applicants should consider implementing structured interviews, although some theoretical work suggests interviewers may still show biases even in these types of interviews [168] [170] .

References

1. ^ a b State.ne.us 2. Huffcutt, A. I. (2011). An empirical review of the employment interview construct literature. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 19(1), 62-81. 3. Huffcutt, A. I., Conway, J. M., Roth, P. L., & Stone, N. J. (2001). Identification and meta-analytic assessment of psychological constructs measured in employment interviews. Journal of Applied Psychcology, 86, 897-913.

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http://www.hhs.state.ne.us/hur/Job/ImpInterview.htm

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_ref-state.ne.us_0-0


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Bragger-167

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Cunningham-168

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Cunningham-168

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Bragger-167

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Gatrell-166

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-US-165

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-US-165

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-King-164

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Roehling-160

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Bellizzi-163

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Swami-161

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Greenleaf-162

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Swami-161

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Roehling-160

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Grasz-159

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-SHRM-158

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-JobVite-157

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview#cite_note-Cross-156

4. Salgado, J. F., & Moscoso, S. (2002). Comprehensive meta-analysis of the construct validity of the employment interview. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 11, 299-324. 5. Huffcutt, A. I., Conway, J. M., Roth, P. L., & Stone, N. J. (2001). Identification and meta-analytic assessment of psychological constructs measured in employment interviews. Journal of Applied Psychcology, 86, 897-913. 6. Huffcutt, A. I. (2011). An empirical review of the employment interview construct literature. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 19(1), 62-81. 7. Huffcutt, A. I., Conway, J. M., Roth, P. L., & Stone, N. J. (2001). Identification and meta-analytic assessment of psychological constructs measured in employment interviews. Journal of Applied Psychcology, 86, 897-913. 8. Salgado, J. F., & Moscoso, S. (2002). Comprehensive meta-analysis of the construct validity of the employment interview. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 11, 299-324. 9. Huffcutt, A. I., Conway, J. M., Roth, P. L., & Stone, N. J. (2001). Identification and meta-analytic assessment of psychological constructs measured in employment interviews. Journal of Applied Psychcology, 86, 897-913. 10. Huffcutt, A. I., Conway, J. M., Roth, P. L., & Stone, N. J. (2001). Identification and meta-analytic assessment of psychological constructs measured in employment interviews. Journal of Applied Psychcology, 86, 897-913. 11. Salgado, J. F., & Moscoso, S. (2002). Comprehensive meta-analysis of the construct validity of the employment interview. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 11, 299-324. 12. Salgado, J. F., & Moscoso, S. (2002). Comprehensive meta-analysis of the construct validity of the employment interview. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 11, 299-324.

13. eGroot, T., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1999). Why visual and vocal interview cues can affect interviewers' judgments and predict job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 986-993. 14. Burnett, J. R., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1998). Relations between different sources of information in the structured interview. Personnel Psychology, 51, 963-983. 15. Maurer, T. J., Solamon, J. M., & Lippstreu, M. (2008). How does coaching interviewees affect the validity of a structured interview? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 29, 355-371.

16. Levashina, J., & Campion, M. A. (2007). Measuring faking in the employment interview: Development and validation of an interview faking behavior scale. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1638-1656.

NOTA : Se renunţă la celelalte referinţe şi trimiteri bibliografice din lipsă de spaţiu

Documentarul Nr. 2.

COMPETENŢELE CADRULUI DIDACTIC

2.1. Key competences for lifelong learning

Key competences in the shape of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to each context are

fundamental for each individual in a knowledge-based society. They provide added value for the

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labour market, social cohesion and active citizenship by offering flexibility and adaptability,

satisfaction and motivation. Because they should be acquired by everyone, this recommendation

proposes a reference tool for European Union (EU) countries to ensure that these key competences

are fully integrated into their strategies and infrastructures, particularly in the context of lifelong

learning.

ACT

Recommendation 2006/962/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18

December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning [Official Journal L 394 of

30.12.2006].

SUMMARY

Key competences for lifelong learning are a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes

appropriate to the context. They are particularly necessary for personal fulfilment and

development, social inclusion, active citizenship and employment.

Key competences are essential in a knowledge society and guarantee more flexibility in the labour

force, allowing it to adapt more quickly to constant changes in an increasingly interconnected

world. They are also a major factor in innovation, productivity and competitiveness, and they

contribute to the motivation and satisfaction of workers and the quality of work.

Key competences should be acquired by:

• young people at the end of their compulsory education and training, equipping them for

adult life, particularly for working life, whilst forming a basis for further learning;

• adults throughout their lives, through a process of developing and updating skills.

The acquisition of key competences fits in with the principles of equality and access for all.

This reference framework also applies in particular to disadvantaged groups whose educational

potential requires support. Examples of such groups include people with low basic skills, early

school leavers, the long-term unemployed, people with disabilities, migrants, etc.

Eight key competences

This framework defines eight key competences and describes the essential knowledge, skills

and attitudes related to each of these. These key competences are:

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• communication in the mother tongue, which is the ability to express and interpret

concepts, thoughts, feelings, facts and opinions in both oral and written form (listening,

speaking, reading and writing) and to interact linguistically in an appropriate and creative

way in a full range of societal and cultural contexts;

• communication in foreign languages, which involves, in addition to the main skill

dimensions of communication in the mother tongue, mediation and intercultural

understanding. The level of proficiency depends on several factors and the capacity for

listening, speaking, reading and writing;

• mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology.

Mathematical competence is the ability to develop and apply mathematical thinking in

order to solve a range of problems in everyday situations, with the emphasis being placed

on process, activity and knowledge. Basic competences in science and technology refer to

the mastery, use and application of knowledge and methodologies that explain the natural

world. These involve an understanding of the changes caused by human activity and the

responsibility of each individual as a citizen;

• digital competence involves the confident and critical use of information society

technology (IST) and thus basic skills in information and communication technology

(ICT);

• learning to learn is related to learning, the ability to pursue and organise one's own

learning, either individually or in groups, in accordance with one's own needs, and

awareness of methods and opportunities;

• social and civic competences. Social competence refers to personal, interpersonal and

intercultural competence and all forms of behaviour that equip individuals to participate in

an effective and constructive way in social and working life. It is linked to personal and

social well-being. An understanding of codes of conduct and customs in the different

environments in which individuals operate is essential. Civic competence, and particularly

knowledge of social and political concepts and structures (democracy, justice, equality,

citizenship and civil rights), equips individuals to engage in active and democratic

participation;

• sense of initiative and entrepreneurship is the ability to turn ideas into action. It involves

creativity, innovation and risk-taking, as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in

order to achieve objectives. The individual is aware of the context of his/her work and is

able to seize opportunities that arise. It is the foundation for acquiring more specific skills

and knowledge needed by those establishing or contributing to social or commercial

activity. This should include awareness of ethical values and promote good governance;

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• cultural awareness and expression, which involves appreciation of the importance of the

creative expression of ideas, experiences and emotions in a range of media (music,

performing arts, literature and the visual arts).

These key competences are all interdependent, and the emphasis in each case is on critical

thinking, creativity, initiative, problem solving, risk assessment, decision taking and constructive

management of feelings.

A European reference framework for European Union (EU) countries and the Commission

These key competences provide a reference framework to support national and European

efforts to achieve the objectives they define. This framework is mainly intended for policy makers,

education and training providers, employers and learners.

It is a reference tool for EU countries and their education and training policies. EU countries

should try to ensure:

• that initial education and training offer all young people the means to develop the

key competences to a level that equips them for adult and working life, thus also providing

a basis for future learning;

• that appropriate provision is made for young people who are disadvantaged in their training

so that they can fulfil their educational potential;

• that adults can develop and update key competences throughout their lives, particularly

priority target groups such as persons who need to update their competences;

• that appropriate infrastructure is in place for continuing education and training of adults,

that there are measures to ensure access to education and training and the labour market

and that there is support for learners depending on their specific needs and competences;

• the coherence of adult education and training provision through close links between the

policies concerned.

It forms the basis for action at Community level, particularly within the Education and

Training 2010 work programme and, more generally, within the Community education and training

programmes. In this respect, the Commission should make a special effort to:

• help EU countries to develop their education and training systems, apply the reference

framework so as to facilitate peer learning and the exchange of good practices and follow

up developments and report on progress through the progress reports on the Education and

Training 2010 work programme;

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• use the reference framework for the implementation of the Community education and

training programmes whilst ensuring that these programmes promote the acquisition of key

competences;

• use the reference framework to implement related Community policies (employment,

youth, cultural and social policies) and to strengthen links with social partners and other

organisations active in those fields;

• assess, by December 2010, the impact of the reference framework within the context of the

Education and Training 2010 work programme as well as the experience gained and the

implications for the future.

Background

The transversal nature of key competences makes them essential. They provide added value

for employment, social cohesion or young people (European Youth Pact), which explains the

importance of lifelong learning in terms of adapting to change and integration. The reference

criteria, which make it possible to judge improvements in European performances, featured in a

2005 report with contrasting results.

In response to the concerns expressed at the Lisbon European Council on 23 and 24 March

2000, which were repeated in the revised Lisbon strategy in 2005, the key competences form part of

the objectives of the Education and Training 2010 work programme, the Commission

communication of 2001 on making a European area of lifelong learning a reality and the subsequent

Council resolution adopted in 2002. These last two put forward specific proposals on making key

competences a priority for all age groups. For its part, the 2004 joint interim report on the progress

of the Education and Training 2010 work programme made the case for drawing up common

European references and principles.

Last updated: 03.03.2011

2.2.Teacher Education Competencies

(North Carolina University,Davidson College, USA, Departament of Education site , 2005

1.0 Content Knowledge

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1.1 Liberal Arts. Teachers have broad knowledge of the liberal arts.

1.1.1 Have background in basic subject areas: the arts, humanities, mathematics, and sciences, and have a broad understanding of the major cultures, religions, geography, political systems, philosophies, and economic systems by which people organize their lives.1.1.2 Know and appreciate the great creative works of world cultures.

1.2 Subject-area Content. Teachers know the content appropriate to their teaching specialty and the relevant applications of this content.

1.2.1 Know their subjects considerably beyond the content they are expected to teach, and know how professionals in their field think and analyze the world.1.2.2 Have a strong background in the subjects related to their specialty area.1.2.3 Understand major concepts, assumptions, debates, processes of inquiry, and ways of knowing that are central to the discipline they teach.1.2.4 Know how to apply information from their discipline to real-world situations.

1.3 Curriculum Theory. Teachers understand the ways in which their teaching area connects to the broad curriculum.

1.3.1 Know the links between the grade or subject they teach and what comes before and after their course or grade.1.3.2 Can relate disciplinary knowledge to other subject areas.

1.4 Developmental Theory. Teachers know the ways in which learning takes place, and they know the appropriate levels of intellectual, physical, social, and emotional development of the students they teach.

1.4.1 Understand how learning occurs-how students construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop habits of mind.1.4.2 Understand that students' physical, social, emotional, moral and cognitive development influence learning.1.4.3 Are aware of expected developmental progressions and ranges of individual variation within each domain (physical, social, emotional, moral and cognitive), can identify levels of readiness in learning, and understand how development in any one domain may affect performance in others.1.4.4 Understand how social groups function and influence people, and how people influence groups.

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1.4.5 Recognize factors and situations that are likely to promote or diminish intrinsic motivation.

1.5 Diverse Cultural Environments. Teachers recognize the impact of cultural, economic, political, and social environments upon their discipline.

1.5.1 Know the history of their discipline.1.5.2 Know the contributions that diverse cultural groups have made to their discipline.

1.6 Subject-Specific Technology. Teachers know the specific uses of technology in their discipline.

1.6.1 Understand how technological advances affect their discipline.1.6.2 Know where to find technological resources specific to their discipline.

2.0 Pedagogical Skills

2.1 Effective Classroom Management. Teachers practice effective classroom management.

2.1.1 Exercise leadership by taking personal responsibility for the progress of all students.2.1.2 Organize and motivate students to act in ways that meet the needs of both the individual student and the class as a whole.2.1.3 Maximize efficiency, maintain discipline and morale, promote teamwork, plan, communicate, focus on results, evaluate progress, and make constant adjustments.2.1.4 Work to minimize disruptions in student learning and take advantage of unexpected events to teach students.2.1.5 Are skilled at facilitating consensus and mediating conflict.2.1.6 Use a range of strategies to promote positive relationships, cooperation, and purposeful learning in the classroom.2.1.7 Engage students in individual and cooperative learning activities that help them develop the motivation to achieve.2.1.8 Organize, allocate, and manage the resources of time, space, activities, and attention to provide active and equitable engagement of students in productive tasks.2.1.9 Help the group to develop shared values and expectations for student interactions, academic discussions, and individual and group responsibility that create a positive classroom climate of openness, mutual respect, support, and

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inquiry.

2.2 Effective Teaching Practices. Teachers use a variety of methods to teach students, including cooperative learning techniques, to promote content knowledge, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.

2.2.1 Teach students how to live and work together productively and in a positive manner.2.2.2 Effectively use multiple representations and explanations of disciplinary concepts that capture key ideas and link them to students' prior understandings.2.2.3 Represent and use differing viewpoints, theories, "ways of knowing" and methods of inquiry in the teaching of subject matter concepts.2.2.4 Integrate interdisciplinary learning experiences that allow students to integrate knowledge, skills, and methods of inquiry from several subject areas.2.2.5 Use multiple teaching and learning strategies to engage students in active learning opportunities that promote the development of critical thinking, problem solving, and performance capabilities and that help students assume responsibility for identifying and using learning resources.2.2.6 Constantly monitor and adjust strategies in response to learner feedback.2.2.7 Engage students in individual and cooperative learning activities that help them develop the motivation to achieve.2.2.8 Model effective communication strategies in conveying ideas and information and in asking questions.

2.3 Effective Assessment. Teachers use a variety of methods to assess what students have learned.

2.3.1 Use formal tests, responses to quizzes, evaluation of class assignments, student performances and projects, and standardized achievement tests to understand what students know.2.3.2 Evaluate informal measures of student understanding, such as the questions asked in class and the level of student enthusiasm.2.3.3 Use assessment strategies to involve learners in self-assessment activities, to help them become aware of their strengths and needs, and to encourage them to set personal goals for learning.2.3.4 Modify teaching strategies and behavior in relation to student success, modifying plans and instructional approaches accordingly.2.3.5 Maintain useful records of student work and performance and communicate student progress knowledgeably and responsibly, based on appropriate indicators, to students, parents, and other colleagues.

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2.4 Curriculum Alignment. Teachers align their instruction with the required curriculum.

2.4.1 Develop and apply strategies to make the North Carolina Standard Course of Study, local curriculum framework, and content standards developed by professional organizations in their specialty area significant to the students they teach.2.4.2 Meet the requirements of the entire curriculum, while recognizing and focusing on those concepts in the curriculum which are fundamental to student understanding.

2.5 Diversified Instruction. Teachers plan instruction that is appropriate for a diverse student population, including students with special needs.

2.5.1 Develop short- and long-range plans for instruction, which reflect understanding of how students learn, and allow for students who learn at a faster or slower pace than others to be successful and engaged in learning.2.5.2 Understand that plans are general guidelines and must be constantly monitored and modified to enhance the learning that is occurring in the classroom.2.5.3 Make inclusion of special needs students in the regular classroom a positive experience for each student in the class and collaborate with the range of support specialists to help them meet the needs of all students.2.5.4 Identify and design instruction appropriate to students' stages of development, learning styles, strengths, and needs.2.5.5 Bring multiple perspectives to the discussion of subject matter, including attention to students' personal, family, and community experiences and cultural norms.2.5.6 Know how to take contextual considerations (instructional materials, individual student interests, needs and aptitudes, and community resources) into curriculum goals and students' experiences.2.5.7 Know when and how to adjust plans based on student responses and other contingencies.

2.6 Technology Skills. Teachers have strong and current technology skills.

2.6.1 Know when and how to use current educational technology.2.6.2 Understand the most appropriate type and level of technology to use to maximize student learning.

3.0 Professional Dispositions

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3.1 Belief That All Students Can Learn. Teachers believe that all students can learn.

3.1.1 Instill a love of learning and self-confidence based on achievement.3.1.2 Treat students as individuals.3.1.3 Enjoy spending time in the company of children and young adults learn all they can about each of their students; maintain the dignity of each student; express pride in their students' accomplishments.3.1.4 Believe that all children can learn at high levels and persist in helping all children achieve success.

3.2 Respect for Diversity. Teachers know and respect the influence of race, ethnicity, gender, religion and other aspects of culture on a child's development and personality.

3.2.1 Demonstrate the belief that diversity in the classroom, in the school, and in society is a strength and show this commitment by daily conduct.3.2.2 Do not allow subtle or overt intolerance to bigotry in classrooms or schools, and actively select materials and develop lessons that counteract stereotypes.3.2.3 Strive to understand how an individual child's culture and background influence his or her school performance.3.2.4 In schools and communities where population diversity is limited, find ways to acquaint children with a wide variety of people who make up our society and world.

3.3 Professional Development and Ethics. Teachers meet high ethical standards of practice and engage in professional development activities, including development in the area of technology.

3.3.1 Keep the needs of students at the center of professional thoughts and actions.3.3.2 Live up to universal ethical principles of honesty, truthfulness, integrity, fair treatment, and respect for others.3.3.3 Maintain a clear distinction between personal values and professional ethics.3.3.4 Advocate for teacher professionalism, for school conditions that encourage teaching and learning, and for decision-making structures that take advantage of the expertise of teachers.3.3.5 Recognize that life-long learning is an integral part of the profession.3.3.6 Recognize the professional responsibility for engaging in and supporting appropriate professional practices for self and colleagues.

3.4 Reflective Practice. Teachers are reflective about their practice.

3.4.1 Think systematically about what happens in the classroom and school, why it

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happens, and what can be done to improve student achievement.3.4.2 Study educational literature and interpret research and apply it to classroom and school.3.4.3 Value critical thinking and self-directed learning as habits of mind.

3.5 Community & School Collaboration. Teachers work collaboratively with colleagues, families, and the community to support the learning environment.

3.5.1 Reach out beyond the school to promote trust and understanding, to build partnerships with all segments of the school community, and to overcome obstacles that stand in the way of effective family and community involvement in the education of children.3.5.2 Are informed about policy issues and initiate or assist in implementing initiatives to improve the education of children.3.5.3 Are respected members of the community who play key roles in helping improve communication and collaboration between the members of the community and educators in the school and school system.3.5.4 Realize that everything that happens in the community, between individual students, with families, or with colleagues has an impact in the classroom, and work to minimize disruptions in student learning and take advantage of unexpected events to teach students.3.5.5 Value and learn from the expertise of other educators.

2.3.Proiectul european DICE

DICE (“Drama Improves Lisbon Key Competences in Education”) was an international EU-supported project. In addition to other educational aims, this two-year project was a cross-cultural research study investigating the effects of educational theatre and drama on five of the eight Lisbon Key Competences. The research was conducted by twelve partners (leader: Hungary, partners: Czech Republic, Netherlands, Norway, Palestine, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Sweden and United Kingdom). All members are highly regarded nationally and internationally and represent a wide variety of formal and non-formal sectors of education. Educational theatre and drama practitioners have believed in the efficacy of their work for a long time, but until now it has rarely been measured with scientific tools. In the DICE project, several dozen educational theatre and drama practitioners from twelve countries, with the widest theoretical and professional background, have allied forces with academics (psychologists and

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sociologists), to measure the impact of educational theatre and drama.

The objectives of the project were:

• To demonstrate with cross-cultural quantitative and qualitative research that educational theatre and drama is a powerful tool to improve the Lisbon Key Competences. The research was conducted with almost five thousand young people aged 13-16 years.

• To publish a Policy Paper based on the research, and disseminate it among educational and cultural stakeholders at the European, national, and local levels worldwide.

• To create an Education Resource - a publication for schools, educators and arts practitioners about the different practices of educational theatre and drama. To disseminate this pack at the European, national, and local levels worldwide.

• To compare theatre and drama activities in education in different countries and help the transfer of know-how between experts.

• To hold conferences in the partner countries in order to disseminate the results of the project, as well as a conference in Brussels to disseminate the first main results to key EU leaders in the relevant areas of arts, culture, education and youth.

Our hypothesis was that educational theatre and drama has an impact on five of the eight “Lisbon Key Competences.”We examined the following five out of the eight Key Competences:1.Communication in the mother tongue2. Learning to learn3.Interpersonal, intercultural and social competences, civic competence4. Entrepreneurship5. Cultural expression

Furthermore, we believe that there is a competence not mentioned among the Key Competences, which is the universal competence of what it is to be human. We have called this competence “All this and more”, and included it in the discussion of the research results.These six are life-long learning skills and competences necessary for the personal development of young people, their future employment, and active European citizenship.

The key outcomes of the project are the Education Resource and the Policy Paper, and hopefully also a long series of publications of the detailed research results in future years, beyond the scope of the project.

The innovative aspect of the project is that this is the first research to demonstrate connections between theatre and drama activities in education and the Lisbon Key Competences, with the added value that the research results will be widely shared with the relevant communities and stakeholders. As many of the competences have rarely or never been examined before in cross-cultural studies, we also had to invent and develop new measurement tools that might be useful in

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the future for other educational areas. Besides some newly developed questionnaires for children, teachers, theatre and drama practitioners and external assessors, we devised a toolkit for the independent objective observation of educational theatre and drama classes. All materials used were identical in all twelve countries, and therefore are applicable in any culture.

The ethos underpinning the DICE project has been developed by the practice of the research project itself. It reflects our own learning, the spirit of our collaboration and the ongoing process we are engaged in through educational theatre and drama. We do not claim to be an absolute authority on the theory and practice of educational drama and theatre. We are a group of artist educators and arts education pedagogues who came together because we hold some fundamental values in common that underpin the work that we do. Principal among them is a commitment to nurture and develop the young; as drama educators and practitioners we work with young people and train others to do so. We proceed from the premise that children and young people are not undeveloped adults but human beings who have rights, should be treated justly and given equality of opportunity.

DICE is not only a two-year-long project, but rather a journey and an enterprise that has just started with this research. In the past two years several hundred people have been working with us, from peer volunteers to members of National Academies of Science. For some of us, this project has been one of the most challenging, if not the most challenging, task of our professional career, something from which we could learn significantly.

142455-LLP-1-2008-1-HU-COMENIUS-CMP "This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflect

2.4.Standards for Teacher Competence

in Educational Assessment of Students

Developed by theAmerican Federation of Teachers

National Council on Measurement in Education

National Education Association, 1990

The professional education associations began working in 1987 to develop standards for teacher competence in student assessment out of concern that the potential educational benefits of student assessments be fully realized. The Committee[1] appointed to this project completed its work in 1990 following reviews of earlier drafts by members of the measurement, teaching, and teacher preparation and certification communities. Parallel committees of affected associations are encouraged to develop similar statements of qualifications for school administrators, counselors,

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testing directors, supervisors, and other educators in the near future. These statements are intended to guide the preservice and inservice preparation of educators, the accreditation of preparation programs, and the future certification of all educators.

A standard is defined here as a principle generally accepted by the professional associations responsible for this document. Assessment is defined as the process of obtaining information that is used to make educational decisions about students, to give feedback to the student about his or her progress, strengths, and weaknesses, to judge instructional effectiveness and curricular adequacy, and to inform policy. The various assessment techniques include, but are not limited to, formal and informal observation, qualitative analysis of pupil performance and products, paper-and-pencil tests, oral questioning, and analysis of student records. The assessment competencies included here are the knowledge and skills critical to a teacher's role as educator. It is understood that there are many competencies beyond assessment competencies which teachers must possess.

By establishing standards for teacher competence in student assessment, the associations subscribe to the view that student assessment is an essential part of teaching and that good teaching cannot exist without good student assessment. Training to develop the competencies covered in the standards should be an integral part of preservice preparation. Further, such assessment training should be widely available to practicing teachers through staff development programs at the district and building levels.

The standards are intended for use as:

• a guide for teacher educators as they design and approve programs for teacher preparation • a self-assessment guide for teachers in identifying their needs for professional development

in student assessment • a guide for workshop instructors as they design professional development experiences for

in-service teachers • an impetus for educational measurement specialists and teacher trainers to conceptualize

student assessment and teacher training in student assessment more broadly than has been the case in the past.

The standards should be incorporated into future teacher training and certification programs. Teachers who have not had the preparation these standards imply should have the opportunity and support to develop these competencies before the standards enter into the evaluation of these teachers.

The Approach Used To Develop The Standards

The members of the associations that supported this work are professional educators involved in teaching, teacher education, and student assessment. Members of these associations are concerned about the inadequacy with which teachers are prepared for assessing the educational progress of

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their students, and thus sought to address this concern effectively. A committee named by the associations first met in September 1987 and affirmed its commitment to defining standards for teacher preparation in student assessment. The committee then undertook a review of the research literature to identify needs in student assessment, current levels of teacher training in student assessment, areas of teacher activities requiring competence in using assessments, and current levels of teacher competence in student assessment.

The members of the committee used their collective experience and expertise to formulate and then revise statements of important assessment competencies. Drafts of these competencies went through several revisions by the Committee before the standards were released for public review. Comments by reviewers from each of the associations were then used to prepare a final statement.

The Scope of a Teacher's Professional Role and Responsibilities for Student Assessment

There are seven standards in this document. In recognizing the critical need to revitalize classroom assessment, some standards focus on classroom-based competencies. Because of teachers' growing roles in education and policy decisions beyond the classroom, other standards address assessment competencies underlying teacher participation in decisions related to assessment at the school, district, state, and national levels.

The scope of a teacher's professional role and responsibilities for student assessment may be described in terms of the following activities. These activities imply that teachers need competence in student assessment and sufficient time and resources to complete them in a professional manner.

• Activities Occurring Prior to Instruction o (a) Understanding students' cultural backgrounds, interests, skills, and abilities as

they apply across a range of learning domains and/or subject areas; o (b) understanding students' motivations and their interests in specific class content; o (c) clarifying and articulating the performance outcomes expected of pupils; and o (d) planning instruction for individuals or groups of students.

• Activities Occurring During Instruction o (a) Monitoring pupil progress toward instructional goals; o (b) identifying gains and difficulties pupils are experiencing in learning and

performing; o (c) adjusting instruction; o (d) giving contingent, specific, and credible praise and feedback; o (e) motivating students to learn; and o (f) judging the extent of pupil attainment of instructional outcomes.

• Activities Occurring After The Appropriate Instructional Segment (e.g. lesson, class, semester, grade)

o (a) Describing the extent to which each pupil has attained both short- and long-term instructional goals;

o (b) communicating strengths and weaknesses based on assessment results to students, and parents or guardians;

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o (c) recording and reporting assessment results for school-level analysis, evaluation, and decision-making;

o (d) analyzing assessment information gathered before and during instruction to understand each students' progress to date and to inform future instructional planning;

o (e) evaluating the effectiveness of instruction; and o (f) evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum and materials in use.

• Activities Associated With a Teacher's Involvement in School Building and School District Decision-Making

o (a) Serving on a school or district committee examining the school's and district's strengths and weaknesses in the development of its students;

o (b) working on the development or selection of assessment methods for school building or school district use;

o (c) evaluating school district curriculum; and o (d) other related activities.

• Activities Associated With a Teacher's Involvement in a Wider Community of Educators o (a) Serving on a state committee asked to develop learning goals and associated

assessment methods; o (b) participating in reviews of the appropriateness of district, state, or national

student goals and associated assessment methods; and o (c) interpreting the results of state and national student assessment programs.

Each standard that follows is an expectation for assessment knowledge or skill that a teacher should possess in order to perform well in the five areas just described. As a set, the standards call on teachers to demonstrate skill at selecting, developing, applying, using, communicating, and evaluating student assessment information and student assessment practices. A brief rationale and illustrative behaviors follow each standard.

The standards represent a conceptual framework or scaffolding from which specific skills can be derived. Work to make these standards operational will be needed even after they have been published. It is also expected that experience in the application of these standards should lead to their improvement and further development.

Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students

1. Teachers should be skilled in choosing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions.

Skills in choosing appropriate, useful, administratively convenient, technically adequate, and fair assessment methods are prerequisite to good use of information to support instructional decisions. Teachers need to be well-acquainted with the kinds of information provided by a broad range of

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assessment alternatives and their strengths and weaknesses. In particular, they should be familiar with criteria for evaluating and selecting assessment methods in light of instructional plans.

Teachers who meet this standard will have the conceptual and application skills that follow. They will be able to use the concepts of assessment error and validity when developing or selecting their approaches to classroom assessment of students. They will understand how valid assessment data can support instructional activities such as providing appropriate feedback to students, diagnosing group and individual learning needs, planning for individualized educational programs, motivating students, and evaluating instructional procedures. They will understand how invalid information can affect instructional decisions about students. They will also be able to use and evaluate assessment options available to them, considering among other things, the cultural, social, economic, and language backgrounds of students. They will be aware that different assessment approaches can be incompatible with certain instructional goals and may impact quite differently on their teaching.

Teachers will know, for each assessment approach they use, its appropriateness for making decisions about their pupils. Moreover, teachers will know of where to find information about and/or reviews of various assessment methods. Assessment options are diverse and include text- and curriculum-embedded questions and tests, standardized criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tests, oral questioning, spontaneous and structured performance assessments, portfolios, exhibitions, demonstrations, rating scales, writing samples, paper-and-pencil tests, seatwork and homework, peer- and self-assessments, student records, observations, questionnaires, interviews, projects, products, and others' opinions.

2. Teachers should be skilled in developing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions.

While teachers often use published or other external assessment tools, the bulk of the assessment information they use for decision-making comes from approaches they create and implement. Indeed, the assessment demands of the classroom go well beyond readily available instruments.

Teachers who meet this standard will have the conceptual and application skills that follow. Teachers will be skilled in planning the collection of information that facilitates the decisions they will make. They will know and follow appropriate principles for developing and using assessment methods in their teaching, avoiding common pitfalls in student assessment. Such techniques may include several of the options listed at the end of the first standard. The teacher will select the techniques which are appropriate to the intent of the teacher's instruction.

Teachers meeting this standard will also be skilled in using student data to analyze the quality of each assessment technique they use. Since most teachers do not have access to assessment specialists, they must be prepared to do these analyses themselves.

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3. The teacher should be skilled in administering, scoring and interpreting the results of both externally-produced and teacher-produced assessment methods.

It is not enough that teachers are able to select and develop good assessment methods; they must also be able to apply them properly. Teachers should be skilled in administering, scoring, and interpreting results from diverse assessment methods.

Teachers who meet this standard will have the conceptual and application skills that follow. They will be skilled in interpreting informal and formal teacher-produced assessment results, including pupils' performances in class and on homework assignments. Teachers will be able to use guides for scoring essay questions and projects, stencils for scoring response-choice questions, and scales for rating performance assessments. They will be able to use these in ways that produce consistent results.

Teachers will be able to administer standardized achievement tests and be able to interpret the commonly reported scores: percentile ranks, percentile band scores, standard scores, and grade equivalents. They will have a conceptual understanding of the summary indexes commonly reported with assessment results: measures of central tendency, dispersion, relationships, reliability, and errors of measurement.

Teachers will be able to apply these concepts of score and summary indices in ways that enhance their use of the assessments that they develop. They will be able to analyze assessment results to identify pupils' strengths and errors. If they get inconsistent results, they will seek other explanations for the discrepancy or other data to attempt to resolve the uncertainty before arriving at a decision. They will be able to use assessment methods in ways that encourage students' educational development and that do not inappropriately increase students' anxiety levels.

4. Teachers should be skilled in using assessment results when making decisions about individual students, planning teaching, developing curriculum, and school improvement.

Assessment results are used to make educational decisions at several levels: in the classroom about students, in the community about a school and a school district, and in society, generally, about the purposes and outcomes of the educational enterprise. Teachers play a vital role when participating in decision-making at each of these levels and must be able to use assessment results effectively.

Teachers who meet this standard will have the conceptual and application skills that follow. They will be able to use accumulated assessment information to organize a sound instructional plan for facilitating students' educational development. When using assessment results to plan and/or evaluate instruction and curriculum, teachers will interpret the results correctly and avoid common misinterpretations, such as basing decisions on scores that lack curriculum validity. They will be informed about the results of local, regional, state, and national assessments and about their appropriate use for pupil, classroom, school, district, state, and national educational improvement.

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5. Teachers should be skilled in developing valid pupil grading procedures which use pupil assessments.

Grading students is an important part of professional practice for teachers. Grading is defined as indicating both a student's level of performance and a teacher's valuing of that performance. The principles for using assessments to obtain valid grades are known and teachers should employ them.

Teachers who meet this standard will have the conceptual and application skills that follow. They will be able to devise, implement, and explain a procedure for developing grades composed of marks from various assignments, projects, inclass activities, quizzes, tests, and/or other assessments that they may use. Teachers will understand and be able to articulate why the grades they assign are rational, justified, and fair, acknowledging that such grades reflect their preferences and judgments. Teachers will be able to recognize and to avoid faulty grading procedures such as using grades as punishment. They will be able to evaluate and to modify their grading procedures in order to improve the validity of the interpretations made from them about students' attainments.

6. Teachers should be skilled in communicating assessment results to students, parents, other lay audiences, and other educators.

Teachers must routinely report assessment results to students and to parents or guardians. In addition, they are frequently asked to report or to discuss assessment results with other educators and with diverse lay audiences. If the results are not communicated effectively, they may be misused or not used. To communicate effectively with others on matters of student assessment, teachers must be able to use assessment terminology appropriately and must be able to articulate the meaning, limitations, and implications of assessment results. Furthermore, teachers will sometimes be in a position that will require them to defend their own assessment procedures and their interpretations of them. At other times, teachers may need to help the public to interpret assessment results appropriately.

Teachers who meet this standard will have the conceptual and application skills that follow. Teachers will understand and be able to give appropriate explanations of how the interpretation of student assessments must be moderated by the student's socio-economic, cultural, language, and other background factors. Teachers will be able to explain that assessment results do not imply that such background factors limit a student's ultimate educational development. They will be able to communicate to students and to their parents or guardians how they may assess the student's educational progress. Teachers will understand and be able to explain the importance of taking measurement errors into account when using assessments to make decisions about individual students. Teachers will be able to explain the limitations of different informal and formal assessment methods. They will be able to explain printed reports of the results of pupil assessments at the classroom, school district, state, and national levels.

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7. Teachers should be skilled in recognizing unethical, illegal, and otherwise inappropriate assessment methods and uses of assessment information.

Fairness, the rights of all concerned, and professional ethical behavior must undergird all student assessment activities, from the initial planning for and gathering of information to the interpretation, use, and communication of the results. Teachers must be well-versed in their own ethical and legal responsibilities in assessment. In addition, they should also attempt to have the inappropriate assessment practices of others discontinued whenever they are encountered. Teachers should also participate with the wider educational community in defining the limits of appropriate professional behavior in assessment.

Teachers who meet this standard will have the conceptual and application skills that follow. They will know those laws and case decisions which affect their classroom, school district, and state assessment practices. Teachers will be aware that various assessment procedures can be misused or overused resulting in harmful consequences such as embarrassing students, violating a student's right to confidentiality, and inappropriately using students' standardized achievement test scores to measure teaching effectiveness.

[1] The Committee that developed this statement was appointed by the collaborating professional associations: James R. Sanders (Western Michigan University) chaired the Committee and represented NCME along with John R. Hills (Florida State University) and Anthony J. Nitko (University of Pittsburgh). Jack C. Merwin (University of Minnesota) represented the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, Carolyn Trice represented the American Federation of Teachers, and Marcella Dianda and Jeffrey Schneider represented the National Education Association.

2.5. Teaching Grammar

©2003, 2004 The National Capital Language Resource Center, Washington, DC

Goals and Techniques for Teaching Grammar

The goal of grammar instruction is to enable students to carry out their communication purposes. This goal has three implications:

• Students need overt instruction that connects grammar points with larger communication contexts.

• Students do not need to master every aspect of each grammar point, only those that are relevant to the immediate communication task.

• Error correction is not always the instructor's first responsibility.

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Overt Grammar Instruction

Adult students appreciate and benefit from direct instruction that allows them to apply critical thinking skills to language learning. Instructors can take advantage of this by providing explanations that give students a descriptive understanding (declarative knowledge) of each point of grammar.

• Teach the grammar point in the target language or the students' first language or both. The goal is to facilitate understanding.

• Limit the time you devote to grammar explanations to 10 minutes, especially for lower level students whose ability to sustain attention can be limited.

• Present grammar points in written and oral ways to address the needs of students with different learning styles.

An important part of grammar instruction is providing examples. Teachers need to plan their examples carefully around two basic principles:

• Be sure the examples are accurate and appropriate. They must present the language appropriately, be culturally appropriate for the setting in which they are used, and be to the point of the lesson.

• Use the examples as teaching tools. Focus examples on a particular theme or topic so that students have more contact with specific information and vocabulary. Relevance of Grammar Instruction

In the communicative competence model, the purpose of learning grammar is to learn the language of which the grammar is a part. Instructors therefore teach grammar forms and structures in relation to meaning and use for the specific communication tasks that students need to complete.

Compare the traditional model and the communicative competence model for teaching the English past tense:

Traditional: grammar for grammar's sake

• Teach the regular -ed form with its two pronunciation variants • Teach the doubling rule for verbs that end in d (for example, wed-wedded) • Hand out a list of irregular verbs that students must memorize • Do pattern practice drills for -ed • Do substitution drills for irregular verbs

Communicative competence: grammar for communication's sake

• Distribute two short narratives about recent experiences or events, each one to half of the class

• Teach the regular -ed form, using verbs that occur in the texts as examples. Teach the pronunciation and doubling rules if those forms occur in the texts.

• Teach the irregular verbs that occur in the texts. • Students read the narratives, ask questions about points they don't understand.

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• Students work in pairs in which one member has read Story A and the other Story B. Students interview one another; using the information from the interview, they then write up or orally repeat the story they have not read. Error Correction

At all proficiency levels, learners produce language that is not exactly the language used by native speakers. Some of the differences are grammatical, while others involve vocabulary selection and mistakes in the selection of language appropriate for different contexts.

In responding to student communication, teachers need to be careful not to focus on error correction to the detriment of communication and confidence building. Teachers need to let students know when they are making errors so that they can work on improving. Teachers also need to build students' confidence in their ability to use the language by focusing on the content of their communication rather than the grammatical form.

Teachers can use error correction to support language acquisition, and avoid using it in ways that undermine students' desire to communicate in the language, by taking cues from context.

• When students are doing structured output activities that focus on development of new language skills, use error correction to guide them.

Example: Student (in class): I buy a new car yesterday. Teacher: You bought a new car yesterday. Remember, the past tense of buy is bought.

• When students are engaged in communicative activities, correct errors only if they interfere with comprehensibility. Respond using correct forms, but without stressing them. Example: Student (greeting teacher) : I buy a new car yesterday! Teacher: You bought a new car? That's exciting! What kind?

Documentarul Nr. 3

DIFERENŢIEREA ŞI INDIVIDUALIZAREA INSTRUIRII


Individualized Approaches to Instruction

Similar to programmed learning and teaching machines individualized instruction began in the early 1900s, and was revived in the 1960s. The Keller Plan, Individually Prescribed

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Instruction, Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs, and Individually Guided Education are all examples of individualized instruction in the U.S. (Saettler, 1990).

Keller Plan

(1963)

Developed by F.S. Keller, a colleague of Skinner, the Keller plan was used for university college classes.

Main features of Keller Plan individually paced. mastery learning. lectures and demonstrations motivational rather than critical information. use of proctors which permitted testing, immediate scoring, tutoring, personal-

social aspect of educational process.

(Saettler, 1990)

A review of evaluative research on the Keller plan establishes the following points:

1) The Keller plan is an attractive teaching method to most students. In every published report, students rate the Keller plan much more favorably than teaching by lecture.

2) Self-pacing and interaction with tutors seem to be the features of the Keller courses most favored by students.

3) Several investigators report higher-than-average withdrawal rates for their Keller sections. The conditions that influence withdrawal and procrastination in Keller courses have been studied, and it seems possible to control procrastination and withdrawal through course design.

4) Content learning (as measured by final examinations) is adequate in Keller courses. In the published studies, final examination performance in Keller sections always equals, and usually exceeds, performance in lecture sessions.

5) Students almost invariably report that they learn more in PSI than in lecture courses, and also nearly always report putting more time and effort into the Keller courses.

Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI)

(1964)

Developed by Learning Research and Development Center of the University of Pitsburgh. Lasted into the 1970s when it lost funding and its use dwindled Main features of IPI:

prepared units. behavioral objectives.

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planned instructional sequences. used for reading, math and science. included pretest and posttest for each unit. materials continually evaluated and upgraded to meet behavioral objectives.

(Saettler, 1990)

Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs

(PLAN)

(1967)

Headed by Jon C. Flanagan, PLAN was developed under sponsorship of American Institutes for Research (AIR), Westinghouse Learning Corporation and fourteen U.S. School districts.

Abandoned in late 1970s because of upgrading costs Main features of PLAN

schools selected items from about 6,000 behavioral objectives. each instructional module took about two weeks instruction and were made up of

approximately. five objectives. mastery learning. remedial le arning plus retesting.

(Saettler, 1990)

3.2. Studii semnificative

Individualized Instruction

(Education Encyclopedia - StateUniversity.com » Education Encyclopedia )

The improvement of instruction has been a goal of educators as far back as the teachings of the Greek philosopher Socrates. Although there are a wide variety of approaches, in most cases instruction can be characterized by the following tasks: setting objectives, teaching content based on these objectives, and evaluating performance. This formula is indeed the most common; however, there have been many advocates of alternative approaches. Among the alternative approaches there is a focus on a more individualized approach to instruction, where the traits of the individual learner are given more consideration. Each approach to individualizing instruction is different, but they all seek to manipulate the three following fundamental variables:

• Pace: the amount of time given to a student to learn the content • Method: the way that the instruction is structured and managed • Content: the material to be learned

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Pace

There are two basic extremes when the pace of instruction is considered. The first is when someone other than student, usually a teacher or instructor, controls the amount of time spent learning the material. In this case specific due dates are defined before instruction begins. This is currently the predominant model in most educational systems. The opposite extreme would be if the learner had exclusive control over the pace of instruction, without a time limit. Between these two extremes are situations where control of the pace of instruction is shared or negotiated, not necessarily equally, by the teacher and learner.

Method

As theories of learning and instruction develop and mature, more and more consideration is given to the way in which learning occurs. In an attempt to account for the way that students learn, instructors may apply a combination of theories and principles in preparing instruction. This can influence whether instruction is designed for one homogenous group, or is flexible, in anticipation of individual differences among learners. In the majority of cases, instruction is designed for the average learner, and is customized ad-hoc by the teacher or instructor as needed once instruction begins. This type of instruction, although it does give some consideration to individual differences among learners during instruction, does not fall into the typically accepted definition of individualized instruction. For instruction to be considered individualized, the instruction is usually designed to account for specific learner characteristics. This could include alternative instructional methods for students with different backgrounds and learning styles.

To help clarify this point, the instructional method used can be considered in terms of extremes. In the first extreme, one instructional method is used for everyone. Terms like inclusion and mainstreaming have been used to describe this first case. In the second extreme, a specific instructional method is used for each individual. Between these extremes lie situations where students are arranged into groups according to the their characteristics. These groups can vary in size, and the instructional method is tailored to each group.

Content

Perhaps the least frequently modified component is the actual learning content. However, it is possible to vary the content taught to different learners or groups of learners. Both "tracking" and "enrichment" are examples of customizing instructional content. A renewed movement toward learner-centered principles in education has given this component more consideration in the 1990s. It has become possible to find examples of instructional settings in which students define their own content, and pursue learning based on their own interests. In most cases, however, this opportunity is limited to high-achieving students. In terms of extremes, content can be uniform for everyone, or unique to each individual. Between these extremes lie cases where the content can be varied, but only within a predefined range. The range of activities available to the learner is an indicator of how individualized the content is in an instructional setting.

Examples of Individualized Instruction

There are many examples of instructional approaches that have modified some or all of these three components. In all of these examples, the goal was to improve the instructional experience for the

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individual learner. Some of the most historically notable approaches are discussed below. Within each example both the benefits and criticisms of each approach are discussed.

Personalized System of Instruction.

Introduced in 1964 by Fred Keller, the Personalized System of Instruction, or the Keller Plan, is perhaps one of the first comprehensive systems of individualized instruction. Keller based his system on ten accepted educational principles (McGaw, p. 4):

• Active responding • Positive conditions and consequences • Specification of objectives • Organization of material • Mastery before advancement • Evaluation/objectives congruence • Frequent evaluation • Immediate feedback • Self-pacing • Personalization

None of these ten principles should be considered unique, as they all can be easily found in other more traditional educational settings. Rather, it is the components of the Keller plan–based on these ten principles–that makes the Keller Plan somewhat different: self-pacing; unit mastery; student tutors; optional motivational lectures; and learning from written material. It is the first component, self-pacing, that is the most obvious attempt at individualizing the instruction. From the second component, unit mastery, it can be seen that the content does not vary, as the unit content is fixed. To illustrate the static nature of the content, Mike Naumes describes the basic design of a course using Keller's personalized system of instruction:

breaking the material of the course into several units…. dividing the material intounits one to two weeks long…. [and] aseach unit of material is covered, specific learning objectives are given to the students. These state exactly what a student must know to pass a unit quiz. (p. 2)

The last three components indicate that the method of instruction does vary slightly from individual to individual. Although all students learn from written material and student tutors, the motivational lectures are optional. Making these lectures optional does constitute some flexibility in terms of instructional method, albeit extremely limited. Fundamentally, it is the self-pacing that more or less stands alone as the individualized component of this instructional system.

Proponents of the Keller Plan cite many benefits, including better retention and increased motivation for further learning. At the same time, there are others with criticisms of the Keller Plan such as the following: limited instructional methods, high dropout rates, and decreased human interaction. The debate over the effectiveness of Keller's Personalized System of Instruction, with its advantages and disadvantages, raises fundamental questions about the nature of self-contained, self-paced learning. There are indeed opportunities for designing instruction that lend themselves to the Personalized System of Instruction approach. This would apply especially to cases where enrollment is high, course material is standardized and stable, and faculty resources are scarce. On the other hand, when there is not a shortage of faculty, or the class size is not large, the course

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would be better taught with more conventional methods, yet still based on sound educational principles. Where the line is drawn on the continuum between these two extremes is a matter of opinion, and should be based on the context in which the instruction is to take place. It would be inappropriate to claim that one of the extremes is completely right, and the other wrong, given the vast number of studies and evaluations that support either side.

Audio-Tutorial.

Audio-Tutorial is a method of individualized instruction developed by Samuel N. Postlethwait in 1961 at Purdue University. His goal was to find an improved method of teaching botany to a larger number of college students and to effectively assist the students who possessed only limited backgrounds in the subject. The development of an Audio-Tutorial program requires a significant amount of planning and time by the instructor. Although there is some room for modification for each specific program, the general principles remain the same. Students have access to a taped presentation of a specifically designed program that directs their activities one at a time. The basic principles of Audio-Tutorial are "(1) repetition; (2) concentration; (3) association; (4) unit steps; (5) use of the communication vehicle appropriate to the objective;(6) use of multiplicity of approaches; and (7) use of an integrated experience approach" (Couch, p. 6).

The major benefits of Audio-Tutorial are that "students can adopt the study pace to their ability to assimilate the information. Exposure to difficult subjects is repeated as often as necessary for any particular student" (Postlethwait, Novak, and Murray, p. 5). In addition to taking more time if they wish, students can also accelerate the pace of their learning. Other benefits are that students feel more responsible for their learning, and more students can be accommodated in less laboratory space and with less staff.

Some of the major criticisms that are common to Audio-Tutorial courses were illustrated by Robert K. Snortland upon evaluating a course in graphics design. The primary criticism concerns the claim of responsibility. It seems that some students respond to the responsibility placed upon them, while others do not. There was a problem with the initial dropout rate, which seemed to be explained by the lack of willingness of some students to take on the amount of responsibility that was required in order to complete the course. Snortland advised that "since many freshmen students are not ready for additional self-discipline required of them in the A-T format, the choice of either a structured approach or an individualized approach should always remain open" (p. 8). Many other criticisms of Audio-Tutorial courses are concerned with teacher control. The instructor dictates all of the material including the learning and feedback procedures. The criticism is that this is a severe form of teacher control

Like the Keller Plan, Audio-Tutorial allows the individual student to determine his or her own pace, and the content is fixed. Unlike the Keller Plan, however, there are more instructional delivery methods available when designing the course. Yet the locus of control remains with the instructor in the Audio-Tutorial as well.

Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI).

Most proponents of individualized instruction saw the computer as a way to further improve the design and delivery of individualized instruction–now in an electronic environment. With the advent of the computer came the potential to deliver individualized instruction in a more powerful

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way. This potential was anticipated long before the proliferation of the home computer. John E. Coulson wrote in 1970: "A modern computer has characteristics that closely parallel those needed in any educational system that wishes to provide highly individualized instruction"(p. 4). He also noted the specific benefits that the computer could offer (p. 5):

• "It has a very large memory capacity that can be used to store instructional content material or…to generate such material."

• "The computer can perform complex analyses of student responses." • "The computer can make decisions based on the assessments of student performance,

matching resources to individual student needs."

Although there were many anticipated benefits to using the computer to deliver instruction, in practice, CAI has been heavily criticized for its hidden side-effects. These are nicely articulated by Henry F. Olds:

Learning is in control of some unknown source that determines almost all aspects of the interactive process. To learn one must suspend all normal forms of interaction and engage only in those called for by the program. Learning is an isolated activity to be carried on primarily in a one-to-one interaction with the computer. Normal inter-human dialogue is to be suspended while learning with the computer. Learning involves understanding (psyching out) how the program expects one to behave and adapting one's behavior accordingly. One must suspend idiosyncratic behavior. Learning (even in highly sophisticated, branching programs) is a linear, step-by-step process. In learning from the computer, one must suspend creative insights, intuitions, cognitive leaps, and other nonlinear mental phenomena. (p. 9)

Olds even offered some solutions to these problems, indicating that "time on-line needs to be mixed with plenty of opportunities for human interaction" and that computer should allow people to "jump around within the program structure" (p. 9).

CAI became the forerunner in individualized instruction during the 1980s and early 1990s, as the home computer became more powerful and less expensive. The changes that the computer environment helped to make were predominantly a change in the delivery mechanism of individualized instruction, rather than a fundamental change in purpose or method. In a sense, the computer, especially the home computer, offered a convenience that other delivery mechanisms lacked. This convenience was accelerated with the proliferation of the Internet in late 1990s. Starting as an extension of computer-based instruction, online education became increasingly popular and eventually began to supplant CAI as the predominant form of individualized instruction.

Distance education.

A surge in the number of nontraditional students attending college in the 1990s, combined with the technological potential of the Internet, has caused a renewed effort to deliver instruction in a nontraditional fashion. Accessibility and convenience–not research–are the primary driving forces in this movement toward instruction in the form on online education. When reviewing more than 200 articles on online instruction over the 1990s, James DiPerna and Robert Volpe found that only one article directly addressed the impact of the technology on learning. Partnerships between

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businesses and institutions of higher learning have arisen to address the increased need for continuing education.

Whether it is more effective or less effective than traditional education seems less a concern. In many cases, the audience addressed is nontraditional, and they have limited access to traditional education. Additionally, many students who could otherwise attend brick-and-mortar institutions are choosing online education for the convenience. In other words, what was established initially due to necessity has now expanded as students choose this route because of its convenience. The rate of expansion of online education has accelerated to a point where the general feeling among institutions of higher learning is of willing participation. In terms of pace, method, and content, there is a large variety of competing approaches to distance education, and no dominant model has emerged. Like previous iterations of individualized instruction, it is usually the pace of instruction that most often varies. The content is still fixed in most cases, as is the method (predominantly via the Internet).

Final Issues

Individualized instruction comes in many forms, all of which seek to improve instruction in some way. As can be seen in the examples above, alternative instructional approaches most often vary the pace and method of instruction, but not the content itself. The content is usually consistent with traditional instruction, although it may be segmented differently.

Other benefits are also significant, but not as consistent among approaches. Each approach has its own set of prescriptions, and each has been heavily criticized–yet that is to be expected. Even now, individualized instruction in its various forms is still a relatively recent innovation, and will remain under scrutiny until several criticisms are accounted for.

Perhaps the most profound criticism comes in the article "Individualization: The Hidden Agenda," by Ronald T. Hyman. He was concerned with the latent functions of individualization generally. In the push for individualization, the most common approach is to divide the subject matter up into segments and teach it at a self-taught level, but Hyman warns that "Segmented Junk Is Still Junk" (p. 414). There is no concern for what really is the problem, and that is the subject matter itself. He claims that individualized instruction typically does not alter the subject matter based on the needs of the student. Without doing this, there is a compromise of individualized instruction.

In summary, individualized instruction has the potential to improve instruction by varying the pace of instruction, the instructional method, and the content. Most approaches allow for self-pacing, yet variation in method and content is rare, and when it does occur, is usually very limited. As of the early twenty-first century, there are no indications that this trend will change in the immediate future, although as the research base in this area increases, major improvements are certain to come.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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COUCH, RICHARD W. 1983. "Individualized Instruction: A Review of Audio-Tutorial Instruction, Guided Design, the Personalized System of Instruction, and Individualized Lectures Classes." Paper written for partial fulfillment of doctor of philosophy degree, University of Kansas. ERIC Document ED 252178.

DIPERNA, JAMES C., and VOLPE, ROBERT J. 2000. Evaluating Web-Based Instruction in Psychology. Poster presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.

HYMAN, RONALD T. 1973. "Individualization: The Hidden Agenda." Elementary School Journal 73:412–423.

KELLER, FRED S. 1968. "Good-Bye Teacher…. " Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 1:78–89.

KELLER, FRED S. 1982. Pedagogue's Progress. Lawrence, KS: T.R.I.

MCGAW, DICKINSON. 1975. "Personalized Systems of Instruction." Paper prepared for the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco.

NAUMES, MIKE. 1977. "The Keller Plan: A Method for Putting the Responsibility of Learning Upon the Student." Perspectives 1977:1–7.

OLDS, HENRY F. 1985. "The Microcomputer and the Hidden Curriculum." Computers in Schools 2 (1):3–14.

POSTLETHWAIT, SAMUEL N.; NOVAK, JOSEPH D.; and MURRAY, HALLARD THOMAS. 1972. The Audio-Tutorial Approach to Learning. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess.

SNORTLAND, ROBERT K. 1982. "An Individualized Teaching Approach: Audio-Tutorial." College Teaching Monograph. ERIC Document ED 226656. Bismarck: University of North Dakota.

3.3. Un exemplu foarte sugestiv

An Introduction to Individualized Instruction

By Master Sergeant Frederick K. Snyder

(Document created: 4 September 03Air University Review, September-October 1975)

Failure to provide for individual differences among students is perhaps the greatest single source of inefficiency in education.”1 With the advent of new communication technology in the 1960s, the long-desired goal of individualized instruction, which provides for the differences among students, is capable of being reached.2 A 1972 study by the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory of 38 existing individualized instruction programs found not only a 25 to 44 percent reduction in training time but also a significant improvement in graduate performance. 3 These are motivations to change to individualized instruction.

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http://www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview_toc/AUReview1975/AUReview1975Sep-Oct.htm

http://www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1975/sep-oct/snyder.html#snyder

As with most changes, one of the first things that needs to be changed is attitude. The most important attitude is that of the instructors who will do the work involved and then present the new training methods to the students. The attitude of the instructors’ supervisors also matters because each instructor responds to what he feels his supervisor really wants.

