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2. Semantics

the study of MEANING. There are many different approaches to the way in which

meaning in language is studied. Philosophers, for instance, have investigated the

relation between linguistic expressions, such as the words of a language, andpersons, things and events in the world to which these words refer (see

REFERENCE, SIGNS). Linguistics have investigated, for example, the way in

which meaning in a language is structured (see COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS,

LEXICAL FIELD, SEMANTIC FEATURES) and have distinguished between

different types of meanings (see CONNOTATION, DENOTATION). There have

also been studies of the semantic structure of sentences (see PROPOSITIONS).

In recent years, linguistics have generally agreed that meaning plays an important

part in grammatical analysis but there has been disagreement on how it should be

incorporated in a grammar (see BASE COMPONENT, GENERATIVE

SEMANTICS, INTERPRETIVE SEMANTICS).

Reference

(in SEMANTICS) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events,

and qualities they stand for.

Reference in its wider sense would be the relationship between a word or phrase

and an entity in the external world (see DENOTATION). For example, the word

tree refers to the object tree (the referent).

Reference in its narrower sense is the relationship between a word or phrase and

a specific object, e.g. a particular tree or a particular animal. Foe example, Peters

horse would refer to a horse which is owned, ridden by, or in some way associated

with Peter.

Denotation

that part of the meaning of a word or phrase that relates it to phenomena in the

real world or in a fictional or possible world.

For example, the denotation of the English word birdis a two-legged, winged, egg-

laying, warm-blooded creature with a beak. In a meaning system, denotative

meaning may be regarded as the central meaning or core meaning of a lexical

item. It is often equated with referential meaning (see REFERENCE) and with


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cognitive meaning and conceptual meaning although some linguists and

philosophers make a distinction between these concepts.

Connotation

the additional meanings that a word or phrase has beyond its central meaning

(see DENOTATION). These meanings show peoples emotions and attitudes

towards what the word or phrase refers to. For example, childcould be defined as

a young human being but there are many other characteristics which different

people associate with child, e.g. affectionate, amusing, lovable, sweet,

mischievous, noisy, irritating, grubby.

Some connotations may be shared by a group of people of the same cultural or

social background, sex, or age; others may be restricted to one or several

individuals and depend on their personal experience.

In a meaning system, that part of the meaning which is covered by connotation is

sometimes referred to as affective meaning, oremotive meaning.

Signs

in linguistics, the words and other expressions of a language which signify, that is,

stand for, other things. In English, the word table, for instance, stands for a

particular piece of furniture in the real world. Some linguists and philosophers

include a third item in the process ofsignification, that is, an abstract CONCEPT

of the thing for which the sign stands, e.g.:

abstract concept

of table

word (sign) table - - - - - - - - - - - - - - real object table

Concept

the general idea or meaning which is associated with a word or symbol in a

persons mind. Concepts are the abstract meanings which words and other

linguistic items represent. Linguists believe all languages can express the same


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concepts, although some languages may have fewer names for some concepts

than are found in other languages, or may distinguish between concepts

differently. The forming of concepts is closely related to language ACQUISITION,

and the use of concepts to form PROPOSITIONS is basic to human thought and

communication.

First language acquisition

the learning and development of a persons native language. Interest in the

process by which children learn their first language was prompted by the work of

Chomsky, who argued that:

a. children are born with special language learning abilities

b. they do not have to be taught language or corrected for their mistakes

c. they learn language by being exposed to it

d. linguistic rules develop unconsciously.

Children are said to acquire the rules of their mother tongue by being exposed to

examples of the language and by using the language for communication.

Early work in first language acquisition concentrated on how children develop a

linguistic system which enables them to produce sentences that they have never

heard before (i.e. novel sentences). More recent research has studied:

a. the relationship between language development and cognitive

development

b. how children distinguish and develop word meanings

c. the development of phonology in the first language

d. the effects of interaction (between parents and the child and between a

child and other children) on language development (see

INTERACTIONISM)

Some researchers have suggested that children show evidence of the use of

universal rules and principles in language acquisition, which are independent of

the particular language they are learning, and pass through similar stages in

language development.

Language acquisition

the learning and development of a persons language. The learning of a native or

first language is called FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, and of a second or


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foreign language, SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. The term acquisition is

often preferred to learning because the latter term is sometimes linked to a

behaviourist theory of learning (see BEHAVIOURISM). Language acquisition is

studied by linguists, psychologists and applied linguists to enable them to

understand the processes used in learning a language, to help identify stages in

the developmental process, and to give a better understanding of the nature of

language. Techniques used include longitudinal studies of language learners as

well as experimental approaches, and focus on the study of the development of

phonology, grammar, vocabulary, and communicative competence.

