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EUGENIA IRIMIA BUSINESS COMMUNICATION TOPICS Second edition

Editura Fundaiei pentru Studii Europene Cluj-Napoca, 2006

EDITURA FUNDAIEI PENTRU STUDII EUROPENE Str. Em. de Martonne nr. 1 Cluj-Napoca, Romnia Director: Ion Cuceu

ISBN 10 973-7677-43-9 13 978-973-7677-43-3

EUGENIA IRIMIA

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION TOPICSSECOND EDITION IMPROVED

Editura Fundaiei pentru Studii Europene Cluj-Napoca, 2006

Business Communication Topics

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Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei IRIMIA, EUGENIA Business Communication Topics / Eugenia Irimia. Cluj-Napoca : Editura Fundaiei pentru Studii Europene, 2006 Bibliogr. ISBN 10 973-7677-43-9 13 978-973-7677-43-3

Business Communication Topics

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Communicating in Business

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TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS.....................................................................................8 I. COMMUNICATING IN BUSINESS...................................................................9 II. PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION............................................................17 III. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION....................................................................23 IV. COMMUNICATION STYLES........................................................................28 V. AVOIDING DISCRIMINATION IN COMMUNICATION....................................36 VI. EFFECTIVE LISTENING. THE AUDIENCE....................................................41 VII. PRESENTATIONS.....................................................................................47 VIII. COMMUNICATION AND RECRUITMENT...................................................60 IX. WRITING EMPLOYMENT DOCUMENTS......................................................67 X. INTERVIEWS.............................................................................................80 XI. BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE................................................................86 XII. COMMUNICATION WITH PARTNERS........................................................91 XIII. BUSINESS LETTERS................................................................................96 XIV. COMMUNICATION INSIDE THE FIRM: MEMOS, MINUTES, REPORTS.....112 XV. BUSINESS REPORTS.............................................................................132 XVI. BUSINESS MEETINGS...........................................................................139 XVII. NEGOTIATING IN BUSINESS................................................................149 XVIII. INTERCULTURAL ASPECTS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION..............157 ANSWER KEY..............................................................................................160 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................169

I. COMMUNICATING IN BUSINESSSome writers have other goals (to impress, to entertain). Business communication should seek only to communicate. (Lesikar, Petit, Flatley 1993: 15) BASIC NOTIONS 1. What do you know about the following forms of communication? Where/ when/ how/ by whom are they used? NON-VERBAL ORAL WRITTEN COMPUTER

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

2. Does the process of human communication differ, depending on the specific form of communication? The message is sent. The message enters in the sensory world. The message is detected by the senses. The message goes through a filtering process. A response is formed and sent. The cycle is repeated.

THE PROCESS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION

3. Can you identify some other imperfections of the communication process? Meanings sent are not always received. The symbols of communication are imperfect; e.g. communication across cultures is especially difficult. Stress on adaptation: fitting the message to the recipients. .

IMPERFECTIONS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

4. Read about some forms of communication in business. Can you identify some other examples? FORMS OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS INTERNAL OPERATIONAL: the communicating done in conducting work within a business i.e.: giving orders, assembling reports, writing memorandums, and communicating by computers Technology (computer, fax)

Business Communication Topics

EXTERNAL OPERATIONAL: workrelated communication with people outside the business PERSONAL: nonbusiness-related exchanges of information and feelings among people.

i.e.: personal selling, telephoning, advertising, and letter writing It may affect worker attitudes, which, in their turn, affect worker performance.

5. Use the information in the table below and describe the communication network in an organization you know. COMMUNICATION NETWORK OF THE ORGANIZATION The information flow in business can be: downward/ upward/ horizontal The communication channels can be: formal/ informal

(adapted from R. Lesikar, J. Petit, M. Flatley 1993: 3-15)

assists in making & sending

1. 1. Explain the importance of communication to you and to business. Debate upon what Peter Drucker, a well-known management consultant, states about the role of communication in business. In his opinion, the basic skill colleges teach students as future employees is the ability to organize and express ideas in writing and speaking. He continues: your effectiveness depends on your ability to reach others through the spoken or the written word. And the further away your job is from manual work, the larger the organization of which you are an employee, the more important it will be that you know how to convey your thoughts in writing or speaking. In the very large organization this ability to express oneself is perhaps the most important of all the skills a person can possess. 1. 2. Discuss the following statements. Do you agree or disagree with them? All organized effort, including the work of business, requires communication. Communication is vital to every part of business. Business needs good communicators, but most people do not communicate well. By improving your communication ability, you improve your chances for success. The extent of a businesss communication depends on the nature of the business, its operating plan, and the people involved.