A major permanent change in Air Force training procedures requires an attitude change at the very top of the Air Force. At this level the Air Force has responded to the leadership of its managers. Presidents Kennedy and Johnson asked and received from Congress support for educational technology research. In 1965, Secretary of Defense McNamara asked the services to recommend ways to improve military training. For the Air Force, Air Training Command (ATC) experimented with and evaluated individualized instruction.4 In 1970 the Air Force Chief of Staff established this policy for all commands: new training will be organized according to the Instructional System Development (ISD) method and existing training will he selectively converted to the ISD concept.5 AFM 50-2, Instructional System Development, implements this policy. ATC conducts several courses on ISD. The intent of this article is to explore the major facets of individualized instruction. To explore individualized instruction, it helps to have before us a picture of current conventional training procedures. With knowledge of today’s training behavior, we can interpose new learning theory, and training quality can be improved.

A typical class is a group of students, individually different in their abilities and interests, who sit listening to an instructor lecture about a subject. The students take whatever notes they desire. If the instructor uses the chalkboard or other teaching aids, he uses them rather sparingly. When he directs attention to a displayed item, his hand stays there only a short time. The students are relying mostly on their sense of hearing to take in new information. When a student realizes he missed a key point, he asks for a repeat explanation. The whole class stops its progress while one student gets his needed facts. This routine is interrupted only infrequently with a test to measure student progress formally. Little effort is made to reteach identified weak areas; there is no time for that in a conventional class. The result is that only a few students get high grades, most students have gaps in their understanding of the subject with less than desirable retention, and some students fail.

My analysis of this picture puts importance on these factors: (1) differences in student abilities, (2) sparse use of training aids, (3) great reliance on one sense—hearing, (4) a student’s need for repeat explanations, (5) a student’s needs holding the class back, (6) infrequent testing, (7) little reteaching, (8) less than desirable results.

Redefining student aptitude

Aptitude tests are often considered to be measurements of prior achievements. Aptitude test scores are used to predict which students should succeed or fail in training. Students with low aptitude scores are usually denied certain training, and the Air Force loses when needed jobs go unfulfilled for lack of qualified people. A student’s aptitude score for a particular subject predicts the level to which he could learn the subject in a given period of time.

The fixed part of the definition of student aptitude is in a given period of time; the variable part is the level of learning. The definition can be restated to read: student aptitude is the time required to learn a subject to a given level.7 Fixing the level of achievement and letting time vary implies that practically every student can succeed when given enough time.

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The time needed, which is predicted by the student’s learning rate (aptitude), is determined by: (1) the quality of his instruction, (2) the quality of his instructional materials, and (3) his ability to understand the instructions and materials.8

When time is allowed to vary and the quality of instruction is improved, then a majority of students, up to 95 percent, can achieve the required level of performance. 9 Three key actions make up individualized instruction: (1) clearly state what each student is expected to learn and to what level, (2) help each student when and where he has learning difficulties, (3) give each student sufficient time to learn. 10

Proficiency in applying modern instructional technology to implement these actions requires increased instructor training equivalent to at least a college course of three semester hours.11

Therefore this article is limited to an overview of individualized instruction.

Glaser’s instructional model with feedback system12

An individualized instructional model

The cycle of individualized instruction may be illustrated by the accompanying instructional model. In block I the objectives are clearly stated. In block II each student’s entering behavior (current ability) is determined by diagnostic testing. If he has met any of the objectives stated in block I, the training for these objectives is eliminated from his schedule. Objectives minus entering behavior equal the training requirements for the individual student. Training for this reduced set of objectives is prescribed in block III, where the student interacts with the instructional system in ways that help him reach his objectives. In block IV the student is involved in frequent performance testing, the results of which feed back to block I objectives, showing what objectives have been mastered and what objectives remain for further learning. Individualized instruction is a continuous cycle of diagnosis, prescription, and evaluation until the student has mastered all stated objectives.

Instructional system development

Before this instructional model can be employed, much preliminary work must he done. Clearly stated objectives must be written; diagnostic tests must be formulated; instructional procedures that help the individual student must be developed; and performance evaluations must be prepared. The work involved is more than one instructor should be expected to handle. It may take as much as 250 hours to produce a 15-minute lesson. 13 This expenditure of effort has produced a more proficient group of graduates in less time compared to conventional training systems. There are eight steps for developing an instructional system: 14

(1) Write a set of Task Analyses

(2) Write a set of Objectives based on the Task Analyses

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(3) Write tests that fully measure each Objective

(4) Decide what available instructional media will best help the students reach the objectives

(5) Use the Task Analyses to develop the information it contains into the format required by the chosen media

(6) Edit for obvious shortcomings

(7) Validate this developed instructional system by trying it on a small group of students; make necessary improvements

(8) Implement this individualized instructional program for all students and continue to improve as necessary. 15

These steps require diligent and skillful preparation by the instructor staff. The traditional role of the teacher has been to find ways to explain subjects to his students. With individualized instruction, the instructor will find this role an even greater challenge.

Task analysis

The instructional system development process indicates that a training system must he more precisely organized. This precision starts with the task analysis. The task analysis, a detailed outline of behavior that comprises a task,16 is prepared in a two-column format for easy visual reference (refer to Appendix A). The task analysis states the behaviors, skills, and knowledges in a logical sequence that makes up the task. Each left column entry becomes a teaching step with a teaching step appraisal, which is student activity that constitutes the feedback mechanism. Right column entries are the skills and knowledges that must be learned in order to perform the student activity. The student masters each teaching step by learning the accompanying skills and knowledges and by performing the teaching step appraisal. With mastery of the teaching steps, the student is prepared for the overall objective of the task. This task objective is called a criterion objective with its associated criterion test.

When each task is broken down into such detail, appropriate objectives (criterion and teaching step appraisals) can be written without any objective being overlooked. Tests to measure objective achievement can be written with the same confidence that nothing important is left out. Finally, the detailed task analysis serves as the outline for those instructors who select and prepare appropriate instructional media, again insuring that nothing is omitted.

Behavioral objectives

Behavioral objectives clearly state what each student is expected to learn and to what level. Schools have long had objectives, but they have been too general and vague to provide the direction thought necessary. 17 Objectives must he stated specifically and in such a way that a student’s attainment of each objective is measurable.

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A measurable objective consists of a statement of performance, condition, and standards.18

Let’s examine a simple objective: The student will be able to read. This objective states a performance, but it is too general and vague. If the student is 16 and can read the word “cat,” he has met the stated objective. Clearly we must add some standard of acceptable performance. A better objective is: the student will read 250 words per minute with 80 percent comprehension. This objective fails when more than one instructor is responsible for different students’ achieving the objective. Compare three students: one is tested for achievement using a college chemistry text, a second is measured with a chapter of John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath, while the third student is given a copy of a third grade reader. The degree of difference has been expanded to show that some condition must be stated.

In any instructional system where there are many students and instructors, there will be honest misinterpretations of what goals must he reached and how to train to reach the goals. Explicitly stated objectives will minimize these honest errors that cause either student failures or a waste of time.

If we decide that the student must learn to read at a common adult level, we could so state our objective: the student will read a chapter of Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath at 250 words per minute with 80 percent comprehension. This is a behavioral objective because it states a specific performance with certain conditions to a measurable standard. An individualized instructional system rests on a set of clearly defined objectives.

Should the student be made aware of his objectives before he begins his training? Definitely, yes. Concrete objectives not only control the thrust of the instructional system but also direct each student’s activity. When a student has clear objectives before him, he can more easily focus his energy on achieving these goals. Learning should be the business of acquiring skills and knowledges that are necessary for later use. This is especially true when the training has a direct job relation and when costs are involved.

Performance testing

To help students when and where they have learning difficulties, we must have some way to identify their needs. We can identify each student’s needs by examining his performance with a test. This diagnostic test differs from the usual connotation of tests (formal grading) because the purpose is solely to identify the student’s needs. 19 Once these needs are known, both the student and the instructor realize what the student must learn to achieve the objectives. When the student can succeed on the diagnostic test, there is no need for training in that subject. The test, of course, must be written in such a way as to measure completely the established explicit objective.

A criterion objective and its performance test state and measure the student’s acceptable achievement of a task. The task analysis breaks down each criterion objective into smaller units called teaching steps. Tests are developed for each teaching step. These teaching step appraisals and criterion tests are perhaps the single most important component in individualized instruction. 20

From the instructor’s point of view, the tests measure student progress and identify student problems. From the student’s view, these tests are activity through which he is able to increase and internalize his learning by doing something with the training just received. 21 Opportunities to use new skills and knowledge immediately tend to increase retention. Performance testing confirms student progress or points to the need for correction.

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For example, both Mel and Jim must reach the same criterion objective which has three teaching steps. Jim masters steps one and two but has difficulty with step three. He needs some kind of assistance to overcome his difficulty. Mel, who had problems on steps one and two, receives the help he needs and finds step three within his ability because he mastered the first steps. Mel may be ready for the criterion test in thirty minutes while it takes Jim an hour. The important point is that both Mel and Jim have mastered the criterion objective by overcoming their individual learning difficulties. The teaching step appraisals have been used to find these problems and allow for individual correction. Neither Jim nor Mel has slowed the other down while overcoming his particular problems.

The most effective way discovered so far to find each individual’s strengths and weaknesses is through the use of performance tests. 22 Instructional systems that use behavioral objectives and performance tests to diagnose progress and allow for immediate correction of problems are said to be efficient and effective. The instructional system is effective because each student can actually perform to explicit objectives, and it is efficient because each student has received only that training necessary for him to achieve the objectives. Each student is neither undertrained nor overtrained. Undertraining is avoided because each student must reach all objectives. Overtraining is avoided because training in an area stops once the criterion objective is met.

Instructional media

Explicit behavioral objectives focus the entire training effort. Frequent diagnostic testing shows when and where students are experiencing learning difficulties. But how does one instructor have time to help each student and give each student sufficient time to learn? The answer is through the use of instructional multimedia.

Media are the means of communication. In conventional training, the instructor and the textbook are the predominant media. In individualized instruction, the information to be learned is presented by a much wider variety of media. While slides and tape recordings appear most often, “media” actually refers to anything that presents information to the student (see Appendix B). The use of multimedia affords the instructor time to help each student whenever that student experiences a problem.

To make intelligent decisions concerning the use of media, instructors must have sufficient knowledge of existing media and the principles of media utilization. Instructional media are expensive; the cost must be measured against media effectiveness in teaching. Cost-effective media should be chosen objectively rather than on the basis of personal preference. Supervisors of training systems should have their instructors complete one or more courses in media and audiovisual instruction.23 Without such training, most instructors have only personal bias on which to recommend the purchase of expensive hardware. Without such training, instructors who develop the software will do so without sufficient knowledge of the techniques for effective production.

During the past ten years, media technology and techniques have been expanded so rapidly that few instructors are aware of the impact on their efforts to train their students. Having the media and accepting their value is one thing; knowing how to use them effectively is something that requires additional instructor training.

Some of the advantages of using instructional media for the teacher include the following:

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(a) Using instructional media to present the teaching segment of the teaching-learning activity (TLA) frees the instructor from lecturing on the same subject class after class. Instructors can suffer from boredom, too, and it is understandable that there are days when the instructor just does not put forth his best effort. Once the media have been developed into top-quality tools’ the instructor can be confident that all the material is well presented every time.

(b) With the various teaching media, the teacher is no longer the sole source of information in the class. 24 The teacher has time for communicating with each student in ways that establish rapport and a spirit of cooperation. There is little time to do this in conventional training because the teacher is occupied presenting the lesson. Increased cooperation and communication between the teacher and the individual student can create a learning environment in which the student feels he is important and has a stake in the system. When the student sees himself as really belonging, his ability to learn is improved. 25

(c) Besides motivating the student, the instructor works with each individual, searching for student understanding. Students who can explain what they are learning actually learn that subject better. In conventional training, not every student has the chance to explain what he is getting out of his learning. If the student can explain his new knowledge, he has confidence in it; if the student finds he is confused, he realizes he needs to recycle his learning effort to get a better grasp of the subject.

(d) The instructor should determine the student’s reaction to instructional media. There will he media presentations that, from the student’s point of view, are difficult to understand. Perhaps the student can suggest what he feels is a better way to present the material. If the instructor remains aloof from the student, his chances of finding out what to improve will be reduced.

For the student, use of instructional media has certain advantages, also:

(a) The student acquires instruction through the multiple sensory approach. In conventional systems, the student depends greatly on his sense of hearing to absorb lecture materials. How many of us feel we learn our best through the use of one sense only—hearing? With instructional media, the student is receiving information through several of his senses at the same time or at closely timed intervals. The training is more intense, and the student is more involved. Better and faster learning occurs when a combination of senses is employed. The greater the number of senses taking data in, the higher the learning retention is likely to be.26

(b) While the instructional media intensify student involvement, the need for repeat explanations still remains. The student simply resets the media to the appropriate place, and he has the explanation as many times as he needs without slowing the progress of the rest of the class. A good instructional system will have alternate presentations available for students who develop a mental block with certain media.

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Within one decade the role of the media has changed from that of a supplement to a primary source of instruction.27 The major burden for presenting the material in class is delegated to a system of instructional media. The student interacts with this selected variety of media with the personal guidance and help from the instructor that he could not get in conventional classes.

Expected results

Individualized instruction, based on the principles described in this article, has been used worldwide at all levels of education and in a variety of subjects. There are some problems in interpreting the results of the past seven years of experience; however, it seems reasonable to state the following:

(a) Two to three times as many students using individualized instruction have achieved A and B grades as compared to students studying the same subjects in conventional ways. The number of failures with individualized instruction also has been reduced. 28

(b) Although time is a flexible factor, the total time in training has been reduced. Reductions of 25 to 44 percent have been reported in military, industrial, and academic training programs. 29 This time savings translates into a financial savings that compensates for the initial investment in expensive media and increased instructor training.

(c) Students really enjoy individualized instruction because they no longer are passive participants. Their active involvement in doing things with newly acquired skills and knowledge during the learning process has caused them to express greater interest and more positive attitudes toward their training. Success and enjoyment of learning instill confidence in their ability to learn, which can carry over to other endeavors.30 If these student benefits are important to the reader, he has a good portion of the attitude necessary to be a part of an individualized instructional system.

Individualized instruction is student-centered and not teacher-centered as in conventional systems. It is student-centered because it focuses all activity on the needs of each student in his efforts to achieve predetermined specific objectives. It responds to individual student abilities in three ways: (1) multiple sensory approach to teaching; (2) increased student activity, which helps him internalize his training; and (3) sufficient time to overcome his weaknesses.

Although the emphasis is on the student, the teacher’s role has not become outmoded. Rather, the teacher finds his role even more demanding. Individual learning activity must be prescribed for each student according to his recent progress and remaining goals. The teacher becomes more professional and assumes the role of learning guide and consultant. The teaching staff is responsible for the creative development and effective use of the instructional media. The individual teacher manages the learning process of diagnosis, prescription, and evaluation.

The individual student’s training is intensified by the multisensory approach, and his activity is intensified by responding to frequent teaching step appraisals and criterion tests. The student is

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doing more than he did in conventional systems. Experience is the best teacher, and student activity is the experience by which he learns.

Individualized instruction is attained through the Instructional System Development process. Using Webster’s New Word Dictionary, we describe the process: “To cause to become better” (develop) “the orderly way” (system) of “giving the facts of the matter” (instruction). More simply stated, “It is a better way to teach.”

Citrus Heights, California

Notes

1. B. F. Skinner, The Technology of Teaching (Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968), p. 242.

2. James H. Block, Mastery Learning, Theory and Practice (San Francisco: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), p. 4. The Winnetka Plan (1922) by Carleton Washburne and another approach by Henry C. Morrison (1926) at the University of Chicago’s Laboratory School fell into disuse primarily because of lack of technology to sustain a successful strategy.

3. Hq MAC/DOTO, Introduction to Individualized Training, USAF ISDQ-4-003 (1974), an audiovisual production.

4. Air University Review (September-October 1968) featured the “Air Training Command: Providing for the Future.” In that issue, Lt. Col. Vernon J. Elslager’s “Toward Individualized Instruction” (p. 10) and John P. Murphy’s “Behaviorally Oriented Instruction in ATC” (p 21) describe ATC’s pioneering work in ISD. Now, seven years later, the major principles of ISD are intact web only a few changes in terminology. i.e., Instructional System Development has replaced the term Systems Approach to Training (SAT). Since 1970, ISD has been spreading throughout the major air commands.

5. L. F. Miller, Major General, Hq USAF letter, subject: USAF Policy on the Systems Approach to Training (SAT), dated 13 November 1970.

6. John B. Carroll, “Problem of Measurement Related to the Concept of learning for Mastery,” Educational Horizons, 48, No. 3 (1970), pp. 71-80.

7. John B. Carroll, “A Model of School Learning,” Teachers College Record, 64 (May 1963), pp. 723-33.

8. James H. Block, “Teachers, Teaching, and Mastery Learning,” Today’s Education, (November-December 1913), pp. 30-36 (hereafter cited as “Teachers”).

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid.

11. One Air Force course equal to at least three semester hours is ATC Course 3AZR75100, Instructional System Materials Development. Two college texts are Brown, Lewis, and Harcleroad, AV Instruction, Technology, Media and Methods (San Francisco: McGraw-Hill, 1973) and Wittich and Schuller, Instructional Technology, Its Nature and Use (San Francisco: Harper and Row. 1973).

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12. Richard Hersh and Stuart Cohen, “Beyond Behavioral Objectives: Individualizing Learning,” Elementary School Journal, November 1972, p. 102.

13. Hq MAC/DOTO, USAF ISD-Q-4-003.

14. USAF ATC Course 3AZR75100, Instructional System Materials Development (1973), p. 402.

15. AFM 50-2, Instructional System Development, (December 1970), pp. 5-21.

16. USAF ATC Course 3AZR75100.

17.S herman Frey, “Behavioral Objectives: Attitudes of Teachers,” The Clearing House, 48 (April 1974).

18. Robert F. Mager, Preparing Instructional Objectives, (Palo Alto, CA: Fearon, 1962).

19. AFM 50-2, p. 1-1.

20. Block, “Teachers,” pp. 31-33.

21. USAF ATC Course 3AZR75100, p. 202.

22. Wittich and Schuller, p. xiv.

23. AFM 50-2, p. 63. See also note 11.

24. Ibid., 6-3.

25. Block, “Teachers,” p. 36.

26. Rita and Kenneth Dunn, Practical Approaches to Individualizing Instruction (West Nyack. N.Y.: Parker, 1972), p. 99.

27. Ibid., p. 62.

28. Block, “Teachers.” p. 34.

29. Hq MAC/DOTO, USAF-ISD-Q-4-003.

30. Block, “Teachers,” p. 34.

APPENDIX AA Sample Task Analysis

Performance:Obtain, validate and plot a time difference reading from the EC-121 LORAN C System

Conditions:AN/ARN-92(v)-2, Local Area Navigation Charts and Log, pencil, dividers, and Weems plotter

Standards: The plot must be within 3NM of actual EC-121 position.

Teaching Steps Skills and Knowledges

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1. Identify the purpose, theory of operation and location of components and controls of the LORAN C.

Notes:

1. PCS statement controls the Criterion Objective and Test.2. Each Teaching Step will have a Teaching Step Appraisal.3. A Teaching Step is measurable student activity.4. Right column entries are skills, knowledges and supporting teaching points for each Teaching Step.5. Students do not see or use the Task Analysis. The instructor who selects the media and writes the subject explanation uses the Task Analysis as his outline.

2. Obtain, validate and plot a time difference reading for the LORAN C.

La Purpose of the LORAN C

1) Micro-miniature receiver indicator2) Converts an analog system to a digital system.3) Inserts time difference into a memory mode, holds it there, and continues to update it with more current time difference data.

1b. Theory of Operation

1) Operates on the principle of Group Repetition Rate (GRR), or a burst of eight pulses.

2) Five basic rates are used.

a) The distance of the Master and Slaves determines the rate.

b) The rates are:

Source: Format from USAF ATC Course 3AZR75100 (July 1973), p. 159. Data: USAF ADC Course ADC12100T, Navigator.

APPENDIX BInstructional Media

Individualized instruction was not possible until technological advances made possible a wide variety of media. Too often when we think of media, only two or three examples come to mind, and we tend to think that that is all there is to media. We also forget the many experiences and learning options that should be considered when individualizing instruction.

The lists in this appendix may convince the reader of the magnitude of choices and combinations confronting the teaching staff as they select and develop their instructional system. The quality of training can suffer, and certainly time, money, and effort can be wasted when media are overlooked, or the wrong media are purchased, or the instructors lack knowledge in how to blend the media into the student’s learning activity.

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I recommend that instructors pursue their personal training in the field of audiovisual Instruction. Training supervisors should consider taking steps to have their instructors attend audiovisual courses at organizational expense. This financial investment will pay off in the development of an efficient and effective training program.

Experiences leading to learningThinkingDiscussing, conferring, speaking, reportingReading (words, pictures, symbols)Writing, editingListeningGraphing, charting, mappingDemonstrating, showingExperimenting, researchingProblem solvingCollectingObserving, watchingTravelingExchangingRecordingInterviewingOutlining, taking notesConstructing, creatingDrawing, painting, letteringPhotographingDisplaying, exhibitingVideotapingDramatizingSinging, dancingImagining, visualizingOrganizing, summarizingComputingJudging, evaluatingWorking

Individualized learning options Read textbooksRead nonfiction booksRead pamphletsView transparenciesListen to recordsView filmstripsStudy periodicalsWatch instructional television programsWork on self-instructional kitsGive oral reportsStudy chartsStudy mapsTake self-administered testsInterview resource personnel

Participate in small group discussionsUse the amplified telephoneStudy reference booksRefer to fiction booksListen to tape recordingsStudy picturesStudy programmed instructional materialsStudy models or objectivesView 35mm slidesView microscopic slidesWrite reportsProduce learning materialsView graphsView filmsParticipate in student teaching conferencesConduct experimentsPlay educational games

Facilities for learningLecture hallsClassroomsDivisibleUndividedIndependent study areasDiscussion roomsLaboratoriesShopsTheatersStudiosLibrariesResource centersElectronic learning centersPlaying fieldsCommunity resourcesHome study centers

Equipment for learning

Record players, tape recorders, radiosSlide and filmstrip projectors and viewersOverhead projectorsMotion picture projectors and viewers

Television receiversVideotape recorders, players, viewersTeaching machinesComputer terminals and print image producersElectronic laboratories: Audio/ video/access and interaction devicesTelephones with or without other media accessoriesMicroimage systems—microfilm, microcard, microficheCopying equipment and duplicatorsCameras, still and motion

Media for learningTextbooksSupplementary hooksReference books, encyclopediasMagazines, newspapersDocuments, clippingsDuplicated materialsProgrammed materialsMotion picture filmsTelevision programsRadio programsRecordings (tape and disc)Flat picturesDrawings and paintingsSlides and transparenciesFilmstripsMicrofilms, microcardsStereographsMaps, globesGraphs, charts, diagramsPostersCartoonsPuppetsModels, mockupsCollections, specimensFlannel-board materialsMagnetic-board materialsChalkboard materialsConstruction materialsDrawing materialsDisplay materialsMultimedia materials

Source: AV Instructional Technology Media and Methods, Chapter I.

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Contributor

Master Sergeant Frederick K. Snyder is an Instructor Radar Supervisor, 552d Airborne Early Warning and Control Group (ADC), McClellan AFB, California, where he applies Instructional System Development (ISD) principles to training EC-121 radar operators. He has more than 3800 hours in the EC-121, including 130 combat missions in Southeast Asia, and tours at ground radar sites in Iceland and the Philippines. Sergeant Snyder is a distinguished graduate of ADC’s NCO Academy.

B. DIFERENŢIEREA INSTRUIRII


Differentiated instruction(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Differentiated instruction (sometimes referred to as differentiated learning) involves providing students with different avenues to acquiring content; to processing, constructing, or making sense of ideas; and to developing teaching materials so that all students within a classroom can learn effectively, regardless of differences in ability.[1]

Differentiated instruction, according to Carol Ann Tomlinson (as cited by Ellis, Gable, Greg, & Rock, 2008, p. 32), is the process of “ensuring that what a student learns, how he/she learns it, and how the student demonstrates what he/she has learned is a match for that student’s readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of learning”. Differentiation stems from beliefs about differences among learners, how they learn, learning preferences and individual interests (Anderson, 2007). "Research indicates that many of the emotional or social difficulties gifted students experience disappear when their educational climates are adapted to their level and pace of learning."[2] Differentiation in education can also include how a student shows that they have mastery of a concept. This could be through a research paper, role play, podcast, diagram, poster, etc. The key is finding how your students learn and displays their learning that meets their specific needs.

About

In differentiated instruction students are placed at the center of teaching and learning [1] . Kathy Bigo defines differentiation as "the right of each pupil to be taught in a way specifically tailored to their individual learning needs."[3] Because each learner comes to school with a different set of learning needs, examples of which include differing educational, personal, and communal contexts[4] and varying degrees of academic skill development,[5] differentiated instruction advocates that the educator proactively plans a variety of instruction methods so as to best facilitate effective learning experiences which are suited to the various learning needs within the classroom.[1] In its pursuit of this foundational goal, differentiated instructional methods attempt to qualitatively, as opposed to quantitatively, match learners' abilities with appropriate material; include a blend of whole-class, group, and individual instruction; use numerous approaches to facilitating input, processing, and output; and constantly adapt to learners' needs based upon the teacher's constant assessment of all students.[1]

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Often referred to as an educational philosophy, differentiated instruction is viewed as a proactive approach to instruction and an idea that has as many faces as practitioners. The model of differentiated instruction requires teachers to tailor their instruction and adjust the curriculum to students’ needs rather than expecting students to modify themselves to fit the curriculum. Teachers who are committed to this approach believe that who they teach shapes how they teach because who the students are shapes how they learn. Differentiated instruction requires the teacher to have "sufficient appropriate knowledge of the pupils, PLUS the ability to plan and deliver suitable lessons effectively, so as to help all pupils individually to maximise their learning, whatever their individual situation".[6] Differentiation is not teaching at a slow pace so that everyone can keep up, allowing pupils and groups work through tasks at their own pace, or expecting some students to do better than others and calling it 'differentiation by outcome'.[7] Bigio also cautions that differentiation is not 'Humiliating the slow learners by drawing attention to their limitations".[8]

The perfect model of differentiated instruction rests upon an active, student centered, meaning-making approach to teaching and learning. The theoretical and philosophical influences embedded in differentiated instruction support the three key elements of differentiated instruction itself: readiness, interest, and learning profile (Allan & Tomlinson, 2000).

Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, proved that individuals learn best in accordance with their readiness to do so (Allan & Tomlinson, 2008). This theoretical influence provides a concrete foundation for differentiated instruction. The readiness of the individual should match what a student learns, how they learn it and how the student demonstrates what they learned when using differentiated instruction.

The philosophical idea that interest based options seize on intrinsic motivation, supports the second key element of differentiated instruction, student interest. According to Jerome Bruner (as cited by Allan & Tomlinson, 2000), when interest is tapped, learning is more likely to be rewarding and the student becomes a more autonomous learner.

An American psychologist, Howard Gardner, developed the theory of multiple intelligences. His theory states that people have different intelligences and learn in many different ways. Gardner’s theory suggests that schools should offer individual-centered education, having curriculum tailored to a child’s intelligence preference (Allan & Tomlinson, 2000). Essentially, Gardner supports the third key element of differentiated instruction, which accounts for different student learning profiles.

Differentiated instruction integrates constructivist learning theories, learning styles, and brain development with research on influencing factors of learner readiness, interest and intelligence preferences toward students’ motivation, engagement, and academic growth within schools (Anderson, 2007). According to educational psychologist Kathie Nunley, differentiated instruction became an essential part of US educator's repertoire as the make-up of the general classroom moved from homogeneous groupings of students prior to the 1970s to the ever increasing variety of learners seen in the heterogeneous classroom make-up in the last 40 years[9] (Nunley, 2006).