Second language acquisition

(in APPLIED LINGUISTICS) the process by which people develop proficiency in a

second or foreign language. These processes are often investigated with the

expectation that information about them may be useful in language teaching. The

term second language acquisition has been used particularly in the USA by

researchers interested in:

a. longitudinal studies and case studies of the development of syntax and

phonology in second and foreign language learners (see CROSS-

SECTIONAL METHOD, CASE STUDY)

b. analysis of the spoken and written discourse of second and foreign

language learners (see DISCOURSE ANALYSIS)

c. the study of other aspects of language development.

Proposition

(in philosophy, LINGUISTICS and SEMANTICS) the basic meaning which a

sentence expresses. Propositions consist of (a) something which is named or

talked about (known as the argument, or entity) (b) as assertion orpredication

which is made about the argument.

A sentence may express or imply (see PRESUPPOSITION) more than one

proposition. For example:

sentence underlying propositions

Marias friend, Tony, Maria has a friend.

who is a dentist, The friends name is Tony.

likes apples. Tony is a dentist.


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Tony likes apples.

In SPEECH ACT theory a distinction is made between the propositional meaning

of a sentence, and its illocutionary force (i.e. the use made of the sentence in

communication, e.g. as a request, a warning, a promise).

Speech act

an UTTERANCE as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory,

utterances have two kinds of meaning:

a. propositional meaning (also known as locutionary meaning). This is the

basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular

words and structures which the utterance contains (see PROPOSITION,

LOCUTIONARY ACT).

b. illocutionary meaning (also known as illocutionary force). This is the

effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener.

For example, in I am thirstythe prepositional meaning is what the utterance says

about the speakers physical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker

wants the utterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as a request for

something to drink. A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both

propositional meaning and illocutionary force.

There are many different kinds of speech acts, such as request, orders,

commands, complaints, promises (see SPEECH ACT CLASSIFICATION).

A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect

speech act, such as the speech act of requesting above. Indirect speech acts are

often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as

requests and refusals.

In language teaching, and SYLLABUS design, speech acts are often referred to as

functions or language functions (see NOTIONAL SYLLABUS, FUNCTIONAL

SYLLABUS).

Utterance

(in DISCOURSE) what is said by any one person before or after another person

begins to speak.

For example, an utterance may consist of:

a. one word, e.g. Bs reply in:


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A: Have you done your homework?

B: Yeah.

b. one sentence, e.g. As question and Bs answer in:

A: Whats the time?

B: Its half past five.

c. more than one sentence, e.g. As complaint in:

A: Look, Im really fed up. Ive told you several times to wash your hands

before a meal. Why dont you do as youre told?

B: But Mum, listen

Locutionary act

A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of SPEECH ACTS between three

different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.

A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be

understood.

For example, saying the sentence Shoot the snake is a locutionary act if hearers

understand the words shoot, the, snake and can identify the particular snake

referred to. An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function. For

example Shoot the snake may be intended as an order or a piece of advice.

A perlocutionary act is the result or effects that are produced by means of saying

something. For example, shooting the snake would be a perlocutionary act.

Austins three-part distinction is less frequently used than a two-part distinction

between the propositional content of a sentence (the PROPOSITION(S) which a

sentence expresses or implies) and the illocutionary force or intended effects of

speech acts (their function as requests, commands, orders, etc.).

Speech act classification

The philosopher Searle established a five-part classification of SPEECH ACTS:

a. commissive: a speech act that commits the speaker to doing something

in the future, such as a promise or a threat. For example:

If you dont stop fighting Ill call the police. (threat)

Ill take you to the movies tomorrow. (promise)


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b. declarative: a speech act which changes the state of affairs in the world.

For example, during the wedding ceremony the act of marriage is

performed when the phrase I now pronounce you man and wife is uttered.

c. directive: a speech act that has the function of getting the listener to do

something, such as a suggestion, a request, or a command.

For example:

Please sit down.

Why dont you close the window.

d. expressive: a speech act in which the speaker expresses feelings and

attitudes about something, such as an apology, a complaint, to thank

someone, to congratulate someone. For example:

The meal was delicious.

e. representative: a speech act which describes states or events in the

world, such as an assertion, a claim, a report. For example, the assertion:

This is a German car.

Highlights

Semantics is the study of MEANING.

Reference is (in SEMANTICS) the relationship between words and the things,

actions, events, and qualities they stand for.

Denotation is that part of the meaning of a word or phrase that relates it to

phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible world.

Connotation is the additional meaning that a word or phrase has beyond its

central meaning.

Signs, in linguistics, are the words and other expressions of a language which

signify, that is, stand for, other things.

A concept is the general idea or meaning which is associated with a word or

symbol in a persons mind.

Questions

1. What is language acquisition?

2. What is first language acquisition?

3. What is second language acquisition?


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4. What is a proposition?

5. What is a speech act?

6. What is an utterance?

7. What is a locutionary act?

8. What is the five-part classification of speech acts?

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