1. Discussion

2. Reading2. 1. Read about the importance of effective communication in the work place. The concluding sentence in some paragraphs of the text (1-7) has been removed. Choose the best sentence from the list below (A-I) to conclude each paragraph. There is one sentence that you do not need. There is an example at the beginning (0 D ).

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A We can only discuss them very briefly here, although each of these four is worth an essay on its own. B Encouraging a free flow of input from the receiver is the best way of ensuring that understanding has been achieved. C The task of the communicator is to change the aspect of "fear" into that of "understanding". D They need to realize that successful communication is no one-way process. E Assimilation of a concept presented by management, or by another worker, goes a long way towards ensuring active participation, and harmonious cooperation, in the workplace. F To communicate successfully managers and supervisors have to understand the other person, and have to work hard to get the other person to understand them. G However, respect for the other person is an important prerequisite for attention getting. H The originator of the message must play his part, too, with abundant support and encouragement. I Effective communication requires tools and planning.

Communicating Effectively in the Workplace: Four Essential Steps The way company personnel communicate with each other can make all the difference between efficiency and ineptitude, success and failure, making money or losing it. by Azriel Winnett Ineffective communication is a major, yet avoidable, obstacle to business productivity. And yes, it can be avoided. Given the will, the bleakest of situations can be turned around for the better. Management must face squarely the challenge of formulating strategies to encourage personnel to communicate effectively. On the other hand, managers themselves have to set the example. /0 D/ On the contrary, reciprocity is the essence of communication. This applies whether the process is conducted verbally or through the medium of the written word. Managers are human beings involved with other human beings. They are far more than givers of information or instructions. Communication is as much a matter of human relationships as it is about transmitting facts. /1__/ The vital four steps in effective communication might well help people to correct this distorted view of the communication process. Some call them the four A's of communication. /2__/ Attention. Winning the attention of the person with whom we wish to communicate, is an obvious first step. In order to achieve this goal, we must first try to eliminate - as far as is humanly possible - what experts in this field call "noise". This includes everything that distracts, be it noise in the literal sense, physical or emotional discomfort, personal problems, negative attitudes, or distracting mannerisms or dress. The human greeting, or inquiry about the other11

Business Communication Topics

person's health or personal circumstances, is an effective catalyst in this process. To be sure, if such introductions are false or stereotyped they might serve little purpose. Real empathy, all the more so important in downward communication from superior to subordinate, leads quickly to the second step in the process apprehension. /3__/ Apprehension. Although this word usually carries the connotation of "fear", its primary meaning is "understanding". We have preferred the term "apprehension" here primarily to retain the mnemonic of "four A's". Its two meanings, however, are related; they are two sides of one coin. /4__/ Achieving apprehension is a critical part of the communication process, but it is a very subtle one also. Managers sometimes defend their inability to communicate by asking, "Do you understand?" This is usually an unfair question, and even the somewhat improved "What do you understand?" is often perceived as a threat. On the other hand, if there is the right relationship between the transmitter and the receiver of a message, indirect ways of establishing the degree of understanding will present themselves. /5__/ Assimilation. As crucial as is the function of apprehension (in its positive sense as we defined it) it is not enough. Often, a person has understood a message perfectly, but he or she has not accepted it. Alternatively, it is accepted in a halfhearted manner, without any conviction. Communication is still incomplete if he has not assimilated the information into his own being. The initiator has achieved an ideal result if the recipient has assimilated the message to the extent that he becomes one with the sender, as it were. /6__/ Action. This is the final step in our communication process. It is that ingredient which propels abstract or theoretical knowledge into the world of reality. So often a good idea in business (no less than in other spheres) meets with facile acceptance or agreement, but is not translated into action. If assimilation has indeed taken place, action on the part of the receiver should follow inevitably. But what we have said about the two-sided nature of communication applies here as well. /7__/(http://www.hodu.com/business-communication.shtml)

2. 2. Read the following text about the types of communication and answer the questions.