By using differentiated instruction, educators can meet all individual student needs and help every student meet and exceed established standards (Levy, 2008). According to Tomlinson (as cited by Rebora, 2008), the perceived need for differentiated instruction lies in the fact that

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students vary in so many ways and student populations are becoming more academically diverse. Chances are pretty good that the trend of diverse student populations will continue throughout our lifetimes.

Pre-assessment

For some teachers, the first and most important step in differentiated instruction is determining what students already know so as not to cover material students have mastered, or use methods that would be ineffective for students. A preassessment can be a quiz, game, discussion, or other activity that asks students to answer some of the questions that would be used to evaluate their performance at the end of an upcoming unit or lesson. It may also be in the form of a learning inventory, such as a Multiple Intelligences inventory (still regarded with skepticism by many researchers),[10] so the teacher will be able to determine how students within the class prefer to learn.

Some models of differentiation do not require a pre-assessment, but rather have students self-assess daily through oral defense, such as in Layered Curriculum. ([11] Nunley, 2004, 2006)

The goals of differentiated instruction are to develop challenging and engaging tasks for each learner (from low-end learner to high-end learner). Instructional activities are flexible and based and evaluated on content, process and product. This instructional approach and choice of content are driven by the data from students’ assessment results and from the outcomes of other screening tools. Meaningful pre- and post-assessment leads to successful differentiation by producing the results that communicate the students’ needs.

Content

The content of lessons may be differentiated based on what students already know. The most basic content of a lesson should cover the standards of learning set by the district or state. Some students in a class may be completely unfamiliar with the concepts in a lesson, some students may have partial mastery of the content - or display mistaken ideas about the content, and some students may show mastery of the content before the lesson begins. The teacher may differentiate the content by designing activities for groups of students that cover different areas of Bloom's Taxonomy. For example, students who are unfamiliar with the concepts may be required to complete tasks on the lower levels of Bloom's Taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension, and application. Students with partial mastery may be asked to complete tasks in the application, analysis and evaluation areas, and students who have high levels of mastery may be asked to complete tasks in evaluation and synthesis.

When a teacher differentiates content they may adapt what they want the students to learn or how the students will gain access to the knowledge, understanding and skills (Anderson, 2007). Educators are not varying student objectives or lowering performance standards for students. They use different texts, novels or short stories at a reading level appropriate for each individual student. Teachers can use flexible groups and have students assigned to alike groups listening to books on tape or specific internet sources. Students could have a choice to work in pairs, groups or individually, but all students are working towards the same standards and objectives.

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Process

The process of how the material in a lesson is learned may be differentiated for students based on their learning styles, taking into account what standards of performance are required for the age level. This stage of differentiation allows students to learn based either on what method is easiest for them to acquire knowledge, or what may challenge them most: some students may prefer to read about a topic (or may require practice in reading), and others may prefer to listen (or require practice in listening), or acquire knowledge by manipulating objects associated with the content. Information may be presented in multiple ways by the teacher, and may be based on any available methods or materials. Many teachers use areas of Multiple Intelligences to provide learning opportunities.

Commonalities in the assessment results lead to grouping practices that are planned designed to meet the students’ needs. "How" a teacher plans to deliver the instruction is based on assessment results that show the needs, learning styles, interests, and levels of prior knowledge. The grouping practices must be flexible, as groups will change with regard to the need that will be addressed. Regardless of whether the differentiation of instruction is based upon student readiness, interests, or needs, the dynamic flow of grouping and regrouping is one of the foundations of differentiated instruction. It is important for a differentiated classroom to allow some students to work alone, if this is their best modality for a particular task. (Nunley, 2004)

Differentiating by process refers to how a student comes to understand and assimilate facts, concepts and skills (Anderson, 2007). After teaching a lesson, a teacher might break students into small “ability” groups based on their readiness. The teacher would then give each group a series of questions, based on each group's appropriate level of readiness-skills, related to the objectives of the lesson. Another way to group the students could be based on the students’ learning styles. The main idea behind this is that students are at different levels and learn in different ways, so a teacher can’t teach them all the same way.

Another model of differentiation, Layered Curriculum, simply offers student a choice of assignments but requires demonstration of learning in order to pass of the assignment. This eliminates the need for pre-assessment and is useful for teachers with large class loads, such as in high school. (Nunley, 2004).

Product

The product is essentially what the student produces at the end of the lesson to demonstrate the mastery of the content: tests, evaluations, projects, reports, or other activities. Based on students' skill levels and educational standards, teachers may assign students to complete activities that demonstrate mastery of an educational concept (writing a report), or in a method the student prefers (composing an original song about the content, or building a 3-dimensional object that explains mastery of concepts in the lesson or unit). The product is an integral component of the differentiated model, as the preparation of the assessments will primarily determine both the ‘what’ and ‘how’ instruction will be delivered.

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When an educator differentiates by product or performance, they are affording students various ways of demonstrating what they have learned from the lesson or unit (Anderson, 2007; Nunley, 2006). It is done by using menu unit sheets, choice boards or open-ended lists of final product options. It is meant to allow students to show what they learned based on their learning preferences, interests and strengths.

Examples of differentiated structures include Layered Curriculum, tiered instruction, tic-tac-toe extension menus, Curry/Samara models, RAFT writing activities, and similar designs. (see external links below)

In differentiated instruction, teachers respond to students’ readiness, instructional needs, interests and learning preferences and provide opportunities for students to work in varied instructional formats. A classroom that utilizes differentiated instruction is a learner-responsive, teacher-facilitated classroom where all students have the opportunity to meet curriculum foundation objectives. Lessons may be on inquiry based, problem based and project based instruction.

References

^ a b c d Tomlinson, Carol (2001). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Differentiated Instructions provides access for all students to the general education curriculum. The method of assessment may look different for each child, however the skill / concepts taught will be the same. Classrooms (2 ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. ISBN 0871205122. Neihart, Maureen ed., with Reis, Sally; Robinson, Nancy; and Moon, Sidney, (2002). The Social and Emotional Development of Gifted Children: What Do We Know? National Association of Gifted Children (Prufrock Press, Inc.). p. 286 Kathy Bigio 'Differentiation 3-7', 2010 Taylor, Lorraine; Catharine Whittaker (2003). Bridging Multiple Worlds: Case Studies of Diverse Educational Communities. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 0321086694. Levine, Mel (2002). A Mind at a Time. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0743202228. Kathy Bigio 'Differentiation 3-7' 2010 Kathy Bigio, 'Differentiation 3-7' 2010 Kathy Bigio, 'Differentiation 3-7', 2010 Nunley, K. 2006. Differentiating the High School Classroom, Corwin Press. pg 8 Morgan, H. (1996). An analysis of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence. Roeper Review 18, 263-270. Nunley, K. (2006). Differentiating the High School Classroom. Corwin Press

Further reading

Allan, S. D., & Tomlinson, C. A. (2000). Leadership for differentiating schools and classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Anderson, K. M. (2007). Tips for teaching: Differentiating instruction to include all students. Preventing School Failure, 51(3), 49-54.

Ellis, E., Gable, R. A., Gregg, M., Rock, M. L. (2008). REACH: A framework for differentiating classroom instruction. Preventing School Failure, 52(2), 31-47

Levy, H. M. (2008). Meeting the needs of all students through differentiated instruction: Helping every child reach and exceed standards. The Clearing House, 81(4), 161-164.

Rebora, A. (2008). Making a difference. Teacher Magazine, 2(1), 26, 28-31.

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Nunley, K. (2004). Layered Curriculum. 2nd ed. Brains.org: Amherst, NH Nunley, K. (2006). Differentiating the High School Classroom: Solution Strategies for 18 Common

Obstacles. Corwin Press: Thousand Oaks, CA.

3.5. Studii semnificative

Studiile Reading Rockets

(Reading Rockets is a national multimedia project offering information and resources on how young kids learn to read, why so many struggle, and how caring adults can help. The Reading Rockets project is comprised of PBS

television programs, available on videotape and DVD; online services, including the websites ReadingRockets.org and ColorinColorado.org; and professional development opportunities. Reading Rockets is an educational initiative

of WETA, the flagship public television and radio station in the nation's capital, and is funded by a major grant from the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs.)

Differentiated Instruction and Implications for UDL Implementation

By Tracey Hall, Nicole Strangman, and Anne Meyer

Note: Updated on 11/2/2009; 1/14/2011

Introduction

Not all students are alike. Based on this knowledge, differentiated instruction applies an approach to teaching and learning that gives students multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas. Differentiated instruction is a teaching theory based on the premise that instructional approaches should vary and be adapted in relation to individual and diverse students in classrooms (Tomlinson, 2001). The model of differentiated instruction requires teachers to be flexible in their approach to teaching and adjust the curriculum and presentation of information to learners rather than expecting students to modify themselves for the curriculum. Many teachers and teacher educators have recently identified differentiated instruction as a method of helping more students in diverse classroom settings experience success. This report examines information on the theory and research behind differentiated instruction and the intersection with Universal Design for Learning (UDL), a curriculum designed approach to increase flexibility in teaching and decrease the barriers that frequently limit student access to materials and learning in classrooms (Rose & Meyer, 2002). We begin with an introduction to differentiated instruction by defining the construct, then identifying components and features; additionally, we provide a sampling of applications. Next, we introduce UDL and the linkages with differentiated instruction both in theory and with specific lesson examples. The report concludes with a listing of web resources for further information and explicit examples.

This report on differentiated instruction and UDL begins with an introduction to differentiated instruction in which we provide the definition, a sampling of considerations and

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curriculum applications, and research evidence for effectiveness. The second part of the paper, the discussion moves to UDL applications of differentiated instruction. UDL is a theoretical approach that is based on research from the neurosciences and effective teaching practices. This portion develops an understanding of UDL and proceeds to identify the theoretical and teacher practice levels. Our document concludes with general guidelines for the implementation of UDL and a list of web resources that provide further information about differentiated instruction.

The literature review in this paper is also available as a stand alone document, with annotated references. Look for it on the Effective Classrooms Practices page of the National Center for Accessing the General Curriculum's web site http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_diffinstruc.html.

Definition

To differentiate instruction is to recognize students' varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning and interests; and to react responsively. Differentiated instruction is a process to teaching and learning for students of differing abilities in the same class. The intent of differentiating instruction is to maximize each student's growth and individual success by meeting each student where he or she is and assisting in the learning process.

Figure 1. Learning Cycle and Decision Factors Used in Planning and Implementing Differentiated Instruction

Image description:This graphic organizer is entitled "Learning Cycle and Decision Factors Used in Planning and Implementing Differentiated Instruction" and is made up of a series of seven labeled boxes connected by arrows. Two boxes, one on top of the other, are joined together at the center of the graphic organizer within a blue background. The box at the top is labeled "Content: what teacher plans to teach." The box at the bottom is labeled "Process: How teacher: Plans instruction; Whole class; Groups/Pairs; Individually."

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To the left of these two boxes are two smaller boxes, also one on top of the other. The box at the top is labeled "Curriculum: State and Local Standards and Benchmarks." The box at the bottom is labeled "Student: Readiness/Ability; Interests/Talents; Learning profile; Prior knowledge." A black line connects these two boxes to each other and a black arrow points from the center of this line to the two boxes in the center of the graphic organizer. A small box at the bottom left is labeled "Pre-Assessment" and a black arrow points from it to the box labeled "Student."

To the right of the two center boxes with the blue background is a box labeled "Assessment of content: Product." A black, double-sided arrow points to it and to the two center boxes. On the far right, a box labeled "Summative evaluation" is connected to the box labeled "Product" with a black line. Black arrows point from the bottom of the boxes labeled "Product" and "Summative evaluation" to the bottom of the graphic organizer. A horizontal black line goes across the bottom of the graphic organizer. Two arrows point from it to the two center boxes and to the two boxes on the left.

Identifying Components/Features

According to the authors of differentiated instruction, several key elements guide differentiation in the education environment. Tomlinson (2001) identifies three elements of the curriculum that can be differentiated: Content, Process, and Products (Figure 1). These are described in the following three sections, which are followed by several additional guidelines for forming an understanding of and developing ideas around differentiated instruction.

Content

Several elements and materials are used to support instructional content. These include acts, concepts, generalizations or principles, attitudes, and skills. The variation seen in a differentiated classroom is most frequently in the manner in which students gain access to important learning. Access to the content is seen as key.Align tasks and objectives to learning goals. Designers of differentiated instruction view the alignment of tasks with instructional goals and objectives as essential. Goals are most frequently assessed by many state-level, high-stakes tests and frequently administered standardized measures. Objectives are frequently written in incremental steps resulting in a continuum of skills-building tasks. An objectives-driven menu makes it easier to find the next instructional step for learners entering at varying levels.Instruction is concept-focused and principle-driven. The instructional concepts should be broad-based, not focused on minute details or unlimited facts. Teachers must focus on the concepts, principles and skills that students should learn. The content of instruction should address the same concepts with all students, but the degree of complexity should be adjusted to suit diverse learners.

Process

2. Flexible grouping is consistently used. Strategies for flexible grouping are essential. Learners are expected to interact and work together as they develop knowledge of new content. Teachers may conduct whole-class introductory discussions of content big ideas followed by small group or paired work. Student groups may be coached from within or by the teacher to complete assigned tasks. Grouping of students is not fixed. As one of the foundations of differentiated

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instruction, grouping and regrouping must be a dynamic process, changing with the content, project, and on-going evaluations.3. Classroom management benefits students and teachers. To effectively operate a classroom using differentiated instruction, teachers must carefully select organization and instructional delivery strategies. In her text, How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms (Chapter 7), Carol Tomlinson (2001), identifies 17 key strategies for teachers to successfully meet the challenge of designing and managing differentiated instruction.

Products

Initial and on-going assessment of student readiness and growth are essential. Meaningful pre-assessment naturally leads to functional and successful differentiation. Incorporating pre and on-going assessment informs teachers so that they can better provide a menu of approaches, choices, and scaffolds for the varying needs, interests and abilities that exist in classrooms of diverse students. Assessments may be formal or informal, including interviews, surveys, performance assessments, and more formal evaluation procedures.Students are active and responsible explorers. Teachers respect that each task put before the learner will be interesting, engaging, and accessible to essential understanding and skills. Each child should feel challenged most of the time.Vary expectations and requirements for student responses. Items to which students respond may be differentiated so that different students can demonstrate or express their knowledge and understanding in different ways. A well-designed student product allows varied means of expression and alternative procedures and offers varying degrees of difficulty, types of evaluation, and scoring.

Additional Guidelines That Make Differentiation Possible for Teachers to Attain

• Clarify key concepts and generalizations. Ensure that all learners gain powerful understandings that can serve as the foundation for future learning. Teachers are encouraged to identify essential concepts and instructional foci to ensure that all learners comprehend.• Use assessment as a teaching tool to extend rather than merely measure instruction. Assessment should occur before, during, and following the instructional episode, and it should be used to help pose questions regarding student needs and optimal learning.• Emphasize critical and creative thinking as a goal in lesson design. The tasks, activities, and procedures for students should require that they understand and apply meaning. Instruction may require supports, additional motivation, varied tasks, materials, or equipment for different students in the classroom.• Engaging all learners is essential. Teachers are encouraged to strive for the development of lessons that are engaging and motivating for a diverse class of students. Vary tasks within instruction as well as across students. In other words, an entire session for students should not consist of all drill and practice, or any single structure or activity.• Provide a balance between teacher-assigned and student-selected tasks. A balanced working structure is optimal in a differentiated classroom. Based on pre-assessment information, the balance will vary from class-to-class as well as lesson-to-lesson. Teachers should ensure that students have choices in their learning.

Evidence of Effectiveness as a Classroom Practice

Differentiation is recognized to be a compilation of many theories and practices. Based on this review of the literature of differentiated instruction, the "package" itself is lacking empirical

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validation. There is an acknowledged and decided gap in the literature in this area and future research is warranted.

According to the proponents of differentiation, the principles and guidelines are rooted in years of educational theory and research. For example, differentiated instruction adopts the concept of "readiness." That is, the difficulty of skills taught should be slightly in advance of the child's current level of mastery. This is grounded in the work of Lev Vygotsky (1978), and the zone of proximal development (ZPD), the range at which learning takes place. The classroom research by Fisher et al., (1980), strongly supports the ZPD concept. The researchers found that in classrooms where individuals were performing at a level of about 80% accuracy, students learned more and felt better about themselves and the subject area under study (Fisher, 1980 in Tomlinson, 2000).

Other practices noted as central to differentiation have been validated in the effective teaching research conduced from the mid 1980's to the present. These practices include effective management procedures, grouping students for instruction, and engaging learners (Ellis and Worthington, 1994).

While no empirical validation of differentiated instruction as a package was found for this review, there are a generous number of testimonials and classroom examples that authors of several publications and web sites provide. Tomlinson reports individual cases of settings in which the full model of differentiation was very promising and teachers using differentiation have written about improvements in their classrooms. (See the links to learn more about differentiated instruction).

Applications to General Education Classroom Settings

The design and development of differentiated instruction as a model began in the general education classroom. The initial application came to practice for students considered gifted but whom perhaps were not sufficiently challenged by the content provided in the general classroom setting. As classrooms have become more diverse, differentiated instruction has been applied at all levels for students of all abilities.

Many authors of publications about differentiated instruction, strongly recommend that teachers adapt the practices slowly, perhaps one content area at a time. Additionally, these experts agree that teachers should share the creative load by working together to develop ideas and menus of options for students. A number of web sites have been created in that include lessons to illustrate what teachers have created for instruction using the model of differentiated instruction. Several web sites are listed in a later section of this report.

Differentiated instruction is an instructional process that has excellent potential to positively impact learning by offering teachers a means to provide instruction to a range of students in today's classroom situations. The next section of this report introduces the reader to the theory and research behind Universal Design for Learning (UDL). We then investigate the links and connections between UDL and differentiated instruction. Additionally, we identify methods and materials that may be implemented to support the implementation of differentiated instruction in concert with the principles of UDL. Finally, a set of guidelines for UDL implementation are

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provided including a listing of web resources to provide further information on the concepts presented in this report.

An Introduction to Universal Design for Learning Applications

Universal Design for Learning is a theoretical framework developed by CAST to guide the development of curricula that are flexible and supportive of all students (Dolan & Hall, 2001; Meyer & Rose, 1998; Pisha & Coyne, 2001; Rose, 2001; Rose & Dolan, 2000; Rose & Meyer, 2000a, 2000b, 2002; Rose, Sethuraman, & Meo, 2000). The concept of UDL was inspired by the universal design movement in architecture. This movement calls for the design of structures that anticipate the needs of individuals with disabilities and accommodate these needs from the outset. Universally designed structures are indeed more usable by individuals with disabilities, but in addition they offer unforeseen benefits for all users. Curb cuts, for example, serve their intended use of facilitating the travel of those in wheelchairs, but they are also beneficial to people pushing strollers, young children, and even the average walker. And so, the process of designing for individuals with disabilities has led to improved usability for everyone.

Similarly, but uniquely, UDL calls for the design of curricula with the needs of all students in mind, so that methods, materials, and assessment are usable by all. Traditional curricula present a host of barriers that limit students' access to information and learning. Of these, printed text is particularly notorious. In a traditional curriculum, a student without a well-developed ability to see, decode, attend to, or comprehend printed text is compelled to adapt to its ubiquity as best as he or she can. In contrast, a UDL curriculum is designed to be innately flexible, enriched with multiple media so that alternatives can be accessed whenever appropriate. A UDL curriculum takes on the burden of adaptation so that the student doesn't have to, minimizing barriers and maximizing access to both information and learning.

The UDL framework guides the development of adaptable curricula by means of 3 principles (Figure 2). These 3 principles parallel 3 fundamentally important learning components and 3 distinct learning networks in the brain: recognition, strategy, and affect (Rose & Meyer, 2002). The common recommendation of these 3 principles is to select goals, methods, assessment and materials in a way that will minimize barriers and maximize flexibility. In this manner, the UDL framework structures the development of curricula that fully support every student's access, participation, and progress in all 3 essential facets of learning.

Principles of the Universal Design for Learning Framework

Principle 1:To support recognition learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of presentation

Principle 2:To support strategic learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of expression and apprenticeship.

Principle 3:To support affective learning, provide multiple, flexible options for engagement.

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Figure 2. The three UDL principles call for flexibility in relation to three essential facets of learning, each one orchestrated by a distinct set of networks in the brain.

Critical to successfully implementing UDL theory is the use of digital materials. Digital materials, unlike the conventional pedagogical mainstays, speech, printed text, and printed images, have an inherent flexibility. They can be modified in a host of ways, depending on the needs of the student. This flexibility makes it feasible to customize learning materials and methods to each individual.

For teachers wondering how to customize the curriculum, CAST has devised three sets of broad teaching methods that support each of the 3 UDL principles (Figure 3, Rose & Meyer, 2002). These teaching methods draw on knowledge of the qualities of digital media and how recognition, strategic, and affective networks operate. For example, the first Teaching Method to support recognition learning is to provide multiple examples. This teaching method takes advantage of the fact that recognition networks can extract the defining features of a pattern and differentiate it from similar patterns simply by viewing multiple examples. Although presentation of multiple examples might be challenging in a classroom limited to printed text and hard copy images, digital materials enable the assembly, storage, and maintenance of a large collection of examples in the form of digital text, images, sound, or video—all in the modest space of a classroom. This is one example of how digital materials and UDL Teaching Methods can facilitate the successful implementation of UDL.

The UDL Teaching Methods will anchor the upcoming discussion where we will highlight the ways in which computer simulations align with each of the 3 UDL principles. Within the context of these teaching methods, we'll show how computer simulations can support individualized instruction of recognition, strategic, and affective learning.

Network-Appropriate Teaching Methods

To support diverse recognition networks:

Provide multiple examples Highlight critical features Provide multiple media and formats Support background context

To support diverse strategic networks:

• Provide flexible models of skilled performance • Provide opportunities to practice with supports • Provide ongoing, relevant feedback • Offer flexible opportunities for demonstrating skill

To support diverse affective networks:

• Offer choices of context and tools • Offer adjustable levels of challenge • Offer choices of learning context • Offer choices of rewards

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Figure 3. To help teachers support learners' diverse recognition, strategic, and affective networks, CAST has developed three sets of UDL teaching methods. These teaching methods can be used to make the curriculum more flexible and broadly supportive. Top

Differentiated Instruction and the Three Universal Design for Learning Principles

Differentiated instruction is well received as a classroom practice that may be well suited to the three principles of UDL. The following section looks at the three network appropriate teaching methods, recognition, strategic and affective, in order to address the ways in which differentiated instruction coordinates with UDL theory. Certain instructional techniques have been found to be very effective in supporting different skills as students learn. Differentiated instruction is designed to keep the learner in mind when specifying the instructional episode.

Recognition learning.

The first UDL principle focuses on pattern recognition and the importance of providing multiple, flexible methods of presentation when teaching patterns—no single teaching methodology for pattern recognition will be satisfactory for every learner. The theory of differentiated instruction incorporates some guidelines that can help teachers to support critical elements of recognition learning in a flexible way and promote every student's success. Each of the three key elements of differentiated instruction, content, process, and product, supports an important UDL Teaching Method for individualized instruction of pattern recognition.

The content guidelines for differentiated instruction support the first UDL Teaching Method for recognition networks, provide multiple examples, in that they encourage the use of several elements and materials to support instructional content. A teacher following this guideline might help students in a social studies class to understand the location of a state in the union by showing them a wall map or a globe, projecting a state map, or describing the location in words. Also, while preserving the essential content, a teacher could vary the difficulty of the material by presenting smaller or larger, simpler or more complex maps. For students with physical or cognitive disabilities, such a diversity of examples may be vital in order for them to access the pattern being taught. Other students may benefit from the same multiple examples by obtaining a perspective that they otherwise might not. In this way, a range of examples can help to ensure that each student's recognition networks are able to identify the fundamental elements identifying a pattern.

This same use of varied content examples supports a second recommended practice in UDL methodology, provide multiple media and formats. A wide range of tools for presenting instructional content are available digitally, thus teachers may manipulate size, color contrasts, and other features to develop examples in multiple media and formats. These can be saved for future use and flexibly accessed by different students, depending on their needs and preferences.

The content guidelines of differentiated instruction also recommend that content elements of instruction be kept concept-focused and principle-driven. This practice is consistent with a third UDL Teaching Method for recognition, highlight critical features. By avoiding any focus on extensive facts or seductive details and reiterating the broad concepts, a goal of differentiated instruction, teachers are highlighting essential components, better supporting recognition.

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The fourth UDL Teaching Method for recognition is to support background knowledge, and in this respect, the assessment step of the differentiated instruction learning cycle is instrumental. By evaluating student knowledge about a construct before designing instruction teachers can better support students' knowledge base, scaffolding instruction in a very important way.

Strategic learning.

People find for themselves the most desirable method of learning strategies; therefore, teaching methodologies need to be varied. This kind of flexibility is key for teachers to help meet the needs of their diverse students, and this is reflected in the 4 UDL Teaching Methods. Differentiated instruction can support these teaching methods in valuable ways.

Differentiated instruction recognizes the need for students to receive flexible models of skilled performance, one of the four UDL Teaching Methods for strategic learning. As noted above, teachers implementing differentiated instruction are encouraged to demonstrate information and skills multiple times and at varying levels. As a result, learners enter the instructional episode with different approaches, knowledge, and strategies for learning.

When students are engaged in initial learning on novel tasks or skills, supported practice should be used to ensure success and eventual independence. Supported practice enables students to split up a complex skill into manageable components and fully master these components. Differentiated instruction promotes thi teaching method by encouraging students to be active and responsible learners, and by asking teachers to respect individual differences and scaffold students as they move from initial learning to practiced, less supported skills mastery.

In order to successfully demonstrate the skills that they have learned, students need flexible opportunities for demonstrating skill. Differentiated instruction directly supports this UDL TeachingMethod by reminding teachers to vary requirements and expectations for learning and expressing knowledge, including the degree of difficulty and the means of evaluation or scoring.

Affective learning.

Differentiated instruction and UDL Teaching Methods bear another important point of convergence: recognition of the importance of engaging learners in instructional tasks. Supporting affective learning through flexible instruction is the third principle of UDL and an objective that differentiated instruction supports very effectively.

Differentiated instruction theory reinforces the importance of effective classroom management and reminds teachers of meeting the challenges of effective organizational and instructional practices. Engagement is a vital component of effective classroom management, organization, and instruction. Therefore teachers are encouraged to offer choices of tools, adjust the level of difficulty of the material, and provide varying levels of scaffolding to gain and maintain learner attention during the instructional episode. These practices bear much in common with UDL Teaching Methods for affective learning: offer choices of content and tools, provide adjustable levels of challenge, and offer a choice of learning context. By providing varying levels of scaffolding when differentiating instruction, students have access to varied learning contexts as well as choices about their learning environment.

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Examples of UDL and Differentiated Instruction

The focus of the previous sections was to describe ways in which differentiated instruction supports the three principles of UDL and aligns with UDL teaching practices. Here, we present actual lesson plans employing differentiated instruction. The first is a product of a school that is working with CAST, and the second is from work outside of CAST. Each exemplifies applications of UDL in differentiated instruction. In the example from CAST, we highlight the ways that differentiated instruction is used to implement UDL teaching methods. In the second, we identified UDL features implemented in a well designed differentiated instruction lesson in mathematics and recommend ways in which UDL could be applied to make an even more accessible, more flexible lesson.

CAST gathering evidence:

The Life Cycle of Plants from the Planning for All Learners (PAL) toolkit.

This lesson is a two-day instructional plan that is a part of a larger unit designed by a first grade teacher for a diverse class of students. Before teaching the lessons presented on this web site, the teacher introduced students to science concepts around the growth of seeds through oral presentation and in-class experiments. This lesson enabled the teacher to discuss, display and increase student understanding of the science content and concepts.

The lesson plan addresses McRel, Massachusetts State and local District standards in Science and English Language Arts, by teaching students the necessary environmental variables about growth in plants, and the tools, skills and strategies required to do so. Student choice and access flexibility in the lesson exemplify applications of UDL. Table 1 contains a listing of UDL features made possible by elements of differentiated instruction employed in this lesson.

–TABLE 1–UDL Features of the CAST PAL Toolkit Model

Gathering Evidence: Life Cycle of Plants

UDL Teaching Method

Supportive Differentiated Instruction Feature(s)

Provide multiple examples.

In preparation for this lesson, the teacher created multiple examples of finding and identifying seeds. Additionally, the teacher provided several examples of finding appropriate texts to complete the assignment. Students have multiple examples of texts from which to find information about the life cycle of seeds. As another example, fast growing seeds were planted in the classroom, giving students the opportunity to observe the seed life cycle.

Highlight critical features.

Teacher provides critical information for the lesson through oral presentation and highlights critical features in written form, then monitors students to check their focus on important features of the lesson. Additionally, by having texts available in digital format, the teacher or students may literally highlight critical

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features of the text in preparation of lesson assignments.

Provide multiple media and formats.

The teacher located several (4–5) resources, in this case books of different reading difficulty, containing the same science constructs on seed life cycles. The books were then made available digitally as well as in audio format for flexible accessibility. Thus, materials were available in a variety of media and formats.

Support background context.

Several levels of preparation were designed to support background context:

5. Before this assignment the teacher and students found seeds in a variety of vegetables and fruits. In this way, the concept of seeds was brought out of the abstract; students had experiences seeing and finding seeds from a range of plants.6. Careful instruction was organized to teach students the concept of finding a book that is "just right," helping students to find a book that is challenging, yet not too difficult. This, helped keep students work and learn in their "zone of proximal development" when obtaining background information for the lesson.

Provide opportunities to practice with support.

• Students had the option to work in selected pairs as they search for answers to the science questions.• During guided practice and independent practice portions of each lesson, the teacher provides supports by checking and prompting.

Offer flexible opportunities for demonstrating skill.

The design of this lesson allows students varied approaches throughout the lesson. Students may select their best or preferred type of working situation and means for responding.

Offer choices of content and tools.

The teacher organized the lesson at multiple points for choice of tools:

choice of resource materials,choice of access (text, digital, audio), andchoice of response style.

Offer adjustable levels of challenge.

The teacher offers multiple texts, representing a range of difficulty levels, and different means to access these texts. This helps to ensure that researching the answers to science questions is appropriately challenging for each student. For example, if decoding were challenging, the student could use a simpler text and/or access the information via audio or digital read-aloud.

Offer choices of learning contexts.

Throughout the lesson the teacher has organized several choices that help diversify the available learning contexts:

• students can select from a variety of methods to respond to the science questions (written, scribed, recorded),• students can opt to work independently or with a partner during the assignment completion portion of the lesson, and• students can select the "right book" based on difficulty and/or interest.

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Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

differentiating instruction web site Differentiated Instruction Lesson Example, grade 6 mathematics.

This web site hosted by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) contains a number of lessons that illustrate different teachers' examples of how to use the principles of differentiated instruction. We have selected a mathematics lesson for 6th grade focusing on the concept of patterns.

This instructional approach to teaching mathematics patterns has several exciting UDL features (see Table 2). Through the use of clearly stated goals and the implementation of flexible working groups with varying levels of challenge, this lesson helps to break down instructional barriers. We have identified additional ways to reduce barriers in this lesson even further by employing the principles of UDL teaching methods and differentiated instruction. We provide Table 3 with recommendations of employing teaching methods of UDL to support this lesson. Please note that we are not making generalized recommendations for making this lesson more UDL, but instead are focusing on ways that differentiated instruction, specifically, can help achieve this goal.

–TABLE 2–UDL Elements in a Differentiated Instruction Mathematics Lesson

UDL Teaching Method Differentiated Instruction Features

Provide multiple examples.The teacher provides multiple examples through the story of The

King's Chessboard and other math problems.

Highlight critical features.The teacher highlights critical features of the mathematics in the

story by stopping and calculating the amount of rice accumulating and using a t-table to do so.

Provide multiple media and formats.

The teacher reads the story aloud and students have the story to read. The numbers are represented in the story and on the t -table.

Support background context.Teachers analyze or pretest students for key preskills and

background knowledge.

Provide ongoing, relevant feedback.

In cooperative groups, students may receive feedback from the teacher and from peers.

Offer choices of content and tools.

Students are assigned to one of three groups tiered by difficulty; all students are working on the same task but with varying supports.

Offer adjustable levels of challenge.

Varied supports in the working groups alter the level of independence and difficulty in solving the task.

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–TABLE 3–UDL Strategies to Further Minimize Lesson Barriers in aDifferentiated Instruction Lesson Plan for Mathematics

Barrier UDL Strategy

Deducting/constructing numeric functions.

Provide different demonstrations or models of how to use the tools employed in the lesson. Scaffold how to use the t-table and

visualize the chessboard.

Students write an exit card to explain the mathematical story.

Provide alternative formats for students to express their interpretation of the story and the mathematical implications. For example, speaking, creating a diagram, numerical representations.

The Locker Problem.

Consider background knowledge for students entering this mathematical problem. What range of supports could be made

available to provide the informational knowledge so that students can focus on the problem solving component?

Recommendations for Implementation at the Classroom Level

Although UDL applications of differentiated instruction already exist, they are admittedly hard to come by. Even with such models available, teachers face challenges in implementing them: the challenges of shifting away from traditional views of intelligence and traditional reliance on print media, the challenge of acquiring and mastering new technology, and the challenge of garnering support from the school system. The following sections offer recommendations that can help teachers overcome each one of these challenges.

Learn about Universal Design for Learning.

The first and most basic step toward successfully implementing UDL is self-education. Although UDL has been more than a decade in the making, it is an approach that challenges many traditional educational perspectives and practices. Before teachers can implement UDL effectively, they may need to learn a different way of looking at their students and the materials that they use in the classroom. CAST has been working to disseminate UDL widely, and, consistent with the framework itself, have developed multiple avenues (direct and indirect, self-driven and trainer-taught, through text, speech, and interactive activities) through which individuals can learn about UDL and develop the skills necessary to put it into practice.

• Visit the CAST web site. The CAST web site devotes a large section to Universal Design for Learning. Here visitors will find an articulation of UDL, discussions of its core concepts, descriptions of UDL research projects, a listing of tools and resources that support UDL, and ideas and examples for implementing UDL.

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• Read CAST publications. CAST has a range of publications highlighting UDL and UDL practice, including Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age (Rose & Meyer, 2002). The companion web site to the book provides an evolving set of resources and classroom examples, including interactive activities and an online community where visitors can ask questions and engage in discussion about UDL.• Enroll in an institute. Professional development institutes by CAST teach professionals about the challenges of improving access to and progress participation in the general education curriculum and how to make the curriculum accessible for all learners.• Talk to others. The Teaching Every Student section of the CAST web site includes an online community where teachers can communicate, collaborate and obtain support from other educators who are exploring and teaching with UDL.• Find more information and to engage in discussion about universal design and increasing access for students with disabilities at the web site for the Access Center (www.k8accesscenter.org) a national technical assistance center that is funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs to make elementary and middle school curriculum more accessible to students with disabilities.

Inventory and build technology support.

Technology, in particular digital media, makes UDL implementation practical and achievable in a diverse classroom. Digital materials make it possible for the same material to be flexibly presented and accessed—even adapted on a student-to-student basis.

Although we recommend that teachers try to build a library of digital materials, it is important to point out that UDL implementation can proceed successfully across a range of technology availability. The amount of technology available to teachers varies extensively—limited by district and school resources, both monetary and otherwise. Fortunately, a fairly simple step such as digitizing print materials can greatly ease UDL implementation. The 1996 United States copyright additions (Chapter 1 of Title 17 Section 121 of the United States Code), the Chafee Amendment, gives authorized entities the freedom to digitize otherwise proprietary materials for individuals that have disabilities that impede access to the printed version. An authorized entity is a nonprofit organization or governmental agency that has a primary mission to provide specialized services relating to training, education, or adaptive reading or information access needs of blind or other persons with disabilities. This provision makes special education teachers eligible to digitize printed text materials, a step that can help to diversify the presentation of materials for students with disabilities.

Another inexpensive but instrumental option for supplying a classroom with digital materials is the World Wide Web—a tremendous source of free digital material and much of this material is in a multimedia format, which can greatly improve access to students.

Having more digital media unquestionably enables teachers to implement UDL in a more extensive way. Teachers who have greater financial resources and district support can supplement their materials with innovative products such as multimedia composition tools (e.g., HyperStudio5, Kid Pix Deluxe 3X, PowerPoint), graphic organizer software (e.g., Inspiration, Kidspiration), text-to-speech and text-to-image programs (e.g., Universal Reader, Read&Write GOLD, Kurzweil 3000, JAWS, Intellitalk II), CD-ROM storybooks (e.g., Reader Rabbit's Reading Development Library), and learning software (e.g., funbrain.com, Edmark's various learning games).

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Whether teachers are able to invest in the purchase of a lot of technology or not, UDL can proceed effectively. But taking inventory is an important step toward setting a realistic course of action. By inventorying the resources they have available to them, teachers can determine the level of UDL implementation appropriate to their classroom. For example, survey your classroom and your school media center for a clear idea of computer and projection systems and other technology hardware available to teachers and students. Check into scheduling issues around shared equipment. Additionally, test out web accessibility your school computer lab(s) and media center(s) as appropriate. If the web is a tool you may use and ask students to access, how available is it? Ask for or take an inventory of your school or district software, find out what's available and if there are available licenses for computers in your classroom.

Effectively working with and managing technology can be a challenging process, so it is important as well to assess the available technology support. This may come in the form of a school or district help desk, computer teacher, computer resource specialist, technology integration teacher, etc., or one's own technology training. Find out what policies your school or district may have regarding the tools you may adopt for use in your planning and teaching. Installation of software and hardware on computers may be time consuming, plan for issues of timing in your implementation and installation of software and hardware. When you are ready to teach a lesson using some technologies new to you or your students, consider notifying your technology support person, to be at hand to help problem solve any unforeseen challenges with implementation.

Image description:This graphic organizer is made up of two circles with two arrows each placed at different points and an outer circular line of arrows with text placed at different points along the line of arrows. In the center are two circles with two arrows each, one inside the other. The smaller, inner circle touches the right side of the larger, outer circle. On the right, a curved line of arrows goes around the outside of the circles from the top of the graphic around to the left side.

Text at the top of the graphic reads "Set goals: Establish context. Align to standards." From there, the line goes around to the right side of the graphic. An arrow in the middle of the line points to text on the right that reads "Analyze Status: Identify methods, materials, and assessment. Identify barriers." From there, the line goes around toward the bottom of the graphic. An arrow in the middle of the line points to text on the bottom right that reads "Apply UDL: Identify UDL materials and methods. Write UDL plan. Collect and organize materials." From there, the line goes

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around to the bottom left of the graphic. An arrow in the middle of the line points to text on the bottom left that reads "Teach UDL Lesson: Teach lesson. Evaluate success. Revise lesson/unit." The line continues around to the left side of the graphic, ending in an arrow pointing up.

Curriculum planning and delivery.

Another important step in implementation of UDL in instruction is curriculum planning and delivery. To begin, we recommend that teachers have a basic understanding of UDL and a commitment to make the curriculum and learning accessible for all learners. While keeping in mind the three principles of UDL, based on the three networks recognition, strategic and affective, we have found the following process useful in designing lessons. The process includes four steps, based upon the principles and concepts of UDL, proven professional development strategies, and effective teaching practices; (a) Set Goals, (b) Analyze Status, (c) Apply UDL, and (d) Teach the UDL Lesson.

In the Set Goals stage of curriculum planning, we recommend that teachers establish the context for instruction. Context is usually driven or based on state standards, followed by the design of goals for the instructional episode. We recommend that all teachers closely evaluate these to assure alignment and assure that the means for attaining the goals are separated from the goals and standards.

Next, when designing a UDL lesson, teachers should Analyze the Current Status of the instructional episode. What are the current methodologies, assessments, and materials used to teach the lesson? Analyze these teaching procedures in relation to potential barriers of learners in the classroom. Do all students have access to the materials? Are students able to express themselves with the current methods and materials? There are a number of resources and tools available from CAST to analyze lessons in the Planning for All Learners Toolkit located on the TES web site.

The third recommended step of the planning process is to Apply UDL to the Lesson/Unit. This includes the goals, methods, assessments and materials used to implement the lesson. Create the UDL lesson plan, grounded in the learning goals, classroom profile, methods and assessment, and materials and tools. Then, collect and organize materials that support the UDL lesson.

In the final step, Teach the UDL Lesson/Unit, minimize barriers and realize the strengths and challenges each student brings to learning, rely on effective teaching practices, and apply challenges appropriate for each learner. In this way, instructors can engage more students and help all students progress. When teaching and evaluating students work, also evaluate and revise the lesson/unit to assure student access and success. You may obtain additional information about designing UDL methods, assessments, and materials, in Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age, Chapter 4.

Secure administrative support.

School districts and administrations can be powerful sources of support—financial and otherwise. Administrative commitment to UDL can strengthen a teacher's sense of mission and self-satisfaction and lead to important funding. A case in point is the town of Gloucester, Massachusetts. The principal for the school system is so convinced of the importance of digitized

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materials that he has set a mandate that teachers use only those textbooks that have a digitized version. Teachers will use a text-to-speech reader to further improve the accessibility of the text. Clearly, this kind of change would have happened much more slowly in the absence of such tremendous administrator-level support.

Administrator support can also help to facilitate funding, which although not a prerequisite for UDL, can create important opportunities. Funding might enable the purchase of equipment, professional development, and the launching of new UDL teaching projects. Districts vary widely concerning the types and level of funding that they offer teachers, but teachers who can convince their administrators of the value of UDL may be able to secure district-level grants, professional development awards, and sabbaticals. For example, in a North Shore Massachusetts school district, the Technology Program Manager and Special Education Director teamed with two teachers using UDL were awarded a state-level technology grant to implement UDL. This is just one example of how support at the administrative level can facilitate the acquisition of materials that support UDL efforts in the classroom.

Parent education and involvement.

Parents are another valuable resource for teachers building a UDL curriculum. There are at least two important ways that parents can be a resource: as advocates and as volunteers.

By educating parents about the UDL activities going on in the classroom, teachers can develop a support system of informed individuals who can assist with and advocate for UDL instruction. Teachers should think about ways to inform parents about classroom activities. Notes sent home, parent night presentations, and IEP meetings are all excellent opportunities to engage in this kind of communication. Once parents are educated about UDL they may wish to become involved themselves. There are many ways that parents can do this, including volunteering in the classroom and lending support at home. A few possibilities are helping to prepare materials, monitoring kids during UDL lessons, helping with technology, donating equipment, and supporting homework assignments.

Conclusion

Differentiated instruction, although somewhat still developing in educational settings, has received significant recognition. When combined with the practices and principles of UDL, differentiated instruction can provide teachers with both theory and practice to appropriately challenge the broad scope of students in classrooms today. Although educators are continually challenged by the ever-changing classroom profile of students, resources, and reforms, practices continue to evolve and the relevant research base should grow. And along with them grows the promise of differentiated instruction and UDL in educational practices.

Links to Learn More About Differentiated Instruction

Guild, P. B., and Garger, S. (1998). What Is Differentiated Instruction? Marching to Different Drummers, 2nd Ed. (ASCD, p.2)http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/198186.aspx

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Initially published in 1985, Marching to Different Drummers was one of the first sources to pull together information on what was a newly-flourishing topic in education. Part I defines style and looks at the history of style research; Part II describes applications of style in seven areas; Part III identifies common questions and discusses implementation and staff development.

The Access Centerhttp://www.k8accesscenter.org/

This web site belongs to the Access Center, a national technical assistance center, funded by the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Special Education Programs. The purpose of the K12 Access Center is to make elementary and middle school curricula more accessible to students with disabilities. The web site hosts chats and discussions and offers publications and presentations on topics related to accessing the general education curriculum, including Universal Design for Learning.

Tomlinson, C. A., (1995). Differentiating instruction for advanced learners in the mixed-ability middle school classroom. ERIC Digest ED443572.

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED443572

To meet the needs of diverse student populations, many teachers differentiate instruction. This digest describes differentiated instruction, discusses the reasons for differentiated instruction, what makes it successful, and suggests how teachers may begin implementation.

Tomlinson, C. A., (1995). Differentiating instruction for advanced learners in the mixed-ability middle school classroom. ERIC Digest E536.http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED443572

The ability to differentiate instruction for middle school aged learners is a challenge. Responding to the diverse students needs found in inclusive, mixed-ability classrooms is particularly difficult. This digest provides an overview of some key principles for differentiating instruction, with an emphasis on the learning needs of academically advanced students.

Tomlinson, C. A., & Allan, S. D., (2000). Leadership for differentiating schools and classrooms. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/100216.aspx

This web site contains two chapters from Tomlinson's recent publication: Leadership for differentiating schools and classrooms, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. This book is designed for those in leadership positions to learn about differentiated instruction.

Web Article: Mapping a route toward differentiated instruction.http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/sept99/vol57/num01/Mapping-a-Route-Toward-Differentiated-Instruction.aspx

Carol Ann Tomlinson, an Associate Professor of Educational Leadership, Foundations and Policy at the Curry School of Education, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA provides an article entitled: Mapping a route toward differentiated instruction. Educational Leadership, 57(1).

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http://www.k8accesscenter.org/

Willis, S. & Mann, L., (2000). Differentiating instruction: Finding manageable ways to meet individual needs (Excerpt). Curriculum Update.http://www.ascd.org/publications/curriculum-update/winter2000/Differentiating-Instruction.aspx

Based on the concept that "one size does not fit all" the authors describe the teaching philosophy of differentiated instruction. More teachers are determined to reach all learners, to challenge students who may be identified as gifted as well as students who lag behind grade level. This article excerpt describes the essential components of differentiated instruction beginning with three aspects of curriculum: content, process, and products.

The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) Web Site http://www.ascd.org/research-a-topic/differentiated-instruction-resources.aspx

A site by ASCD (2000) which discusses differentiated instruction. Page links to other pages with examples from a high school and elementary school, key characteristics of a differentiated classroom, benefits, related readings, discussion, and related links to explore.

Preparing Teachers for Differentiated Instruction http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/sept00/vol58/num01/-Preparing-Teachers-for-Differentiated-Instruction.aspx

This web site, provided by Educational Leadership, links the reader to a brief summary of an article by Holloway. The author has provided a bulleted summary regarding the principles and theories that drive differentiated instruction.

Holloway, J. H., (2000). Preparing Teachers for Differentiated Instruction. Educational Leadership, 58(1). http://web.uvic.ca/~jdurkin/edd401/Differentiated.html

This site is from an education course by Dr. John Durkin. It includes a diagram with suggestions for approaches to differentiated instruction. It also includes a listing of what differentiated instruction is and is not, rules of thumb on how to instruct, and management strategies.

Web Site: for Teachers, Administrators, and Higher Educationwww.teach-nology.com/litined/dif_instruction/

This web site is designed for educators and uses technology to inform teachers about current practices, literature, the law in education, as well as professional development. Additionally, links to articles including research on educational practices including links to information on differentiated instruction are included. CAST. Teaching Every Student.(n.d). Retrieved September 15, 2003, from http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/

Top

References

CAST. UDL Toolkits: Planning for All Learners (PAL). (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2003, from http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/toolkits/tk_introduction.cfm?tk_id=21

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http://aim.cast.org/learn/historyarchive/backgroundpapers/differentiated_instruction_udl#top

http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/#_blank

http://www.teach-nology.com/litined/dif_instruction/

http://web.uvic.ca/~jdurkin/edd401/Differentiated.html

http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/sept00/vol58/num01/-Preparing-Teachers-for-Differentiated-Instruction.aspx#_blank

http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/sept00/vol58/num01/-Preparing-Teachers-for-Differentiated-Instruction.aspx#_blank

http://www.ascd.org/research-a-topic/differentiated-instruction-resources.aspx#_blank

http://www.ascd.org/publications/curriculum-update/winter2000/Differentiating-Instruction.aspx#_blank

Dolan, R. P., & Hall, T. E., (2001). Universal Design for Learning: Implications for large-scale assessment. IDA Perspectives, 27(4), 22-25.Ellis, E. S. and Worthington, L. A., (1994). Research synthesis on effective teaching principles and the design of quality tools for educators. University of Oregon: Technical Report No. 5 National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators.Meyer, A., & Rose, D. H., (1998). Learning to read in the computer age. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.Oaksford, L. & Jones, L., (2001). Differentiated instruction abstract. Tallahassee, FL: Leon County Schools.Pettig, K. L., (2000). On the road to differentiated. Education Leadership, 8, 1, 14-18.Pisha, B., & Coyne, P., (2001). Smart from the start: the promise of Universal Design for Learning. Remedial and Special Education, 22(4), 197-203.Reis. S. M., Kaplan, S. N, Tomlinson, C. A., Westbert, K. L, Callahan, C. M., & Cooper, C. R., (1998). How the brain learns, A response: Equal does not mean identical. Educational Leadership, 56, 3.Rose, D. (2001). Universal Design for Learning: Deriving guiding principles from networks that learn. Journal of Special Education Technology, 16(2), 66-67.Rose, D., & Dolan, R. P., (2000). Universal Design for Learning: Associate Editor's Column. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15(4), 47-51.Rose, D., & Meyer, A., (2000a). Universal design for individual differences. Educational Leadership, 58(3), 39-43.Rose, D., & Meyer, A., (2000b). Universal Design for Learning: Associate Editor Column. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15(1), 67-70.Rose, D., & Meyer, A., (2002). Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age: Universal Design for Learning. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.Rose, D., Sethuraman, S., & Meo, G., (2000). Universal Design for Learning. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15(2), 26-60.Sizer, T. R., (2001). No two are quite alike: Personalized learning. Educational Leadership 57(1).Tomlinson, C. A., (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. (2nd Ed.) Alexandria, VA: ASCD.Tomlinson, C. A., & Allan, S. D., (2000). Leadership for differentiating schools and classrooms. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

This content was developed pursuant to cooperative agreement #H324H990004 under CFDA 84.324H between CAST and the Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. However, the opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the U.S. Department of Education or the Office of Special Education Programs and no endorsement by that office should be inferred.

Citation

Cite this paper as follows:

Hall, T., Strangman, N., & Meyer, A. (2003). Differentiated instruction and implications for UDL implementation. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum. Retrieved [insert date] from http://aim.cast.org/learn/historyarchive/backgroundpapers/differentiated...

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http://aim.cast.org/learn/historyarchive/backgroundpapers/differentiated_instruction_udl

Differentiated Instruction for Writing

By: The Access Center (2004)

Differentiated instruction, also called differentiation, is a process through which teachers enhance learning by matching student characteristics to instruction and assessment. Writing instruction can be differentiated to allow students varying amounts of time to complete assignments, to give students different writing product options, and to teach skills related to the writing process.

What is differentiated instruction?

Differentiated instruction, also called differentiation, is a process through which teachers enhance learning by matching student characteristics to instruction and assessment. Differentiated instruction allows all students to access the same classroom curriculum by providing entry points, learning tasks, and outcomes that are tailored to students' needs (Hall, Strangman, & Meyer, 2003). Differentiated instruction is not a single strategy, but rather an approach to instruction that incorporates a variety of strategies.

Teachers can differentiate content, process, and/or product for students (Tomlinson, 1999). Differentiation of content refers to a change in the material being learned by a student. For example, if the classroom objective is for all students to subtract using renaming, some of the students may learn to subtract two-digit numbers, while others may learn to subtract larger numbers in the context of word problems. Differentiation of process refers to the way in which a student accesses material. One student may explore a learning center, while another student collects information from the web. Differentiation of product refers to the way in which a student shows what he or she has learned. For example, to demonstrate understanding of a geometric concept, one student may solve a problem set, while another builds a model.

When teachers differentiate, they do so in response to a student's readiness, interest, and/or learning profile. Readiness refers to the skill level and background knowledge of the child. Interest refers to topics that the student may want to explore or that will motivate the student. This can include interests relevant to the content area as well as outside interests of the student. Finally, a student's learning profile includes learning style (i.e., a visual, auditory, tactile, or kinesthetic learner), grouping preferences (i.e., individual, small group, or large group), and environmental preferences (i.e., lots of space or a quiet area to work). A teacher may differentiate based on any one of these factors or any combination of factors (Tomlinson, 1999).

How is it implemented?

Implementation looks different for each student and each assignment. Before beginning instruction, teachers should do three things:

Use diagnostic assessments to determine student readiness. These assessments can be formal or informal. Teachers can give pre-tests, question students about their background

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knowledge, or use KWL charts (charts that ask students to identify what they already Know, what they Want to know, and what they have Learned about a topic).

Determine student interest. This can be done by using interest inventories and/or including students in the planning process. Teachers can ask students to tell them what specific interests they have in a particular topic, and then teachers can try to incorporate these interests into their lessons.

Identify student learning styles and environmental preferences. Learning styles can be measured using learning style inventories. Teachers can also get information about student learning styles by asking students how they learn best and by observing student activities. Identifying environmental preferences includes determining whether students work best in large or small groups and what environmental factors might contribute to or inhibit student learning. For example, a student might need to be free from distraction or have extra lighting while he or she works.

Teachers incorporate different instructional strategies based on the assessed needs of their students. Throughout a unit of study, teachers should assess students on a regular basis. This assessment can be formal, but is often informal and can include taking anecdotal notes on student progress, examining students' work, and asking the student questions about his or her understanding of the topic. The results of the assessment could then be used to drive further instruction.

What does it look like for writing?

Writing instruction can be differentiated to allow students varying amounts of time to complete assignments, to give students different writing product options, and to teach skills related to the writing process. The chart below offers a variety of strategies that can be used.

StrategyFocus of

DifferentiationDefinition Example

Tiered assignments

Readiness Tiered assignments are designed to instruct students on essential skills that are provided at different levels of complexity, abstractness, and open-endedness. The curricular content and objective(s) are the same, but the process and/or product are varied according to the student's level of readiness.

Students with moderate writing skills are asked to write a four-paragraph persuasive essay in which they provide a thesis statement and use their own ideas to support it. Students with more advanced skills are asked to research the topic in more depth and use substantive arguments from their research to support their thesis.

Compacting Readiness Compacting is the process of adjusting instruction to account for prior student mastery of learning objectives. Compacting involves a three-step process: (1) assess the student to determine his/her level of knowledge on the material to be studied and determine what he/she still needs to master; (2) create plans for what the student needs to know, and excuse the student from studying what he/she already knows; and (3) create plans for freed-up time to be

Rather than receiving additional direct instruction on writing a five-sentence paragraph, a student who already has that skill is asked to apply it to a variety of topics and is given instruction on writing a five-paragraph essay.

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spent in enriched or accelerated study.

Interest Centers or Interest Groups

ReadinessInterest

Interest centers (usually used with younger students) and interest groups (usually used with older students) are set up so that learning experiences are directed toward a specific learner interest. Allowing students to choose a topic can be motivating to them.

Interest Centers - Centers can focus on specific writing skills, such as steps in the writing process, and provide examples and activities that center on a theme of interest, such as sports or movies.

Interest Groups — When writing persuasive essays, students can work in pairs on topics of interest.

Flexible Grouping*

ReadinessInterest Learning Profile

Students work as part of many different groups depending on the task and/or content. Sometimes students are placed in groups based on readiness, other times they are placed based on interest and/or learning profile. Groups can either be assigned by the teacher or chosen by the students. Students can be assigned purposefully to a group or assigned randomly. This strategy allows students to work with a wide variety of peers and keeps them from being labeled as advanced or struggling.

The teacher may assign groups based on readiness for direct instruction on the writing process, and allow students to choose their own groups and methods for acquiring background information on a writing topic (i.e., watching a video or reading an article).

Learning Contracts

ReadinessLearning Profile

Learning contracts begin with an agreement between the teacher and the student. The teacher specifies the necessary skills expected to be learned by the student and the required components of the assignment, while the student identifies methods for completing the tasks. This strategy (1) allows students to work at an appropriate pace; (2) can target learning styles; and (3) helps students work independently, learn planning skills, and eliminate unnecessary skill practice.