Types of Communication "You can't do without communication and computers, they are the keys to the success of your business." Gwyn Myers, Management Consultant Communication is the key to any business success! Unless potential clients and customers are aware of your business, they will not have the information to contact you or to purchase your products. When they are aware of your business, they must be able to contact it easily. Two types of communication are essential - external and internal.

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Communicating in Business

External communication reaches out to the customers to make them aware of your product or service and to give them a reason to buy. This type of communication includes your brochures, various forms of advertising, contact letters, telephone calls, web sites and anything else that makes the public aware of what you do. Image is extremely important in external communication! Your logo should represent who you are; your letterhead should be a selling tool; your telephone message should reflect your professionalism. Internal communication is essential to attracting and retaining a talented staff. You must provide the direction for the company by consistently communicating that message; you must motivate your staff through various forms of communication, which can include awards, newsletters, meetings, telephone calls, and formal and informal discussions. Effective communication requires tools and planning. The tools that facilitate that key element of your business communication, can be grouped into 1) basic communication tools, 2) computers, and 3) the Internet.(http://www.myownbusiness.org/s3/#1)

3. Comprehension Answer the questions:

What do you think Gwyn Myers means by being aware of your business? What communication means give the customer a reason to buy? What motivates the company staff? Read the text that highlights the importance of mastering modern communication technology in business by giving advice on what to do or not do when using modern technology. Build the word family of the words written in bold: Top Ten Do's and Don'ts Top ten do's 1. Gain the capability to do word processing, spreadsheets, presentations and email. 2. Consider using an accounting software program appropriate for your business. 3. Consider a laptop computer if your business requires mobility. 4. Learn digital technology including use of pictures for marketing purposes. 5. Consider using a headset for cordless and cell phones. 6. Plan ongoing internal communications including awards, newsletters and discussions. 7. When leaving messages, clearly and slowly repeat your name and number. 8. Use a remote Voice Mail answering system rather than an answering machine. 9. Use separate dedicated phone lines for your business and fax lines. 10. Develop a logo to represent who you are: for stationery, signs, cards and website. Top ten don'ts 1. Don't start your business without knowledge about and possession of computer tools. 2. Don't overlook making regular external back-ups to computer programs. 3. Don't overlook the Internet as an important business tool.13

4. Vocabulary

Business Communication Topics

4. Don't purchase more equipment than will meet your need for the next two years. 5. Do not spend for a top-of-line computer unless it is required in your business. 6. Do not sign up for extended time periods on any service including phone and mobile. 7. When plans change, be sure to request information on communication plans that more closely meet your new requirements. 8. Don't fail to exercise your rights on return policies within time limits allowed. 9. Don't feel an 800 number is important unless you are receiving orders by phone. 10. Do not sign up for long term plans with Internet Service Providers.(http://www.myownbusiness.org/s3/#1)

THE RIGHT WORD

5. Language focus

The two most important aspects of word choice in business communication are: Correctness Effectiveness In order to achieve these text characteristics you should pay attention to the following tips: Strategies Use functional words correctly. Functional words express relations among content words and have only one unchanging meaning in any given context (e.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns). Choose content words carefully: they carry the meaning of the sentence (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs). Pay attention to connotation and denotation. Denotative meaning=dictionary meaning Connotative meaning=associative meaning Mind abstraction/ concreteness of the words you use. Abstract words are concepts, qualities, characteristics. Concrete words stand for something particular, they are clear and exact. Choose strong words! These are the nouns and the verbs not the adjectives and the adverbs. Use familiar words (but avoid overworked terms). Use short words rather than longer ones. Do not turn verbs into nouns and adjectives it weakens your writing style. Avoid biased language (sexist, racial, ethnic, Communication targets Use them correctly!

Develop your ability to choose the right content words for your message! Use terms that are low in connotative meaning! Use specific terms whenever possible! Use abstractions only when necessary! Be clear, concise and accurate!

Be fair and objective in content!