A student indicates an interest in writing a newspaper article. The student, with support from the teacher, specifies the process by which he or she will research newspaper writing and decides how to present the final product. For example, the article could be published in the school newspaper or shared during a writer's workshop.

Choice Boards

ReadinessInterestLearning Profile

Choice boards are organizers that contain a variety of activities. Students can choose one or several activities to complete as they learn a skill or develop a product. Choice boards can be organized so that students are required to choose options that focus on several different skills.

Students in an elementary school class are given a choice board that contains a list of possible poetry writing activities based on the following learning styles: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile. Examples of activities include, cutting out magazine letters to create poems, using a word processor, or dictating a poem into a tape recorder and transcribing it. Students must complete two activities from the board and must choose these activities from two different learning styles.

* More information about grouping strategies can be found in Strategies to Improve Access to the General Education Curriculum on The Access Center website.

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Resources

• Differentiated Instruction (CAST)

This site contains an article by Tracy Hall at the National Center for Accessing the General Curriculum. The article discusses differentiation as it applies to the general education classroom.

• Strategies for Differentiating

The Enhancing Learning with Technology site provides explanations for various differentiation strategies.

References

Hall, T., Strangman, N., & Meyer, A. (2003). Differentiated instruction and implications for UDL implementation. National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum.

Retrieved July 9, 2004 from: http://www.k8accesscenter.org/training_resources/udl/diffinstruction.asp

Tomlinson , C.A. (1999). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms.Alexandria , VA : ASCD.

Access Center. (2004). Differentiated Instruction for Writing. Washington D.C.: Author.

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http://members.shaw.ca/priscillatheroux/differentiatingstrategies.html#_blank

http://www.cast.org/ncac/index.cfm?i=2876#_blank

Documentarul Nr 4.

DESIGN INSTRUCŢIONAL4.1.Definitions of Instructional Design

(Adapted from "Training and Instructional Design",

Applied Research Laboratory, Penn State University)

Instructional Design as a Process:Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities.

Instructional Design as a Discipline:Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies.

Instructional Design as a Science:Instructional design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity.

Instructional Design as Reality:Instructional design can start at any point in the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process is done the designer looks back and she or he checks to see that all parts of the "science" have been taken into account. Then the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion.

Instructional System:An instructional system is an arrangement of resources and procedures to promote learning. Instructional design is the systematic process of developing instructional systems and instructional development is the process of implementing the system or plan.

Instructional Technology:Instructional technology is the systemic and systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems. Instructional technology is the systematic application of theory and other organized knowledge to the task of instructional design and development. Instructional Technology = Instructional Design + Instructional Development

Instructional Development:The process of implementing the design plans.

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(from Wikipedia: )

Instructional Design (also called Instructional Systems Design (ISD)) is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences. The process consists broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically (process of teaching) and andragogically (adult learning) tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model with the five phases: 1) analysis, 2) design, 3) development, 4) implementation, and 5) evaluation. As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology.

History

Much of the foundation of the field of instructional design was laid in World War II, when the U.S. military faced the need to rapidly train large numbers of people to perform complex technical tasks, from field-stripping a carbine to navigating across the ocean to building a bomber—see "Training Within Industry (TWI)". Drawing on the research and theories of B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, training programs focused on observable behaviors. Tasks were broken down into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was designed to reward correct performance and remediate incorrect performance. Mastery was assumed to be possible for every learner, given enough repetition and feedback. After the war, the success of the wartime training model was replicated in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. The approach is still common in the U.S. military.[1]

In 1956, a committee led by Benjamin Bloom published an influential taxonomy of what he termed the three domains of learning: Cognitive (what one knows or thinks), Psychomotor (what one does, physically) and Affective (what one feels, or what attitudes one has). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction.[2]

During the latter half of the 20th century, learning theories began to be influenced by the growth of digital computers.

In the 1970s, many instructional design theorists began to adopt an information-processing-based approach to the design of instruction. David Merrill for instance developed Component Display Theory (CDT), which concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques).[3]

Later in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s cognitive load theory began to find empirical support for a variety of presentation techniques.[4]

Cognitive load theory and the design of instruction

Cognitive load theory developed out of several empirical studies of learners, as they interacted with instructional materials.[5] Sweller and his associates began to measure the effects

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Sweller_1988-4

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load_theory

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load


http://tip.psychology.org/merrill.html



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Educational_Objectives

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Bloom


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinner

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training_Within_Industry

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_psychology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogically

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogically


of working memory load, and found that the format of instructional materials has a direct effect on the performance of the learners using those materials.[6] [7] [8]

While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media on learning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several journals. Rather than attempting to substantiate the use of media, these cognitive load learning effects provided an empirical basis for the use of instructional strategies. Mayer asked the instructional design community to reassess the media debate, to refocus their attention on what was most important: learning.[9]

By the mid- to late-1990s, Sweller and his associates had discovered several learning effects related to cognitive load and the design of instruction (e.g. the split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the worked-example effect). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began to attribute learning effects to cognitive load.[9] Mayer and his associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.[10] [11] [12]

In the past decade, cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted[13] and begun to revolutionize how practitioners of instructional design view instruction. Recently, human performance experts have even taken notice of cognitive load theory, and have begun to promote this theory base as the science of instruction, with instructional designers as the practitioners of this field.[14] Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller[15] published a textbook describing how Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence-based guidelines of cognitive load theory.

Instructional Designers use various instructional strategies to reduce cognitive load. For example, they think that the onscreen text should not be more than 150 words or the text should be presented in small meaningful chunks.[citation needed] The designers also use auditory and visual methods to communicate information to the learner.

Learning design

The concept of learning design arrived in the literature of technology for education in the late nineties and early 2000s [16] with the idea that "designers and instructors need to choose for themselves the best mixture of behaviourist and constructivist learning experiences for their online courses" [17]. But the concept of learning design is probably as old as the concept of teaching. Learning design might be defined as "the description of the teaching-learning process that takes place in a unit of learning (eg, a course, a lesson or any other designed learning event)" [18].

As summarized by Britain[19], learning design may be associated with:

• The concept of learning design • The implementation of the concept made by learning design specifications like PALO, IMS

Learning Design [20] , LDL, SLD 2.0, etc... • The technical realisations around the implementation of the concept like TELOS,

RELOAD LD-Author, etc...

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMS_Learning_Design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMS_Learning_Design





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed

http://www.amazon.com/dp/0787977284

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Clark_Nguyen_Sweller_2006-14

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Clark_Mayer_2002-13

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Paas_Renkl_Sweller_2004-12

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_Steinhoff_Bower_Mars_1995-11

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_Bove_Mars_Tapangco_1996-10

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_2001-9


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worked-example_effect


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Cooper_Sweller_1987-7

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Sweller_Cooper_1985-6

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Chandler_Sweller_1991-5

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory

Instructional design models

ADDIE process

Perhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE Process. This acronym stands for the 5 phases contained in the model:

c) Analyze – analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.

Identify Instructional Goals, Conduct Instructional Analysis, Analye Learners and Contexts

Design – develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approach

Write Performance Objectives, Develop Assessment Instruments, Develop Instructional Strategy

8. Develop – create instructional or training materials

Design and selection of materials appropriate for learning activity, Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation

Implement – deliver or distribute the instructional materials Evaluate – make sure the materials achieved the desired goals

Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

Most of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE process.[21] Dick,W.O,.Carey, L.,&Carey, J.O.(2004)And FYI, Susan Schminke fails as an instructor!Systematic Design of Instruction.Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon.

Rapid prototyping

A sometimes utilized adaptation to the ADDIE model is in a practice known as rapid prototyping.

Proponents suggest that through an iterative process the verification of the design documents saves time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. This approach is not novel to the design of instruction, but appears in many design-related domains including software design, architecture, transportation planning, product development, message design, user experience design, etc.[21] [22] [23] In fact, some proponents of design prototyping assert that a sophisticated understanding of a problem is incomplete without creating and evaluating some type of prototype, regardless of the analysis rigor that may have been applied up front.[24] In other words, up-front analysis is rarely sufficient to allow one to confidently select an instructional model. For this reason many traditional methods of instructional design are beginning to be seen as incomplete, naive, and even counter-productive.[25]

However, some consider rapid prototyping to be a somewhat simplistic type of model. As this argument goes, at the heart of Instructional Design is the analysis phase. After you thoroughly conduct the analysis—you can then choose a model based on your findings. That is the area where

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Stolovitch_Keeps_1999-22

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Saettler_1990-21

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Piskurich.2C_G.M._2006-20

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_prototyping

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_prototyping

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Piskurich.2C_G.M._2006-20

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ADDIE_Process&action=edit&redlink=1

most people get snagged—they simply do not do a thorough-enough analysis. (Part of Article By Chris Bressi on LinkedIn)

Dick and Carey

Another well-known instructional design model is The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model.[26] The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction.

Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes".[26] The components of the Systems Approach Model, also known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows:

Identify Instructional Goal(s): goal statment describes a skill, knowledge or attitude(SKA) that a learner will be expected to acquire

Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner must recall and identify what learner must be able to do to perform particular task

Analyze Learners and Contexts: General characteristic of the target audience, Characteristic directly related to the skill to be taught, Analysis of Performance Setting, Analysis of Learning Setting

Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists of a description of the behavior, the condition and criteria. The component of an objective that describes the criteria that will be used to judge the learner's performance.

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http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=a0gdmLZwI8IC&oi=fnd&pg=PA71&dq=The+Systematic+Design+of+Instruction


Develop Assessment Instruments: Purpose of entry behavior testing, purpose of pretesting, purpose of pottesting, purpose of practive items/practive problems

Develop Instructional Strategy: Preinstructional activities, content presentation, Learner participation, assessment

Develop and Select Instructional Materials Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction: Designer try to identify areas of

the instructional materials that are in need to improvement. Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and to identify poor instruction Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

With this model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly.[26] http://www.slideshare.net/akteacher/dick-cary-instructional-design-model

Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS)

Another instructional design model is the Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS).[27] The model was originally published in 1970 by Peter J. Esseff, PhD and Mary Sullivan Esseff, PhD in their book entitled IDLS—Pro Trainer 1: How to Design, Develop, and Validate Instructional Materials.[28]

Peter (1968) & Mary (1972) Esseff both received their doctorates in Educational Technology from the Catholic University of America under the mentorship of Dr. Gabriel Ofiesh, a Founding Father of the Military Model mentioned above. Esseff and Esseff contributed synthesized existing theories to develop their approach to systematic design, "Instructional Development Learning System" (IDLS).

The components of the IDLS Model are:

Design a Task Analysis Develop Criterion Tests and Performance Measures Develop Interactive Instructional Materials Validate the Interactive Instructional Materials

Other models

Some other useful models of instructional design include: the Smith/Ragan Model, the Morrison/Ross/Kemp Model and the OAR model, as well as, Wiggins theory of backward design.

Learning theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism, constructivism, social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials.

Influential researchers and theorists

Alphabetic by last name

Bloom, Benjamin – Taxonomies of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains – 1955

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Understanding_by_Design#Backward_design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OAR_model


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Esseff_.26_Esseff_1998-26

http://www.slideshare.net/akteacher/dick-cary-instructional-design-model


Bonk, Curtis – Blended learning – 2000s Bransford, John D. – How People Learn: Bridging Research and Practice – 1999 Bruner, Jerome – Constructivism Carr-Chellman, Alison – Instructional Design for Teachers ID4T -2010 Carey, L. – "The Systematic Design of Instruction" Clark, Richard – Clark-Kosma "Media vs Methods debate", "Guidance" debate. Clark, Ruth – Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load /

Guided Instruction / Cognitive Load Theory Dick, W. – "The Systematic Design of Instruction" Gagné, Robert M. – Nine Events of Instruction (Gagné and Merrill Video Seminar) Heinich, Robert – Instructional Media and the new technologies of instruction 3rd ed. –

Educational Technology – 1989 Jonassen, David – problem-solving strategies – 1990s Langdon, Danny G - The Instructional Designs Library: 40 Instructional Designs, Educational

Tech. Publications Mager, Robert F. – ABCD model for instructional objectives – 1962 Merrill, M. David - Component Display Theory / Knowledge Objects Papert, Seymour – Constructionism, LOGO – 1970s Piaget, Jean – Cognitive development – 1960s Piskurich, George – Rapid Instructional Design – 2006 Simonson, Michael – Instructional Systems and Design via Distance Education – 1980s Schank, Roger – Constructivist simulations – 1990s Sweller, John - Cognitive load, Worked-example effect, Split-attention effect Reigeluth, Charles – Elaboration Theory, "Green Books" I, II, and III - 1999-2010 Skinner, B.F. – Radical Behaviorism, Programed Instruction Vygotsky, Lev – Learning as a social activity – 1930s Wiley, David – Learning Objects, Open Learning – 2000s

References

1. MIL-HDBK-29612/2A Instructional Systems Development/Systems Approach to Training and Education 2. Bloom's Taxonomy 3. TIP: Theories 4. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. - Educational Psychologist - 38(1):1 - Citation 5. Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning". Cognitive Science 12 (1): 257–285. doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7. 6. Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (1991). "Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction". Cognition and Instruction 8 (4): 293–332. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2. 7. Sweller, J., & Cooper, G.A. (1985). "The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra". Cognition and Instruction 2 (1): 59–89. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3. 8. Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). "Effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer". Journal of Educational Psychology 79 (4): 347–362. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.79.4.347. 9. ^ a b Mayer, R.E. (1997). "Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking the Right Questions?". Educational Psychologist 32 (41): 1–19. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3201_1. 10. Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78239-2. 11. Mayer, R.E., Bove, W. Bryman, A. Mars, R. & Tapangco, L. (1996). "When Less Is More: Meaningful Learning From Visual and Verbal Summaries of Science Textbook Lessons". Journal of Educational Psychology 88 (1): 64–73. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.64.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Sweller_Cooper_1985_6-0

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Chandler_Sweller_1991_5-0

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http://www.officeport.com/edu/blooms.htm


http://assist.daps.dla.mil/quicksearch/basic_profile.cfm?ident_number=207794

http://assist.daps.dla.mil/quicksearch/basic_profile.cfm?ident_number=207794


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._Wiley

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.F._Skinner

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-attention_effect

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worked-example_effect

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Schank

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour_Papert

http://ocw.usu.edu/University_Extension/conversation-on-instructional-design/session-one.html

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Bruner

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12. Mayer, R.E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R. (1995). "A generative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text". Educational Technology Research and Development 43 (1): 31–41. doi:10.1007/BF02300480. 13. Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2004). "Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive Architecture". Instructional Science 32: 1–8. doi:10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021806.17516.d0. 14. Clark, R.C., Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-6051-9. 15. Clark, R.C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-7728-4. 16. Conole G., and Fill K., “A learning design toolkit to create pedagogically effective learning activities”. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 2005 (08). 17. Carr-Chellman A. and Duchastel P., “The ideal online course,” British Journal of Educational Technology, 31(3), 229-241, July 2000. 18. Koper R., “Current Research in Learning Design,” Educational Technology & Society, 9 (1), 13-22, 2006. 19. Britain S., “A Review of Learning Design: Concept, Specifications and Tools” A report for the JISC E-learning Pedagogy Programme, May 2004. 20. IMS Learning Design webpage 21.^ a b Piskurich, G.M. (2006). Rapid Instructional Design: Learning ID fast and right. 22. Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology. 23. Stolovitch, H.D., & Keeps, E. (1999). Handbook of human performance technology. 24. Kelley, T., & Littman, J. (2005). The ten faces of innovation: IDEO's strategies for beating the devil's advocate & driving creativity throughout your organization. New York: Doubleday. 25. Hokanson, B., & Miller, C. (2009). Role-based design: A contemporary framework for innovation and creativity in instructional design. Educational Technology, 49(2), 21–28. 26.^ a b c Dick, Walter, Lou Carey, and James O. Carey (2005) [1978]. The Systematic Design of Instruction (6th ed.). Allyn & Bacon. pp. 1–12. ISBN 0205412742. http://books.google.com/?id=sYQCAAAACAAJ&dq=the+systematic+design+of+instruction. 27. Esseff, Peter J. and Esseff, Mary Sullivan (1998) [1970]. Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) (8th ed.). ESF Press. pp. 1–12. ISBN 1582830371. http://esf-protrainer.com/Materials.html. 28. [1]

4.2. O istorie a designului instrucţional

A Brief History of Instructional Design

By Douglas Leigh

As a formal discipline, Instructional Systems Design has been a long time in the making. The early contributions of thinkers such as Aristotle, Socrates and Plato regarding the cognitive basis of learning and memory was later expanded by the 13th century philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas who discussed the perception of teachings in terms of free will. Four hundred years later, John

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Piskurich.2C_G.M._2006_20-1

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3ATRUC.0000021806.17516.d0


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Paas_Renkl_Sweller_2004_12-0

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02300480


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_ref-Mayer_Steinhoff_Bower_Mars_1995_11-0

Locke advanced Aristotle's notion of human's initial state of mental blankness by proposing that almost all reason and knowledge must be gained from experience. Then, at the turn of the 20th century John Dewey presented several tenets of the philosophy of education which promoted the idea that learning occurs best when married with doing, rather than rote regurgitation of facts.

As the 1920's approached, a behaviorist approach to educational psychology became increasingly predominant. Thorndike's theory of connectionism represents the original stimulus-response (S-R) model of behavioral psychology, and was expanded on some twenty years later by Hull in his exposition of drive reduction – a motivational model of behavior which emphasizes learner's wants, attention, and activities. With the Industrial Revolution came an increased attention to productivity, and educational behaviorists during the 1920's such as Sidney Pressey applied mechanized technology to increase the efficiency of the learning process. Though their initial incarnation did not see much use after the Depression, many of the lessons learned research into these teaching machines regarding the delivery of standardized instruction contributed to the instructional media research & development movement of World War II.

The advent of the Second World War presented a tremendous instructional dilemma: the rapid training of hundreds of thousands of military personnel. Ralph Tyler's work a decade before WWII indicated that objectives were most useful to instructional developers if written in terms of desired learner behaviors. Armed with this knowledge and the experience of creating standardize methods of instructional delivery using teaching machines, military researchers developed a bevy of training films and other mediated materials for instructional purposes. In part, the United States' heavy investment in training and R&D was credited with the country's victory in the war. With the economic boom that followed, federal dollars followed researcher's desire to better flesh out the underpinnings of learning, cognition, and instruction.

The 1950's are characterized by a shift away from the uninformed application of instructional technology to the formulation of theoretical models of learning. The publication of B. F. Skinner's The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching in 1954 canonized the basic behaviorist principles of S-R, feedback, and reinforcement. As the key element of his theory of operant conditioning, the reinforcement of desired learner responses was also incorporated into Skinner's implementations of programmed instruction. Considered by many the progenitor of contemporary instructional design, programmed instruction emphasizes the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small units and rewarding correct responses early and often.

Another substantial instructional theorist of the 1950's was Benjamin Bloom. His 1956 taxonomy of intellectual behaviors provided instructors a means by which to decide how to impart instructional content to learners most effectively. Advocating a mastery approach to learning, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. While this approach provided instructional developers a means by which to match subject matter and instructional methods, Bloom's taxonomy was not in and of itself capable of satisfying the desire of large organizations to relate resources and processes to the performances of individuals. To achieve this researchers in the military's Air Research and Development Command borrowed from Ludwig von Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory of biological interactions to integrate the operations of a wide range of departments, such as training, intelligence, and staffing. Combined with the Bloom's Taxonomy, the systems approach to instructional and organizational development allowed planners and policy-makers to match the content and delivery of instruction in a fashion which considered both super- and sub-systems (the organization as a whole, as well as

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groups and individuals within the organization). These advances of Skinner, Bloom and von Bertalanffy were usually employed to develop instruction in what was only assumed to be an effective an efficient manner. The formalization of a standardized design process still had yet to be devised.

Again it was a crisis that spurred the next evolution of instructional technology – a shift away from an emphasis in the development of instructional programs to one which focused on the design of entire curriculum. Again the crisis was a war, but this time the war was a political one. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the Sputnik satellite and began the "space race". America was taken by surprise and the government was forced to reevaluate the education system and its shortcomings. Science and math programs were the first to be targeted, and the government employed experts in these fields to bring the content up to date.

In 1962 Robert Glaser synthesized the work of previous researchers and introduced the concept of "instructional design", submitting a model which links learner analysis to the design and development of instruction. Interestingly, Glaser's contribution to the current field of instructional systems is not so much in the advancement of his model, but in work concerning Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI), an approach whereby the results of a learner's placement test are used to plan learner-specific instruction.

At the same time Glaser was developing his theories of instructional design and IPI, Robert Mager published his treatise on the construction of performance objectives. Mager suggested that an objective should describe in measurable terms who an objective targets, the behavior they will have exhibited, the conditions or limitations under which they must carry out this behavior, and the criteria against which their behavior will be gauged.

As early as 1962 when he published "Military Training and Principles of Learning" Robert Gagné demonstrated a concern for the different levels of learning. His differentiation of psychomotor skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and attitudes provides a companion to Bloom's six cognitive domains of learning. Later, Gagné extended his thinking to include nine instructional events that detail the conditions necessary for learning to occur. These events have long since been used for the basis for the design of instruction and the selection of appropriate media.

The mediation of instruction entered the computer age in the 1960's when Patrick Suppes conducted his initial investigations into computer-assisted instruction (CAI) at Stanford University. Developed through a systematic analysis of curriculum, Suppes' CAI provided learner feedback, branching, and response tracking – aspects were later incorporated into the PLATO system in the 1970's and continue guide the development of today's instructional software.

By the late 1960's America was again in crisis. Not only was the country involved in another war, but the nation's schools were unable to elicit the achievement from learners it anticipated. Grant Venn argued that since only 19% of first graders complete a bachelor or arts degree, that the current educational system is only serving the advantaged minority of schoolchildren. To counter this trend Robert Morgan proposed to conduct an experiment with an "organic curriculum" which would to incorporate into the educational system the best instructional practices identified through research. Accepted in 1967 the proposal by the US Office of Education, the project was dubbed "Educational Systems for the 1970's", or ES'70. Morgan engaged an array of experts in the field of

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learning, cognition, and instructional design to contribute to the project and carried out multiple experiments in a variety of settings. Of these was Leslie Briggs, who had demonstrated that an instructionally designed course could yield up to 2:1 increase over conventionally designed courses in terms of achievement, reduction in variance, and reduction of time-to-completion – this effect was four times that of the control group which received no training. In 1970, Morgan partnered with the Florida Research and Development Advisory Board to conduct a nation-wide educational reform project in South Korea. Faced with the task of increasing the achievement of learners while at the same time reducing the cost of schooling from $41.27 per student per year Morgan applied some of the same techniques as had been piloted in the ES'70 project and achieved striking results: an increase in student achievement, a more efficient organization of instructors and course content, an increased teacher to student ratio, a reduction in salary cost, and a reduction in yearly per student cost by $9.80.

Around this time Roger Kaufman developed a problem-solving framework for educational strategic planning which provided practitioners a means by which to demonstrate value-added not only for the learner, but the school system and society as a whole. This framework provided the basis for the Organizational Elements Model (OEM), a needs assessment model which specifies results to be achieved at societal, organizational, and individual performance levels. By rigorously defining needs as gaps in results Kaufman emphasized that performance improvement interventions can not demonstrate return-on-investment unless those interventions were derived from the requirements of these three primary clients and beneficiaries of organizational action. This approach to needs assessment and strategic planning has since been used across the world as the foundation for planning, evaluation, and continuous improvement in military, business, and educational settings.

A variety of models for instructional system design proliferated the late 1970's and early 80's: Gagné and Briggs, Branson, Dick and Carey, and Atkins, to name a few. One possible reason for this phenomenon deals with the establishment of formal education and training departments within both public and private organizations. Faced with the computerized technologies of the times, these organizations require a means by which to quickly develop appropriate methods by which to educate internal employees in the new business practices ushered into existence by the Information Age. Another explanation is that businesses, especially consulting organizations, are becoming increasingly required to demonstrate value-added not only to their organization, but to the clients they serve. The evaluation and continuous improvement components of contemporary models of ISD make far strides from the early develop-and-implement models of the middle of the century in this aspect.

In the 1990's a dual focus on technology and performance improvement has developed. For example, in his 1988 essay "Why the Schools Can't Improve: The Upper Limit Hypothesis" Robert Branson offers an argument for systemic school reform, suggesting that schools are operating at near peak efficiency and must be redesigned from the top down using technological interventions. Later in that year Branson was contracted by the Florida Department of Education (DOE) to analyze it's various programs and plan a system-wide technology-based educational reform initiative for Florida called Schoolyear 2000. Over the next several years Branson's team developed and piloted multiple computerized instructional technologies, as well as models of the interaction between the internal operations of the school system and the experiences and knowledge of students, parents, and teachers.

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Developments in performance improvement outside ISD during the 1990's such as Quality Management (QM), Organizational Engineering, and Change Management have required that instructional designers look outside their profession to demonstrate the utility of their practice. Introduced earlier by Deming, QM has swept public and private organizations alike in the 90's. Whereas initially thought of in terms of "quality control" or "zero defects", quality practices have evolved into tools for organizational continuous improvement. Similarly, instructional designers in the 90's often work alongside authorities in the field of organizational engineering. Characterized by a concern for an organization's culture and interaction between groups, organizational engineering seeks to improve organizations through the identification of relationships between an organization's vision, mission, goals, methods and personnel. Similarly, change management has become a business in and of itself, with leaders such as Darly Conner and Joel Barker pioneering methods for and models of organizational change.

The advent of new media, such as the Internet and hypermedia, has brought about not only technological innovations, but also coupled these with new ways of approaching learning and instruction. As opposed to the behavioralist perspective that emphasizes learning objectives, the constructivist approach holds that learners construct their understanding of reality from interpretations of their experiences. Theorists such as Thomas Duffy and Seymour Papert suggest that constructivism provides a model whereby socio-cultural and cognitive issues regarding the design of learning environments can be supported by computer tools. This philosophy has been applied to such computerized technologies as online help systems and programming language LOGO.

In the future, instructional designers are likely to choose one of two paths: specialist or generalist. In the prior path, designers will focus on one aspect of learning or instruction and act as consultants or subject matter experts, whether internal or external to the organization. The other approach is one more aligned with managerial activities. Since the field is becoming too broad for most designers to work with authority in all matters, this option allows practitioners to oversee the development of instructional projects, rather than narrow their efforts exclusively on assessment, analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation or continuous improvement.

References

Boling, E. (1996). Instructional Technology Foundations I: Historical Timelines Project Page [Online]. Available: http://education.indiana.edu/~istcore/r511/datelist.html [1998, June 7].

Kearsley, G. (1994). Learning & Instruction: The TIP Database [Online]. Available: http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/1.htm [1998, June 7].

Reiser, R. A. (1987). Instructional Technology: A History. In R. M. Gagné (ed.), Instructional Technology: Foundations (pp. 11 - 40). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Shrock, S. A. (No date). A Brief History of Instructional Development [Online].Available: http://uttc-med.utb.edu/6320/chapters/summary_ch2.html [1998, June 7].

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4.3. Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory

A) Description

Although Gagne’s theoretical framework covers many aspects of learning, "the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills" (Kearsley, 1994a). Gagne’s theory is very prescriptive. In its original formulation, special attention was given to military training (Gagne 1962, as cited in Kearsley, 1994a).

In this theory, five major types of learning levels are identified:

• verbal information • intellectual skills • cognitive strategies • motor skills • attitudes

The importance behind the above system of classification is that each learning level requires "different internal and external conditions" (Kearsley 1994a) i.e., each learning level requires different types of instruction. Kearsley provides the following example:

for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagne also contends that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity:

• stimulus recognition • response generation • procedure following • use of terminology • discriminations • concept formation • rule application • problem solving

The primary significance of this hierarchy is to provide direction for instructors so that they can "identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level" (Kearsley 1994a). This learning hierarchy also provides a basis for sequencing instruction. Gagne outlines the following nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes (as cited in Kearsley 1994a):

gaining attention (reception) informing learners of the objective (expectancy) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)

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providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) eliciting performance (responding) providing feedback (reinforcement) assessing performance (retrieval) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

B) Practical Application

Gagne’s nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes can serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992, as cited in Kearsley 1994a). In applying these instructional events, Kearsley (1994a) suggests keeping the following principles in mind:

• Learning hierarchies define a sequence of instruction. • Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned. • Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

EXAMPLE

The following example applies Gagne's nine instructional events:

• Instructional Objective: Recognize an equilateral triangle (example from Kearsley 1994a).

• Methodology:

Gain attention - show a variety of computer generated triangles Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?" Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle Guide learning - show example of how to create equilateral Elicit performance - ask students to create 5 different examples Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect Assess performance - provide scores and remediation Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilateral triangles.

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

• Provide a variety of learning activities. Instructional designers should anticipate and accommodate alternate learning styles by "systematically varying teaching and assessment methods to reach every student" (Sternberg 1994, as cited in Ross-Gordon 1998, 227). They should also provide alternate offline materials and activities, as well as, present "alternate points of view and interpretations" (Fahy 1999, 237) so that the learner is free to "[criss-cross] the intellectual landscape of the content domain by looking at it from multiple perspectives or through multiple themes" (Jonassen et al., 1997, 122).

• Use Bloom’s "Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for the Cognitive Domain" to increase retention. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for the Cognitive

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Domain (1956, as cited in Fahy 1999, 42-43) is similar to Gagne’s hierarchy of intellectual skills. Bloom outlines the following cognitive activities organized from least to greater complexity:

- knowledge- comprehension- application- analysis- synthesis- evaluation (making judgements)

In the following example, Bloom’s taxonomy is used to illustrate different objectives related to learning objectives for studying nails (Fahy 1999, 43):

Knowledge – Know enough about nails to be able to explain what they are and what they are used for. Be able to recognize a nail as a fastening device from a non-fastening devices.

Comprehension – Be able to identify a nail and distinguish it from other fastening devices.

Application – Be able to use a nail to fasten something competently, and actually do so.

Analysis – Be able to determine what kind of nail and nailing technique would be required for most effective use of the device for a specific purpose.

Synthesis – Be able to compare nails to other fastening devices, and to compare various types of nails and nailing techniques for their specific qualities and characteristics in specific situations.

Evaluation – Be able to assess examples of the use of nails for fastening, and different nailing techniques, and to pass judgement as to which were more effective, more artistic, more secure, more skillful, more workman like, etc.

4.4. Carroll’s Minimalist Theory

A) Description

The Minimalist theory of J.M. Carroll focuses on the instructional design of training materials for computer users and has been "extensively applied to the design of computer documentation" (e.g., Nowaczyk & James, 1993, van der Meij, & Carroll, 1995, as cited in Kearsley 1994d). It is based upon studies of people learning a wide range of computer applications including word processors and databases.

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As Kearsley (1994d) explains, this theory suggests that:

All learning activities should be meaningful and self-contained. Activities should exploit the learner's prior experience and knowledge. Learners should be given realistic projects as quickly as possible. Instruction should permit self-directed reasoning and improvising. Training materials and activities should provide for error recognition and use errors as learning opportunities. There should be a close linkage between training and the actual system because "new users are always learning computer methods in the context of specific preexisting goals and expectations" (Carroll 1990, as cited in Kearsley 1994d).

The critical idea behind Carroll's Minimalist theory is that course designers must "minimize the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning and focus the design on activities that support learner-directed activity and accomplishment" (Kearsley 1994d).

B) Practical Application

In applying Carroll’s Minimalist theory, Kearsley (1994d) recommends the following:

• Allow learners to start immediately on meaningful tasks. • Minimize the amount of reading and other passive forms of training by allowing users to

fill in the gaps themselves • Include error recognition and recovery activities in the instruction • Make all learning activities self-contained and independent of sequence.

EXAMPLE 1

The following is an example of a guided exploration approach to learning how to use a word processor (Carroll 1990, chapter 5, as cited in Kearsley 1994d).

Applying the principles of Carroll's Minimalist theory, a 94-page training manual is replaced by 25 cards. Each card is self contained and includes a meaningful task and error recognition information. The cards do not provide complete step-by-step specifications but only key ideas or hints about what to do. Kearsley reports that "in an experiment that compared the use of the cards versus the manual, users learned the task in about half the time with the cards."

EXAMPLE 2

The following example illustrates the redesign of a Web page using Carroll’s Minimalist theory and other related web design strategies:

Problem: Below is a screen shot of The WINDeX Search Engine located at http://windex.daci.net. This site allows software developers to submit shareware and freeware to be stored in their database. This page however has four serious design flaws: (a) the banners occupy too much valuable space at the top of the screen; (b) "The Windex Index" image banner runs a lake ripple Java applet which is highly distracting; (c) the lake ripple Java applet significantly increases the time it takes to download the page; (d) the

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white text on a blue background is difficult to read, especially considering that the site uses four colors for text: red, blue, white and black

Solution: (a) Carroll advises that learners should be allowed to start right away on meaningful tasks. Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that in web-design, important information should be kept on the top of the page. Considering this advice, to improve this web page, the banners should be designed to occupy less space and the user input forms should be moved up higher so users don't have to scroll as much. (b) (c) (d) Carroll advises that web-design should minimize the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning. Gillani & Relan (1997) advise that frames should be kept simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics and sound to limit cognitive overload. Similarly, Guay (1995, as cited in Fahy 1999) advises that Web pages should reduce clutter and download in 30 seconds or less with a 14.4 modem. Considering this advice, to improve the design of this web page, the Java applet should be removed as it greatly increases the time to download the entire page without adding to its usability. Furthermore, the ripple effect distracts from the content of the site and is just plain "annoying." Content that is not essential, such as the "redesign notice" should also be removed or shrunk in size. Furthermore, the range of text colors should be reduced and a more suitable background chosen to improve readability.

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

• Keep important information at the top of the page. When learners come to a page, they immediately scan for interesting and important information. Good web-design demands that you give your learners the information they want right away and in a hurry. Large graphics at the top of a page may be aesthetically pleasing, but take up too much of the immediate viewable space to be considered instructionally useful (Jones and Farquhar 1997).

• Keep frames simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics and sound to limit cognitive overload. Guay advises that "cognitive bandwidth should be minimized to ensure users easily and accurately grasp the message" (as cited in Fahy 1999, 191). He also recommends that graphics and other enhancements should "never obscure the central message of the page" (p. 191). Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that background to a display should not compete with or obscure the text. Simiarly Gillani & Relan 1997, 236 maintain that "simplicity and consistency eliminates cognitive overload." Thus, multimedia components should be used "to reinforce rather than distract from learning."

• Keep pages short so learners don’t have to scroll. Research on the Web suggests that "users do not like to scroll" (Nielsen 1996, as cited in Jones & Farquhar 1997, 243). Guay (1995, as cited in Fahy 1999, 191) agrees with this and advises that "each page should fit on the screen without scrolling." West (1998, as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) similarly advises that "the requirement for the user to scroll down in Web-based documents should be kept to a minimum, as many users will not scroll more than 3 times before abandoning a site." West also estimates that readers give only between 7 and 15 seconds to assess the probable usefulness of a site before leaving it. It should be noted that "the problem with making pages short is that people may choose to print out certain pieces of information, or download the entire contents of a group of pages. This [problem can be solved] by combining all of the pages into a single document that is labeled as such" (Jones and

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Farquar, 1997, 243). A print button can be provided so that users can eaisly print longer material for off-screen reading.

• Keep pages uncluttered by extracting unnecessary elements. Broadbents’ theory of single-channel processing states that "humans are capable of processing information through only one channel at a time and that it is not possible to process two channels simultaneously"(Hsia 1968, as cited in Szabo 1998, 32). If this were to happen, audio and visual stimuli would arrive at the central nervous system simultaneously, causing the information to jam, and lead to poorer retention of material (Broadbent 1958, as cited in Szabo 1998, 32). Guay (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) recommends that "each page should be uncluttered, readable, and balanced."

• Pages should download in 30 seconds or less with 14.4 modem. Guay advises that "physical bandwidth should be minimized to ensure acceptable access and response times" (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 191). Special consideration should be given to logos, banners, .pdf files, audio, and video to make sure that these files do not slow down the site too much. Guay also suggests that tagging graphics (in HTML) with vertical and horizontal size can speed download. Commercial graphics tools such as Adobe ImageReady 2.0 can also reduce graphics size by among other things reducing the color pallet.

• Screen excess information. Good design, as Carroll recommends, must reduce excess information and allow learners to fill in the gaps. In support of this, Dede (1996, 13) maintains that the curriculum is "overcrowded with low-level information" and as a result, "teachers [must] frantically race through required material, helping students memorize factual data to be regurgitated on mandated, standardized tests." Dede also advises that "the core skill for today’s workplace is not foraging for date, but filtering a plethora of incoming information." He adds that as we increasingly are required to dive into a sea of information we must master the ability to immerse ourselves in data "to harvest patterns of knowledge just as fish extract oxygen from water via their gills" (p. 6).

• Structure materials as topical modules. This "simplifies selective reuse of course materials" (Butler 1997, 422).

• Strive for quality not quantity. Rockley (1997, as cited in Fahy 1999, 196-197) gives the following advice for the planning and management of Web-based resources:

Design small. Make what you have effective, then add to it. Don’t attempt to do everything at once. Keep effects simple. Assure effects ADD to the message/content. Map out the whole site. Both for development and maintenance. Plan for growth. Anticipate and direct it. Get feedback from users. And pay attention to it. Test any outside links regularly. Don’t’ link to sites which do not appear to be will maintained or stable. Give only one person edit privileges. Only one person should have site maintenance responsibilities. Don’t post any part of a site while it is still under construction. Everything on your site should work now. Instead of "under construction, put up announcements of the expected availability of "coming" or "new" features.

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4.5. Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains

The Three Types of Learning

There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom (1956), identified three domains of educational activities:

• Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)

• Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)

• Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers often refer to these three categories as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as “the goals of the learning process.” That is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes.

The committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective domains, but none for the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the college level (I guess they never thought to check with their sports or drama departments).

This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.

Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next ones can take place.

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Knowledge: Recall data or information.

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from

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memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules.

Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.

Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and

interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own

words.

Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an

equation into a computer spreadsheet.

Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends,

generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes,

translates.

Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an

abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations

in the work place.

Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics

to evaluate the reliability of a written test.

Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces,

relates, shows, solves, uses.

Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that

its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between

facts and inferences.

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical

fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for

training.

Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates,

discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.

Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with

emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.

Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several

sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome.

Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains,

generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises,

rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.

Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and

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justify a new budget.

Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes,

discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Affective Domain

The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:


Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.

Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly

introduced people.

Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points

to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.

Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the

learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning

outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or

satisfaction in responding (motivation).

Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals,

concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and

practices them.

Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels,

performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.

Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object,

phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more

complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these

values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable.

Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value

diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social

improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters

that one feels strongly about.

Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms,

initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.

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Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values,

resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. The

emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.

Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible

behavior. Accepts responsibility for one's behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts

professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and

beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self.

Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends,

explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes,

prepares, relates, synthesizes.

Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive,

consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the

learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general

patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).

Examples: Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group

activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving.

Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments

and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they

look.

Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs,

practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.

Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:


Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection,

to translation.

Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving

to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature

by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where

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the forks are in relation to the pallet.

Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies,

isolates, relates, selects.

Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations

(sometimes called mindsets).

Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process.

Recognize one's abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process

(motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the

“Responding to phenomena” subdivision of the Affective domain.

Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states,

volunteers.

Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes

imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.

Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows

instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to

operate a forklift.

Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds

Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned

responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some

confidence and proficiency.

Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car.

Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,

fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.

Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve

complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly

coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes

performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example,

players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit

a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the

result will produce.

Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer

quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano.

Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,

fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.

NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or

adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.

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Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.

Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies

instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not

originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in

performing the new task).

Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.

Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes

emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.

Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training

programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine.

Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs,

initiate, makes, originates.

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4.6. Instructional Design & Learning Theory

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Brenda Mergel

Educational Communications and TechnologyUniversity of Saskatchewan

May, 1998

Introduction:

To students of instructional design the introduction and subsequent "sorting out" of the various learning theories and associated instructional design strategies can be somewhat confusing. It was out of this feeling of cognitive dissonance that this site was born.

Why does it seem so difficult to differentiate between three basic theories of learning? Why do the names of theorists appear connected to more than one theory? Why do the terms and strategies of each theory overlap?

The need for answers to these questions sparked my investigation into the available literature on learning theories and their implications for instructional design. I found many articles and internet sites that dealt with learning theory and ID, in fact, it was difficult to know when and where to draw the line. When I stopped finding new information, and the articles were reaffirming what I had already read, I began to write.

The writing process was a learning experience for me and now that I have finished, I want to start over and make it even better, because I know more now than I did when I began. Every time I reread an article, there were ideas and lists that I would wish to add to my writing. Perhaps in further development of this site I will change and refine my presentation.

Reading about the development of learning theories and their connection to instructional design evoked, for me, many parallels with the development of other theories in sciences. I have included some of those thoughts as asides within the main body of text.

Besides behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism one could discuss such topics as connoisseurship, semiotics, and contextualism, but I decided that a clear understanding of the basic learning theories would be best. The main sections of this site are as follows:

What are Theories and Models? The Basics of the Learning Theories 1. The Basics of Behaviorism 2. The Basics of Cognitivism 3. The Basics of Constructivism The History of Learning Theories in Instructional Design 1. Behaviorism and Instructional Design 2. Cognitivism and Instructional Design 3. Constructivism and Instructional Design Comparing The Development of Learning Theories to the Development of the Atomic Theory

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mailto:[email protected]

Learning Theories and the Practice of Instructional Design Learning Theories - Some Strengths and Weaknesses Is There One Best Learning Theory for Instructional Design? Conclusion References and Bibliography

What are Theories and Models?

• What is a theory? 1. A theory provides a general explanation for observations made over time. 2. A theory explains and predicts behavior. 3. A theory can never be established beyond all doubt. 4. A theory may be modified. 5. Theories seldom have to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested but sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long time and later disproved.

(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)

• What is a model? 1. A model is a mental picture that helps us understand something we cannot see or experience directly.


Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism - The Basics

Behaviorism: Based on observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.

Cognitivism: Based on the thought process behind the behavior. Changes in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner's mind.

Constructivism: Based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema. Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in ambiguous situations.

(Schuman, 1996)

The Basics of Behaviorism

Behaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle, whose essay "Memory" focused on associations being made between events such as lightning and thunder. Other philosophers that

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followed Aristotle's thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820), Bain (1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995).

The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). It views the mind as a "black box" in the sense that response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Some key players in the development of the behaviorist theory were Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

Thorndike (1874 - 1949)

Edward Thorndike did research in animal behavior before becoming interested in human psychology. He set out to apply "the methods of exact science" to educational problems by emphasizing "accurate quantitative treatment of information". "Anything that exists, exists in a certain quantity and can be measured" (Johcich, as cited in Rizo, 1991). His theory, Connectionism, stated that learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response.

The "law of effect" stated that when a connection between a stimulus and response is positively rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened. Thorndike later revised this "law" when he found that negative reward, (punishment) did not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.The "law of exercise" held that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.The "law of readiness" : because of the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units, in a given situation, are more predisposed to conduct than others.

Thorndike's laws were based on the stimulus-response hypothesis. He believed that a neural bond would be established between the stimulus and response when the response was positive. Learning takes place when the bonds are formed into patterns of behavior (Saettler, 1990).

Watson (1878 - 1958)

John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to use Pavlov's ideas. Like Thorndike, he was originally involved in animal research, but later became involved in the study of human behavior.

Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is established through stimulus-response associations through conditioning.

Watson's Experiment

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Watson demonstrated classical conditioning in an experiment involving a young child (Albert) and a white rat. Originally, Albert was unafraid of the rat; but Watson created a sudden loud noise whenever Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. The fear was generalized to other small animals. Watson then "extinguished" the fear by presenting the rat without the loud noise. Some accounts of the study suggest that the conditioned fear was more powerful and permanent than it really was. (Harris, 1979; Samelson, 1980, in Brophy, 1990)

Certainly Watson's research methods would be questioned today; however, his work did demonstrate the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may explain certain fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop.

(Watson is credited with coining the term "behaviorism")

Skinner (1904 - 1990)

Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory dealt with changes in observable behavior, ignoring the possibility of any processes occurring in the mind. Skinner's 1948 book, Walden Two , is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote,Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law, religion, economics and education (Dembo, 1994).

Skinner's work differs from that of his predecessors (classical conditioning), in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment).

Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Skinner's Operant Conditioning Mechanisms

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Positive Reinforcement or reward: Responses that are rewarded are likely to be repeated. (Good grades reinforce careful study.)

Negative Reinforcement: Responses that allow escape from painful or undesirable situations are likely to be repeated. (Being excused from writing a final because of good term work.)

Extinction or Non-Reinforcement : Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. (Ignoring student misbehavior should extinguish that behavior.)

Punishment: Responses that bring painful or undesirable consequences will be suppressed, but may reappear if reinforcement contingencies change. (Penalizing late students by withdrawing privileges should stop their lateness.)

(Good & Brophy, 1990)

Skinner and Behavioral Shaping

If placed in a cage an animal may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and finally for pawing the lever.

Behavioral chaining occurs when a succession of steps need to be learned. The animal would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned.

Reinforcement Schedules

Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules.

• Fixed Interval Schedules: the target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.

• Variable Interval Schedules: similar to fixed interval schedules, but the amount of time that must pass between reinforcement varies.

• Fixed Ratio Schedules: a fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement mayrecur.

• Variable Ratio Schedules: the number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement varies.

Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that they will eventually succeed.

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The Basics of Cognitivism

As early as the 1920's people began to find limitations in the behaviorist approach to understanding learning. Edward Tolman found that rats used in an experiment appeared to have a mental map of the maze he was using. When he closed off a certain portion of the maze, the rats did not bother to try a certain path because they "knew" that it led to the blocked path. Visually, the rats could not see that the path would result in failure, yet they chose to take a longer route that they knew would be successful (Operant Conditioning [On-line]).

Behaviorists were unable to explain certain social behaviors. For example, children do not imitate all behavior that has been reinforced. Furthermore, they may model new behavior days or weeks after their first initial observation without having been reinforced for the behavior. Because of these observations, Bandura and Walters departed from the traditional operant conditioning explanation that the child must perform and receive reinforcement before being able to learn. They stated in their 1963 book, Social Learning and Personality Development, that an individual could model behavior by observing the behavior of another person. This theory lead to Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (Dembo, 1994).

What is Cognitivism?

"Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a motivator. However, even while accepting such behavioristic concepts, cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information." (Good and Brophy, 1990, pp. 187).

As with behaviorism, cognitive psychology can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, Plato and Aristotle. The cognitive revolution became evident in American psychology during the 1950's (Saettler, 1990). One of the major players in the development of cognitivism is Jean Piaget, who developed the major aspects of his theory as early as the 1920's. Piaget's ideas did not impact North America until the 1960's after Miller and Bruner founded the Harvard Center for Cognitive studies.

Key Concepts of Cognitive Theory

Schema - An internal knowledge structure. New information is compared to existing cognitive structures called "schema". Schema may be combined, extended or altered to accommodate new information.Three-Stage Information Processing Model - input first enters a sensory register, then is processed in short-term memory, and then is transferred to long-term memory for storage and retrieval.Sensory Register - receives input from senses which lasts from less than a second to four seconds and then disappears through decay or replacement. Much of the information never reaches short term memory but all information is monitored at some level and acted upon if necessary.Short-Term Memory (STM) - sensory input that is important or interesting is transferred from the sensory register to the STM. Memory can be retained here for up to 20 seconds or more if rehearsed repeatedly. Short-term memory can hold up to 7 plus or minus 2 items. STM capacity can be increased if material is chunked into meaningful parts.

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Long-Term Memory and Storage (LTM) - stores information from STM for long term use. Long-term memory has unlimited capacity. Some materials are "forced" into LTM by rote memorization and over learning. Deeper levels of processing such as generating linkages between old and new information are much better for successful retention of material.Meaningful Effects - Meaningful information is easier to learn and remember. (Cofer, 1971, in Good and Brophy, 1990) If a learner links relatively meaningless information with prior schema it will be easier to retain. (Wittrock, Marks, & Doctorow, 1975, in Good and Brophy, 1990)Serial Position Effects - It is easier to remember items from the beginning or end of a list rather than those in the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly different.Practice Effects - Practicing or rehearsing improves retention especially when it is distributed practice. By distributing practices the learner associates the material with many different contexts rather than the one context afforded by mass practice.Transfer Effects- The effects of prior learning on learning new tasks or material.Interference Effects - Occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning of new material.Organization Effects - When a learner categorizes input such as a grocery list, it is easier to remember.Levels of Processing Effects - Words may be processed at a low-level sensory analysis of their physical characteristics to high-level semantic analysis of their meaning. (Craik and Lockhart, 1972, in Good and Brophy, 1990) The more deeply a word is process the easier it will be to remember.State Dependent Effects - If learning takes place within a certain context it will be easier to remember within that context rather than in a new context.Mnemonic Effects - Mnemonics are strategies used by learners to organize relatively meaningless input into more meaningful images or semantic contexts. For example, the notes of a musical scale can be remembered by the rhyme: Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit.Schema Effects - If information does not fit a person's schema it may be more difficult for them to remember and what they remember or how they conceive of it may also be affected by their prior schema.Advance Organizers - Ausebels advance organizers prepare the learner for the material they are about to learn. They are not simply outlines of the material, but are material that will enable the student to make sense out of the lesson.

The Basics of Constructivism

Bartlett (1932) pioneered what became the constructivist approach (Good & Brophy, 1990). Constructivists believe that "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events." "What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind." (Jonasson, 1991).

If each person has their own view about reality, then how can we as a society communicate and/or coexist? Jonassen, addressing this issue in his article Thinking Technology: Toward a Constructivist Design Model, makes the following comments:

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• "Perhaps the most common misconception of constructivism is the inference that we each therefore construct a unique reality, that reality is only in the mind of the knower, which will doubtlessly lead to intellectual anarchy."

• "A reasonable response to that criticism is the Gibsonian perspective that contends that there exists a physical world that is subject to physical laws that we all know in pretty much the same way because those physical laws are perceivable by humans in pretty much the same way."

• "Constructivists also believe that much of reality is shared through a process of social negotiation..."

If one searches through the many philosophical and psychological theories of the past, the threads of constructivism may be found in the writing of such people as Bruner, Ulrick, Neiser, Goodman, Kant, Kuhn, Dewey and Habermas. The most profound influence was Jean Piaget's work which was interpreted and extended by von Glasserfield (Smorgansbord, 1997).

Realistic vs. Radical Construction

Realistic constructivism - cognition is the process by which learners eventually construct mental structures that correspond to or match external structures located in the environment.

Radical constructivism - cognition serves to organize the learners experiential world rather than to discover ontological reality

(Cobb, 1996, in Smorgansbord, 1997).

The Assumptions of Constructivism - Merrill

knowledge is constructed from experiencelearning is a personal interpretation of the worldlearning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experienceconceptual growth comes from the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of multiple perspectives and the changing of our internal representations through collaborative learninglearning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not a separate activity

(Merrill, 1991, in Smorgansbord, 1997)

It Boggles the Mind!

If you are reading about learning theories, you may notice that it is difficult to pin down what theory a certain theorist belongs to. This can confuse you, since, just as you think you have it cased, a name you originally thought was in the behavioral category shows up in a constructivism article.

This problem is often the result of theorists and their ideas evolving over time and changes they make to their original ideas. Davidson includes the following example in an article she

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wrote:

"Considered by most to be representative of [a] behaviourist learning paradigm, Gagne's theory of learning and events of instruction have evolved progressively to approach a more cognitive theory. His discussion of relating present information and past knowledge (event #3) and the inclusion of learning transfer (event#9) are indicative of this shift toward constructivism." (Davidson, 1998)

Okay? Okay. :-)

Comparing The Development of Learning Theories to the Development of the Atomic Theory

Atomic Theory

Since the beginning of history, people have theorized about the nature of matter. The ancient Greeks thought that matter was composed of fire, water, earth and air. Another view, the continuous theory, was that matter could be infinitely subdivided into smaller and smaller pieces without change. The Greek philosophers, Democritis and Lucippus, came up with the idea that matter made up of particles so small that they cannot be divided into anything smaller. They called their particles "atomos", which is the Greek word for "indivisible". It wasn't until the 18th century that anyone could prove one theory was better than another. John Dalton in 1803, with his law of multiple proportions, proposed a theory of matter based on the existence of atoms. The rest is history:

1803 Dalton's Atomic Theory.1870 Crookes finds the first evidence of electrons.1890's J.J. Thompson realized cathode rays are negative particles (electrons).1909 Rutherford discovered alpha particles and said that atoms consist of small positively charged particles surrounded by mostly empty space where electrons moved around.1913 Niels Bohr develops a new model of the atom with electron energy levels or orbits.1930's and 1940's The atom had a positive nucleus with an electron charge cloud. This theory was referred to as the orbital model and the quantum-mechanical model.


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Learning Theory

Given that we will most likely never "see" an atom, we will never "see" learning either. Therefore our learning models are mental pictures that enable us to understand that which we will never see. Does the development of learning theory follow a similar pattern as the atomic theory?

It seems that learning theories, like the study of matter can be traced back to the ancient Greeks. In the 18th century, with the onset of scientific inquiry, people began in ernest to study and develop models of learning. The behaviorist learning theory centered around that which was observable, not considering that there was anything occurring inside the mind. Behaviorism can be compared to Dalton's atom, which was simply a particle. Using overt behavior as a starting point, people began to realize that there is something happening inside the organism that should be considered, since it seemed to affect the overt behavior. Similarly, in physical science, people such as Crookes, Thompson, Rutherford and Bohr realized that there was something occurring within the atom causing its behavior. Thus the cognitive model of learning was born. Soon, however, theorists realized that the "atom" is not stable, it is not so "cut and dried". Enter the constructivist learning theory which tells us that each organism is constantly in flux, and although the old models work to a certain degree, other factors most also be considered. Could the constructivist approach be considered to be the quantum theory of learning?

The quantum theory builds upon the previous atomic theories. Constructivism builds upon behaviorism and cognitivism in the sense that it accepts multiple perspectives and maintains that learning is a personal interpretation of the world. I believe that behavioral strategies can be part of a constructivist learning situation, if that learner choses and finds that type of learning suitable to their experiences and learning style. Cognitive approaches have a place in constructivism also, since constructivism recognises the concept of schema and building upon prior knowledge and experience. Perhaps the greatest difference is that of evaluation. In behaviorism and cognitivism, evaluation is based on meeting specific objectives, whereas in constructivism, evaluation is much more subjective. Of course, what if I, as a learner, negotiate my evaluation and wish to include objective evaluation? Then isn't behavioral and cognitive strategy a part of constructivism?

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Perhaps the learning theory used depends upon the learning situation, just as the atomic theory used, depends upon the learning situation. The bohr atom is often used to introduce the concept of protons, neutrons and electrons to grade school students. Perhaps behaviorism is suitable to certain basic learning situations, whereas "quantum" constructivism is better suited to advanced learning situations.

A Biological Analogy to Learning Theory Classification

The classification of learning theories is somewhat analogous to the classification system designed by biologists to sort out living organisms. Like any attempt to define categories, to establish criteria, the world does not fit the scheme in all cases. Originally there was a plant kingdom and an animal kingdom, but eventually organisms that contained cholophyll and were mobile needed to be classified. The protist kingdom was established. The exact criteria for protists are still not established, but it is a classification that gives us a place for all of the organisms that don't fit neatly into either the plant or animal kingdoms.

To extend the analogy, biologists continued to modify the classification system as know knowledge and insights into existing knowledge were discovered. The advent of new technology such as the electron microscope enabled the addition of the monera kingdom. Recently, the distinctive features of fungi have brought about a proposal for a fifth kingdom, fungi. This development and adjustment of the taxonomy remins one of behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, postmodernism, contextualism, semiotics...