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Communicating in Business

age or disability related).(adapted from Bove, Thill 1992: 113)

5.1. Read the following list of words and group them into two categories: familiar/ unfamiliar. Find some other examples. Familiar Find out, learn Close, bring about Avoid Growth, increase .. Unfamiliar Ascertain Consummate Circumvent Increment . ..

5. 2. Use the following pairs of words correctly in sentences of your own, after you discuss the differences in meaning. accede exceed accept except access excess allot a lot born borne complement compliment correspondent corespondent council counsel defer differ discreet discrete levee levy loath loathe material materiel moral morale shear sheer stationary stationery waive wave weather whether(selected from Bove, Thill 1992: 613)

5. 3. Find some other pairs that can be easily confused. Use them correctly in the appropriate context.

6. Speaking Take into account the following positions: company president, chief accountant, supervisor, business consultant, and worker. To what extent is the ability to communicate important to the successful performance of each of them? Address the question to some other jobs you consider worth discussing. How much personal communication should be permitted in a business organization? What companies require extensive communication and what companies require little communication? Discuss the list you have made with your colleague.

7. WritingIn not more than 200 words, describe the network of communication in an organization you are familiar with.

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Professional Communication

II. PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATIONBASIC NOTIONS Communication is defined as an exchange of messages resulting in shared meaning. Professional communication is a specialized exchange of messages resulting in shared meaning. KEY ELEMENTS OF PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION Elements Communication chain Communication channels Communication networks Communication skills Communication effectiveness Communication climate Communication technology Communication barriers Communication crisis Indicators/qualities as direct as possible (fewer links) oral/ written; formal/informal downward/upward/horizontal internal/external influence employability (80%) perception, precision, credibility, congeniality open, influenced by the management style of the top executives affects information flow, ease of contact, organizational structure intercultural, oral/written problems conflict handling by communicating

(adapted from C. L. Bove, J. V. Thill, Business Communication Today, New York: Mc Graw Hill Inc., 1992)

1. Discussion1. 1. Describe the key elements of professional communication mentioned in the chart above. Feel free to enrich the list with some other characteristics defining professional communication. 1. 2. Which of them are, in your opinion, highly important for the business communication? Defend your view. 1. 3. Identify the types of technology used primarily in internal and externaloperational communication to transmit messages.

2. ReadingTechnical communication represents one of the most important elements that contribute to the success of communication in the business environment. By reading this fragment from Ten Technical Communication Myths, you will reconsider the effect of communication technology and the contribution of the specialists in this domain to the development of a productive communication climate within or outside an organization. It is not business properly, but you will see that it is indispensable to the modern business world. Decide whether the following statements (1-7) are true (T) or false (F).

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Business Communication Topics

1. Despite the degree of abstraction or exaggeration that makes myths so fascinating, there is often a grain of truth but no insight into some fundamental aspects of the human condition at their heart. 2. The things we usually do in our daily work are strongly influenced by "rules of thumb". 3. Some modern communicators misinterpret the occasional rule to the point where it becomes valid for any circumstance it is applied to. 4. There are 14 central myths in modern technical communication. 5. It is a rule that audiences are always dynamic. 6. Technical communicators know that documentation is very expensive. 7. A culture can reinvent a myth by recasting it in their own unique context. Ten Technical Communication Myths by Geoff Hart Myths often represent the very human attempt to explain something important but poorly understood, such as the turning of the seasons, or to provide cautionary tales to warn listeners against unsanctioned behavior, as in the myths of Prometheus and Epimetheus. The fascination inspired by myths has kept many alive across the millennia, but despite the degree of abstraction or exaggeration that makes them so fascinating, there is often a grain of truth or an insight into some fundamental aspects of the human condition at their heart. In our current enlightened age, we fancy that we've grown beyond the need for myths, yet "urban legends" abound (particularly on the Internet), and many of the things we do in our daily work are strongly influenced by "rules of thumb" that are, in a very real sense, a form of myth. (par. 1) As any other profession, technical communication has accumulated its share of mythical rules of thumb, but the good news about our profession's myths is that they too contain grains of truth and insights into things that are truly important to us. The bad news is that we've also internalized some of these myths to the point that we no longer question them and have begun to let them constrain our choices rather than to help us remember and see the truth. Some communicators even overgeneralize the occasional rule to the point where it loses its validity and becomes dangerously misleading. (par. 2) So what myths do we live by? In no particular order, this paper presents my "top 10 list" of what I consider to be the central myths in modern technical communication. There are undoubtedly others. By acting as devil's advocate, intentionally presenting these myths in a bad light, I'm hoping that I can persuade you to question these and other rules of thumb that you use daily. When you pay closer attention to the rules you obey, consciously or otherwise, and question why, you can start to recognize the disabling aspects of a myth and begin taking steps to free yourself from those constraints. And here they are: (par. 3) Knowledge of Specific Tools Is Vitally Important (1) Sans Serif Fonts are Always More Legible Online (2) Audiences are Static (3) Minimalism Means Keeping Text as Short as Possible (4)