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The History of Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism

in Instructional Design

Behaviorism and Instructional Design

[This section on behaviorism is largely a synopsis of information from Paul Saettler's book, The History of American Educational Technology, (1990)].

In Paul Saettler's book The History of American Educational Technology, he states that behaviorism did not have an impact on educational technology until the 1960s, which was the time that behaviorism actually began to decrease in popularity in American psychology. Saettler identified six areas that demonstrate the impact of behaviorism on Educational Technology in America: the behavioral objectives movement; the teaching machine phase; the programmed instruction movement; individualized instructional approaches, computer-assisted learning and the systems approach to instruction.

Behavioral Objectives Movement:

A behavioral objective states learning objectives in "specified, quantifiable, terminal behaviors" (Saettler, pp. 288, 1990). Behavioral objectives can be summed up using the mnemonic device ABCD (Schwier, 1998).

Example: After having completed the unit the student will be able to answer correctly 90% of the questions on the posttest.

A - Audience - the student B - Behavior - answer correctly C - Condition - after having completed the unit, on a post test D - Degree - 90% correct

To develop behavioral objectives a learning task must be broken down through analysis into specific measurable tasks. The learning success may be measured by tests developed to measure each objective.

The advent of behavioral objectives can be traced back to the Elder Sophists of ancient Greece, Cicero, Herbart and Spencer, but Franklin Bobbitt developed the modern concept of behavioral objectives in the early 1900s (Saettler, 1990).

Taxonomic Analysis of Learning Behaviors

• Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - In 1956 Bloom and his colleagues began development of a taxonomy in the cognitive, attitudinal (affective) and psychomotor domains. Many people are familiar with Bloom's Cognitive taxonomy:

o knowledge o comprehension o application

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http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Systems%20Approach%20to%20Instruction

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Computer-Assisted%20Instruction

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Individualized%20Approaches%20to%20In

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Programmed%20Instruction

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Programmed%20Instruction

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Teaching%20Machines

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Behavioral%20Objectives%20Movement

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Constructivism

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Cognitivism

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Behaviorism

o analysis o synthesis o evaluation

• Gagne's Taxonomy of Learning - Robert Gagne developed his taxonomy of learning in 1972. Gagne's taxonomy was comprised of five categories:

o verbal information o intellectual skill o cognitive strategy o attitude o motor skill

Mastery Learning

Mastery learning was originally developed by Morrison in the 1930s. His formula for mastery was "Pretest, teach, test the result, adapt procedure, teach and test again to the point of actual learning." (Morrison, 1931, in Saettler, 1990). Mastery learning assumes that all students can master the materials presented in the lesson. Bloom further developed Morrison's plan, but mastery learning is more effective for the lower levels of learning on Bloom's taxonomy, and not appropriate for higher level learning (Saettler, 1990).

Military and Industrial Approach

For military and industrial training, "behavioral objectives were written descriptions of specific, terminal behaviors that were manifested in terms of observable, measurable behavior." (Saettler, 1990) Robert Mager wrote Preparing Instructional Objectives, in 1962 which prompted interest and use of behavioral objectives among educators. Gagne and Briggs who also had backgrounds in military and industrial psychology developed a set of instructions for writing objectives that is based on Mager's work.

Gagne's and Brigg's Model Action Object Situation Tools and Constraints Capability to be Learned

By the late 1960's most teachers were writing and using behavioral objectives. There were, of course, people who questioned the breaking down of subject material into small parts, believing that it would lead away from an understanding of the "whole" (Saettler, 1990).

Accountability Movement

A movement known as scientific management of industry arose in the early 1900s in response to political and economic factors of that time. Franklin Bobbitt proposed utilization of this system in education stressing that the standards and direction of education should stem from the consumer -

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society. Bobbitt's ideas exemplified the idea of accountability, competency-based education and performance-based education, which because of similar economic and political factors, experienced a revival in America during the late 1960s and 1970s (Saettler, 1990).

Teaching Machines and Programmed Instruction Movement

Although the elder Sophists, Comenius, Herbart and Montessori used the concept of programmed instruction in their repertoire, B.F. Skinner is the most current and probably best known advocate of teaching machines and programmed learning. Contributors to this movement include the following:

• Pressey - introduced a multiple-choice machine at the 1925 American Psychological Association meeting.

• Peterson - a former student of Pressey's who developed "chemosheets" in which the learner checked their answers with a chemical-dipped swab.

• W.W.II - devises called "phase checks", constructed in the 1940s and 1950s, taught and tested such skills and dissassembly-assembly of equipment.

• Crowder - designed a branched style of programming for the US Air force in the 1950s to train troubleshooters to find malfunctions in electronic equipment.

• Skinner - based on operant conditioning Skinner's teaching machine required the learner to complete or answer a question and then receive feedback on the correctness of the response. Skinner demonstrated his machine in 1954.

(Saettler, 1990)

Early Use of Programmed Instruction

After experimental use of programmed instruction in the 1920s and 1930s, B. F. Skinner and J.G. Holland first used programmed instruction in behavioral psychology courses at Harvard in the late 1950s. Use of programmed instruction appeared in elementary and secondary schools around the same time. Much of the programmed instruction in American schools was used with individuals or small groups of students and was more often used in junior high schools than senior or elementary schools (Saettler, 1990).

Early use of programmed instruction tended to concentrate on the development of hardware rather than course content. Concerned developers moved away from hardware development to programs based on analysis of learning and instruction based on learning theory. Despite these changes, programmed learning died out in the later part of the 1960s because it did not appear to live up to its original claims (Saettler, 1990).

Individualized Approaches to Instruction

Similar to programmed learning and teaching machines individualized instruction began in the early 1900s, and was revived in the 1960s. The Keller Plan, Individually Prescribed Instruction, Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs, and Individually Guided Education are all examples of individualized instruction in the U.S. (Saettler, 1990).

Keller Plan (1963)

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7. Developed by F.S. Keller, a colleague of Skinner, the Keller plan was used for university college classes.

8. Main features of Keller Plan 8.1. individually paced. 8.2. mastery learning. 8.3. lectures and demonstrations motivational rather than critical information. 8.4. use of proctors which permitted testing, immediate scoring, tutoring, personal-social aspect

of educational process.

(Saettler, 1990)

Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI) (1964)

4. Developed by Learning Research and Development Center of the University of Pitsburgh.5. Lasted into the 1970s when it lost funding and its use dwindled6. Main features of IPI:

6.1. prepared units. 6.2. behavioral objectives. 6.3. planned instructional sequences. 6.4. used for reading, math and science. 6.5. included pretest and posttest for each unit. 6.6. materials continually evaluated and upgraded to meet behavioral objectives.

(Saettler, 1990)

Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs (PLAN) (1967)

d) Headed by Jon C. Flanagan, PLAN was developed under sponsorship of American Institutes for Research (AIR), Westinghouse Learning Corporation and fourteen U.S. School districts.

e) Abandoned in late 1970s because of upgrading costs f) Main features of PLAN

1. schools selected items from about 6,000 behavioral objectives. 2. each instructional module took about two weeks instruction and were made up of approximately. five objectives. 3. mastery learning. 4. remedial learning plus retesting.

(Saettler, 1990)

Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)

Computer-assisted instruction was first used in education and training during the 1950s. Early work was done by IBM and such people as Gordon Pask, and O.M. Moore, but CAI grew rapidly in the 1960s when federal funding for research and development in education and industrial laboratories was implemented. The U.S. government wanted to determine the possible effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction, so they developed two competing companies, (Control Data Corporation and Mitre Corporation) who came up with the PLATO and TICCIT

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projects. Despite money and research, by the mid seventies it was apparent that CAI was not going to be the success that people had believed. Some of the reasons are:

• CAI had been oversold and could not deliver. • lack of support from certain sectors. • technical problems in implementation. • lack of quality software. • high cost.

Computer-assisted instruction was very much drill-and-practice - controlled by the program developer rather than the learner. Little branching of instruction was implemented although TICCIT did allow the learner to determine the sequence of instruction or to skip certain topics.

(Saettler, 1990)

Systems Approach to Instruction

The systems approach developed out of the 1950s and 1960s focus on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and the use of the computer in instruction. Most systems approaches are similar to computer flow charts with steps that the designer moves through during the development of instruction. Rooted in the military and business world, the systems approach involved setting goals and objectives, analyzing resources, devising a plan of action and continuous evaluation/modification of the program. (Saettler, 1990)

Cognitivism and Instructional Design

Although cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950s and began to take over as the dominant theory of learning, it wasn't until the late 1970s that cognitive science began to have its influence on instructional design. Cognitive science began a shift from behavioristic practices which emphasised external behavior, to a concern with the internal mental processes of the mind and how

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they could be utilized in promoting effective learning. The design models that had been developed in the behaviorist tradition were not simply tossed out, but instead the "task analysis" and "learner analysis" parts of the models were embellished. The new models addressed component processes of learning such as knowledge coding and representation, information storage and retrieval as well as the incorporation and integration of new knowledge with previous information (Saettler, 1990). Because Cognitivism and Behaviorism are both governed by an objective view of the nature of knowledge and what it means to know something, the transition from behavioral instructional design principles to those of a cognitive style was not entirely difficult. The goal of instruction remained the communication or transfer of knowledge to learners in the most efficient, effective manner possible (Bednar et al., in Anglin, 1995). For example, the breaking down of a task into small steps works for a behaviorist who is trying to find the most efficient and fail proof method of shaping a learner's behavior. The cognitive scientist would analyze a task, break it down into smaller steps or chunks and use that information to develop instruction that moves from simple to complex building on prior schema.

The influence of cognitive science in instructional design is evidenced by the use of advance organizers, mnemonic devices, metaphors, chunking into meaningful parts and the careful organization of instructional materials from simple to complex.

Cognitivism and Computer-Based Instruction

Computers process information in a similar fashion to how cognitive scientists believe humans process information: receive, store and retrieve. This analogy makes the possibility of programming a computer to "think" like a person conceivable, i.e.. artificial intelligence.

Artificial intelligence involve the computer working to supply appropriate responses to student input from the computer's data base. A trouble-shooting programs is one example of these programs. Below is a list of some programs and their intended use:

• SCHOLAR - teaches facts about South American geography in a Socratic method• PUFF - diagnoses medical patients for possible pulmonary disorders• MYCIN - diagnoses blood infections and prescribes possible treatment• DENDRAL - enables a chemist to make an accurate guess about the molecular structure of

an unknown compound• META-DENDRAL - makes up its own molecular fragmentation rules in an attempt to

explain sets of basic data• GUIDION - a derivative of the MYCIN program that gave a student information about a

case and compared their diagnosis with what MYCIN would suggest• SOPIE - helps engineers troubleshoot electronic equipment problems• BUGGY - allows teachers to diagnose causes for student mathematical errors• LOGO - designed to help children learn to program a computer• Davis' math programs for the PLATO system - to encourage mathematical development

through discovery

(Saettler, 1990)

Constructivism and Instructional Design

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The shift of instructional design from behaviorism to cognitivism was not as dramatic as the move into constructivism appears to be, since behaviorism and cognitivism are both objective in nature. Behaviorism and cognitivism both support the practice of analyzing a task and breaking it down into manageable chunks, establishing objectives, and measuring performance based on those objectives. Constructivism, on the other hand, promotes a more open-ended learning experience where the methods and results of learning are not easily measured and may not be the same for each learner.

While behaviorism and constructivism are very different theoretical perspectives, cognitivism shares some similarities with constructivism. An example of their compatibility is the fact that they share the analogy of comparing the processes of the mind to that of a computer. Consider the following statement by Perkins:

"...information processing models have spawned the computer model of the mind as an information processor. Constructivism has added that this information processor must be seen as not just shuffling data, but wielding it flexibly during learning -- making hypotheses, testing tentative interpretations, and so on." (Perkins, 1991, p.21 in Schwier, 1998 ).

Other examples of the link between cognitive theory and constructivism are:

• schema theory (Spiro, et al, 1991, in Schwier, 1998)• connectionism (Bereiter, 1991, in Schwier, 1998)• hypermedia (Tolhurst, 1992, in Schwier, 1998)• multimedia (Dede, 1992, in Schwier, 1998)

Despite these similarities between cognitivism and constructivism, the objective side of cognitivism supported the use of models to be used in the systems approach of instructional design. Constructivism is not compatible with the present systems approach to instructional design, as Jonassen points out :

"The conundrum that constructivism poses for instructional designers, however, is that if each individual is responsible for knowledge construction, how can we as designers determine and insure a common set of outcomes for leaning, as we have been taught to do?" (Jonasson, [On-line])

In the same article, Jonassen (Jonasson, [On-line]) lists the following implications of constructivism for instructional design:

"...purposeful knowledge construction may be facilitated by learning environments which:

Provide multiple representations of reality - avoid oversimplification of instruction by by representing the natural complexity of the worldPresent authentic tasks - contextualizeProvide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined instructional sequencesFoster reflective practice

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Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge constructionSupport collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition

"Although we believe that constructivism is not a prescriptive theory of instruction, it should be possible to provide more explicit guidelines on how to design learning environments that foster constructivist learning"

Jonassen points out that the difference between constructivist and objectivist, (behavioral and cognitive), instructional design is that objective design has a predetermined outcome and intervenes in the learning process to map a pre-determined concept of reality into the learner's mind, while constructivism maintains that because learning outcomes are not always predictable, instruction should foster, not control, learning. With this in mind, Jonassen looks at the commonalties among constructivist approaches to learning to suggest a "model" for designing constructivist learning environments.

"...a constructivist design process should be concerned with designing environments which support the construction of knowledge, which ..."

• Is Based on Internal Negotiation o a process of articulating mental models, using those models to explain, predict, and

infer, and reflecting on their utility (Piaget's accommodation, Norman and Rumelhart's tuning and restructuring.)

• Is Based on Social Negotiation o a process of sharing a reality with others using the same or similar processes to

those used in internal negotiation• Is Facilitated by Exploration of Real World Environments and Intervention of New

Environments o processes that are regulated by each individual's intentions, needs, and/or

expectations• Results in Mental Models and provides Meaningful, Authentic Contexts for Learning and

Using the Constructed Knowledge o should be supported by case-based problems which have been derived from and

situated in the real world with all of its uncertainty and complexity and based on authentic realife practice

• Requires an Understanding of its Own Thinking Process and Problem Solving Methods o problems in one context are different from problems in other contexts

• Modeled for Learners by Skilled Performers but Not Necessarily Expert Performers• Requires Collaboration Among Learners and With the Teacher

o the teacher is more of a coach or mentor than a purveyor of knowledge• Provides an Intellectual Toolkit to Facilitate an Internal Negotiation Necessary for

Building Mental Models

(Jonasson, [On-line])

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The technological advances of the 1980s and 1990s have enabled designers to move toward a more constructivist approach to design of instruction. One of the most useful tools for the constructivist designer is hypertext and hypermedia because it allows for a branched design rather than a linear format of instruction. Hyperlinks allow for learner control which is crucial to constructivist learning; however, there is some concerns over the novice learner becoming "lost" in a sea of hypermedia. To address this concern, Jonassen and McAlleese (Jonnassen & McAlleese, [On-line]) note that each phase of knowledge acquisition requires different types of learning and that initial knowledge acquisition is perhaps best served by classical instruction with predetermined learning outcomes, sequenced instructional interaction and criterion-referenced evaluation while the more advanced second phase of knowledge acquisition is more suited to a constructivist environment.

If a novice learner is unable to establish an "anchor" in a hypermedia environment they may wander aimlessly through hypermedia becoming completely disoriented. Reigeluth and Chung suggest a prescriptive system which advocates increased learner control. In this method, students have some background knowledge and have been given some instruction in developing their own metacognitive strategies and have some way to return along the path they have taken, should they become "lost". (Davidson, 1998)

Most literature on constructivist design suggests that learners should not simply be let loose in a hypermedia or hypertext environment, but that a mix of old and new (objective and constructive) instruction/learning design be implemented. Davidson's (1998) article, suggesting a criteria for hypermedia learning based on an "exploration of relevant learning theories", is an example of this method.

Having noted the eclectic nature of instructional design, it is only fair to point out that not all theorists advocate a "mix and match" strategy for instructional design. Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy and Perry wrote an article that challenges the eclectic nature if instructional systems design by pointing out that "...abstracting concepts and strategies from the theoretical position that spawned then strips them of their meaning." They question objectivist epistemology completely and have adopted what they consider a constructivist approach to instructional design. In the article they compare the traditional approaches of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation to that of a constructivist approach. (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy & Perry, 1995)

Learning Theories and the Practice of Instructional Design

What is the difference between the learning theories in terms of the practice of instructional design? Is one approach more easily achieved than another? To address this, one may consider that cognitive theory is the dominant theory in instructional design and many of the instructional strategies advocated and utilized by behaviorists are also used by cognitivists, but for different reasons. For example, behaviorists assess learners to determine a starting point for instruction, while cognitivists look at the learner to determine their predisposition to learning (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). With this in mind, the practice of instructional design can be viewed from a behaviorist/cognitivist approach as opposed to a constructivist approach.

When designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist stance, the designer analyzes the situation and sets a goal. Individual tasks are broken down and learning objectives are developed. Evaluation consists of determining whether the criteria for the objectives has been met. In this approach the designer

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decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner. The learning package is somewhat of a closed system, since although it may allow for some branching and remediation, the learner is still confined to the designer's "world".

To design from a constructivist approach requires that the designer produces a product that is much more facilitative in nature than prescriptive. The content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the learner and assessment is much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self-evaluation of the learner. The standard pencil-and-paper tests of mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes, early drafts, final products and journals. (Assessment [On-line])

Because of the divergent, subjective nature of constructive learning, it is easier for a designer to work from the systems, and thus the objective approach to instructional design. That is not to say that classical instructional design techniques are better than constructive design, but it is easier, less time consuming and most likely less expensive to design within a "closed system" rather than an "open" one. Perhaps there is some truth in the statement that "Constructivism is a 'learning theory', more than a 'teaching approach'." (Wilkinson, 1995)

Learning Theories - Some Strengths and Weaknesses

What are the perceived strengths and weaknesses of using certain theoretical approaches to instructional design?

Behaviorism

Weakness -the learner may find themselves in a situation where the stimulus for the correct response does not occur, therefore the learner cannot respond. - A worker who has been conditioned to respond to a certain cue at work stops production when an anomaly occurs because they do not understand the system.

Strength - the learner is focused on a clear goal and can respond automatically to the cues of that goal. - W.W.II pilots were conditioned to react to silhouettes of enemy planes, a response which one would hope became automatic.

Cognitivism

Weakness - the learner learns a way to accomplish a task, but it may not be the best way, or suited to the learner or the situation. For example, logging onto the internet on one computer may not be the same as logging in on another computer.

Strength - the goal is to train learners to do a task the same way to enable consistency. - Logging onto and off of a workplace computer is the same for all employees; it may be important do an exact routine to avoid problems.

Constructivism

Weakness - in a situation where conformity is essential divergent thinking and action may cause problems. Imagine the fun Revenue Canada would have if every person decided to report their

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taxes in their own way - although, there probably are some very "constructive" approaches used within the system we have.

Strength - because the learner is able to interpret multiple realities, the learner is better able to deal with real life situations. If a learner can problem solve, they may better apply their existing knowledge to a novel situation.

(Schuman, 1996)

Is There One Best Learning Theory for Instructional Design?

Why bother with Theory at all?

A solid foundation in learning theory is an essential element in the preparation of ISD professionals because it permeates all dimensions of ISD (Shiffman, 1995). Depending on the learners and situation, different learning theories may apply. The instructional designer must understand the strengths and weaknesses of each learning theory to optimize their use in appropriate instructional design strategy. Recipes contained in ID theories may have value for novice designers (Wilson, 1997), who lack the experience and expertise of veteran designers. Theories are useful because they open our eyes to other possibilities and ways of seeing the world. Whether we realize it or not, the best design decisions are most certainly based on our knowledge of learning theories.

An Eclectic Approach to Theory in Instructional Design

The function of ID is more of an application of theory, rather than a theory itself. Trying to tie Instructional Design to one particular theory is like school vs. the real world. What we learn in a school environment does not always match what is out there in the real world, just as the prescriptions of theory do not always apply in practice, (the real world). From a pragmatic point of view, instructional designers find what works and use it.

What Works and How Can We Use It?

Behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism - what works where and how do we knit everything together to at least give ourselves some focus in our approach to instructional design? First of all we do not need to abandon the systems approach but we must modify it to accommodate constructivist values. We must allow circumstances surrounding the learning situation to help us decide which approach to learning is most appropriate. It is necessary to realize that some learning problems require highly prescriptive solutions, whereas others are more suited to learner control of the environment. (Schwier, 1995)

Jonnassen in Manifesto for a Constructive Approach to Technology in Higher Education ([On-line]) identified the following types of learning and matched them with what he believes to be appropriate learning theory approaches.

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1. Introductory Learning - learners have very little directly transferable prior knowledge about a skill or content area. They are at the initial stages of schema assembly and integration. At this stage classical instructional design is most suitable because it is predetermined, constrained, sequential and criterion-referenced. The learner can develop some anchors for further exploration.

2. Advanced Knowledge Acquisition - follows introductory knowledge and precedes expert knowledge. At this point constructivist approaches may be introduced.

3. Expertise is the final stage of knowledge acquisition. In this stage the learner is able to make intelligent decisions within the learning environment. A constructivist approach would work well in this case.

Having pointed out the different levels of learning, Jonassen stresses that it is still important to consider the context before recommending any specific methodology.

Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory which organizes instruction in increasing order of complexity and moves from prerequisite learning to learner control may work in the eclectic approach to instructional design, since the learner can be introduced to the main concepts of a course and then move on to more of a self directed study that is meaningful to them and their particular context.

After having compared and contrasted behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism, Ertmer and Newby (1993) feel that the instructional approach used for novice learners may not be efficiently stimulating for a learner who is familiar with the content. They do not advocate one single learning theory, but stress that instructional strategy and content addressed depend on the level of the learners. Similar to Jonassen, they match learning theories with the content to be learned:

... a behavioral approach can effectively facilitate mastery of the content of a profession (knowing what); cognitive strategies are useful in teaching problem-solving tactics where defined facts and rules are applied in unfamiliar situations(knowing how); and constructivist strategies are especially suited to dealing withill-defined problems through reflection-in-action. (Ertmer P. & Newby, T., 1993) Behavioral ... tasks requiring a low degree of processing (e.g., basic paired associations,discriminations, rote memorization) seem to be facilitated by strategies mostfrequently associated with a behavioral outlook (e.g., stimulus-response, contiguityof feedback/reinforcement).

Cognitive Tasks requiring an increased level of processing (e.g., classifications, rule orprocedural executions) are primarily associated with strategieshaving a stronger cognitive emphasis (e.g., schematic organization, analogicalreasoning, algorithmic problem solving).

ConstructiveTasks demanding high levels of processing (e.g., heuristic problem solving,personal selection and monitoring of cognitive strategies) are frequently

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est learned with strategies advanced by the constructivist perspective (e.g.,situated learning, cognitive apprenticeships, social negotiation.

(Ertmer P. & Newby, T., 1993)

Ertmer and Newby (1993) believe that the strategies promoted by different learning theories overlap (the same strategy for a different reason) and that learning theory strategies are concentrated along different points of a continuum depending of the focus of the learning theory - the level of cognitive processing required.

Ertmer and Newby's suggestion that theoretical strategies can complement the learner's level of task knowledge, allows the designer to make the best use of all available practical applications of the different learning theories. With this approach the designer is able to draw from a large number of strategies to meet a variety of learning situations.

Conclusion

Upon completion of this site on learning theories and instructional design, I have not only accomplished my objective, but gained insight and appreciation for the different learning theories and their possible application to instructional design.

It was interesting for me to find that I am not alone in my perspective regarding learning theories and instructional design. There is a place for each theory within the practice of instructional design, depending upon the situation and environment. I especially favor the idea of using an objective approach to provide the learner with an "anchor" before they set sail on the open seas of knowledge. A basic understanding of the material in question provides the learner with a guiding compass for further travel.

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Another consideration is the distinction between "training" and "education". In today's competitive business world, the instructional designer may be required to establish and meet the objectives of that business. On the other hand, in a school setting, the designer may be challenged to provide material that fosters an individual to find divergent approaches to problem solving. Whichever situation the instructional designer finds themselves in, they will require a thorough understanding of learning theories to enable them to provide the appropriate learning environment.

Finally, though Instructional Design may have a behaviorist tradition, new insights to the learning process continue to replace, change and alter the process. Advancements in technology make branched constructivist approaches to learning possible. Whether designing for training or education, the instructional designer's toolbox contains an ever changing and increasing number of theoretical applications and physical possibilities. With intelligent application of learning theory strategies and technology, the modern designer will find solutions to the learning requirements of the 21st century.

4.7. Mastery Learning

(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Mastery Learning is an instructional method that presumes all children can learn if they are provided with the appropriate learning conditions. Specifically, mastery learning is a method whereby students are not advanced to a subsequent learning objective until they demonstrate proficiency with the current one.

Mastery learning curricula generally consist of discrete topics which all students begin together. Students who do not satisfactorily complete a topic are given additional instruction until they succeed. Students who master the topic early engage in enrichment activities until the entire class can progress together. Mastery learning includes many elements of successful tutoring and the independent functionality seen in high-end students. In a mastery learning environment, the teacher directs a variety of group-based instructional techniques, with frequent and specific feedback by using diagnostic, formative tests, as well as regularly correcting mistakes students make along their learning path.

Teachers evaluate students with criterion-referenced tests rather than norm-referenced tests.

Mastery learning has nothing to do with content, merely on the process of mastering it, and is based on Benjamin Bloom's Mastery for Learning model, with refinements made by Block. Mastery learning may be implemented as teacher-paced group instruction, one-to-one tutoring, or self-paced learning with programmed materials. It may involve direct teacher instruction, cooperation with classmates, or independent learning. It requires well-defined learning objectives organized into smaller, sequentially organized units. Individualized instruction has some elements in common with mastery learning, although it dispenses with group activities in favor of allowing more able or more motivated students to progress ahead of others and maximizing teacher interaction with those students who need the most assistance.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm-referenced_test

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criterion-referenced_test

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_assessment

Most experiments that compared mastery learning to conventional instruction have shown that mastery learning is more effective. In one meta-analysis (Kulik, Kulik & Bangert-Drowns, 1990), the mean effect size (Cohen's d) of 103 studies was 0.52 standard deviation units, which is considered a moderately large

effect size.

The concept of mastery learning can be attributed to the behaviorism principles of operant conditioning. According to operant conditioning theory, learning occurs when an association is formed between a stimulus and response (Skinner, 1984). In line with the behavior theory, mastery learning focuses on overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Baum, 2005). The material that will be taught to mastery is broken down into small discrete lessons that follow a logical progression. In order to demonstrate mastery over each lesson, students must be able to overtly show evidence of understanding of the material before moving to the next lesson (Anderson, 2000).In general, mastery learning programs have been shown to lead to higher achievement in all students as compared to more traditional forms of teaching (Anderson, 2000; Gusky & Gates, 1986). Despite the empirical evidence, many mastery programs in schools have been replaced by more traditional forms of instruction due to the level of commitment required by

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the teacher and the difficulty in managing the classroom when each student is following an individual course of learning (Anderson, 2000; Grittner, 1975).

References

Anderson, J. R. (2000). Learning and memory: An integrated approach (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Baum, W. M. (2005). Understanding Behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Block, Schools, Society and Mastery Learning. ISBN 978-0030884078

Kulik, C., Kulik, J., & Bangert-Drowns, R. (1990). Effectiveness of mastery learning programs: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 60(2), 265-306.

Grittner, F. M. (1975). Individualized instruction: An historical perspective. The Modern Language Journal, 323 333.

Gusky, T. R., & Gates, S. (1986). Synthesis of research on the effects of mastery learning in elementary and secondary classrooms. Educational Leadership, 43, 73-80.

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