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Professional Communication

The Optimum Number of Steps in a Procedure is 7 Plus or Minus 2 (5) You Can Make a Bad Interface Easy to Use Through Superior Documentation (6) We Cant Talk to the SMEs (7) Usability Testing is Prohibitively Expensive and Difficult (8) Single-sourcing Means Dumping Printed Documents Online (9) Documentation is a Cost Center (10) (par. 4) But myths aren't always invalid. Myths endure because no matter how much they simplify or exaggerate reality, they are nonetheless based on something truthful, something important to us, or something that sheds a bright light on an aspect of our lives. Two of the things that fascinate me most about mythology are just how universal the themes can be and how creatively each person or culture can be in reinventing a myth by recasting it in their own unique context. Folklorist Josepha Sherman has observed that "Myths are attempts to explain the cosmic truths.... All peoples have the same questions, and so all peoples have the same basic type of myths." (par. 5) Each of the ten myths I've presented in this guest editorial passes this test for that idiosyncratic group of people known as technical communicators. My hope is that each of us will find ways to answer those universal questions for ourselves by seeking out the underlying truths and building on them to create something more useful and fascinating still. By making the myths more relevant to ourselves, we reinvigorate them and ourselves. One obvious way to do this is to re-examine our current rules of thumb and see how they can be refined. After all, the thing to remember about "rules of thumb" is that thumbs bend when necessary. (par. 6) (adapted from: http://www.techwrl.com/techwhirl/magazine/gettingstarted/tenmyths.html#myth1)

3. Comprehension Answer:What is technical communication? What is a technical communicator? What are the position/ function/ role of a technical communicator in the communication diagram of an organization?

4. VocabularyExplain with your own words; if possible, find synonyms for the following: Paragraph 1: cautionary, unsanctioned, fancy Paragraph 2: share, insights, overgeneralize, misleading Paragraph 3: advocate, obey, disabling Paragraph 4: legible, interface, dumping Paragraph 5: shed, attempt Paragraph 6: idiosyncratic, invigorate, refine

5. Language focusTHE PARAGRAPH The paragraph consists of several sentences all related to the same topic. It is a unit of thought. It involves logical thinking.

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Business Communication Topics

The paragraph consists of three basic elements:

Elements

Role It contains the essence of the whole paragraph (main idea). It indicates how the subject of the paragraph will be developed. It can come first, in the middle, or last, depending on the writers plan. Explain the topic sentence. They are more specific than the topic sentence, dealing with some details. They indicate how paragraphs and ideas are related. They make the text coherent.

Topic sentence

Related sentences

Transitional elements: Connecting words (i.e. conjunctions) Repeated words or phrases Pronouns Words that are frequently paired

Illustration

- it gives examples that demonstrate the general idea - it presents similarities or differences among thoughts - it focuses on the reasons of something - it indicates the specific categories of a general idea - it presents a problem and debates a possible solution to that problem

comparison or contrast

Methods to develop a paragraph

discussion of cause and effect classification

discussion of problem and solution

(adapted from Bove, Thill 1992: 129)

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Professional Communication

DO NOT FORGET: Limit each paragraph to one general idea! Write short paragraphs (100 words or less)! Leave out unessential details! Your message should contain unified, well developed, and coherent paragraphs! 5. 1. In the following paragraph, identify the topic sentence, and the related sentences: The world in which we live is a desperately poor place. Today, three thousand million human beings crowd its surface, each one needing food and shelter in order to do nothing more than preserve his own life. But parts of the world, it may be said, are not poor; in America the family garage has two cars and indoors the deep-freeze contains ice cream and chicken. Even in Europe the general standard of living is not bad; few people die of starvation or exposure; television sets and cars are not uncommon. The sad truth is partly that Europe and North America are not the world, or even the greater part of the world, and that for the majority of the worlds population human life exists on the border between bare subsistence and extinction. It is also true that the relatively rich communities such as Europe and North America contain enormous pockets of real poverty, and the world is a long way yet from the day when they will be finally removed. Even if all the good things of the world were placed in a gigantic common pool, and shared equally amongst all the human race, therefore, the worlds population would still have scarcely enough food and clothing and warmth and shelter to keep itself alive.(Nevin 1971: 3)

5. 2. Build a paragraph around each of the following topic sentences: Scarcity is the foundation of economics. Exchange is vital to economics. Economic affairs are frequently involved with ethics. Words are frequently misleading, sometimes downright dangerous.(Nevin 1971: chapters 1, 2)

5. 3. Write a paragraph on each of the following topics, choosing for each the most suitable way for the paragraph to be developed: by illustration, by comparison or contrast, by discussion of cause and effect, by classification, and by discussion of problem and solution. Suggested connections: the issue of unemployment types of personal computers available for sale how to use a digital camera a famous company got bankrupt advantages and disadvantages of traveling on business

5. 4. Break up these sentences into shorter, more readable ones: The calculation of total expenditure, however, is not entirely a straightforward affair even in principle (the statistical problems of estimation, of course, are very considerable) and certain pitfalls have to be avoided, and in the process of avoiding them the published national income estimates become somewhat21

Business Communication Topics

complicated because it is obvious that in calculating a countrys national income via estimates of total expenditure, only purchases which provide income for someone else in the community should be included, while care should be taken to see that no such purchases are excluded.

6. Speaking Describe how managers use communication. Employees belong to various groups, each with their own characteristics. What role does communication play in establishing their membership in each group? Give examples. Choose two jobs you might like to have after you graduate. What communication skills do you think would be most important to you in these positions?

7. WritingThink of an organization you are familiar with and make a list of the means used for downward communication (i.e. methods used by top executives to inform individuals about the organization itself, organization policies, employee or member responsibilities, etc.). Compare your list with another, made by one of your colleagues. Which of the systems described is better? How could the organization improve its downward communication?

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III. TYPES OF COMMUNICATIONBASIC NOTIONS Types of communication Nonverbal verbal Oral Facial Face-to-face conversation expressions, eye Phone conversation behaviour, Conferences gestures and Presentations postures, vocal Meetings characteristics, Interviews personal Training programmes, etc. appearance, touching behaviour, use of time and space Supports and It largely has an interactive clarifies verbal function. communication It can be: locutionary (say something), illocutionary (content), perlocutionary (intention), constatative/ performative (according to the theory of speech acts). It can be: representative (statements); directive (order, request, advice); promising (promise, offer, inviting); expressive (congratulating, thanking); declarative (appointment, declaration). Less-structured, Easy, spontaneous, not learned, efficient, quicker, more spontaneous, it convenient than written often occurs communication, it unconsciously facilitates feedback.

written Letters Memos Minutes Reports

Varieties

Functions

informative, persuasive, collaborative (inquiring, claiming, ordering, acknowledging , accepting, refusing, etc.)

Main characterist ics

planned, controlled, organized It is more likely to involve creative effort. It increases the senders

Importance

More reliable and more efficient

It maximizes collaboration. It saves time and provides

Business Communication Topics

than verbal communication - In job interviews - In speech delivery

opportunities for social interaction.

control but makes immediate feedback impossible.

(adapted from C. L. Bove, J. V. Thill, Business Communication Today, New York: Mc Graw Hill Inc., 1992)

1. Discussion1.1. Discuss the table above. Add your own ideas to each of the points mentioned in it. 1. 2. How can you handle emotional conflicts in business communication? Will you be able to maintain your objectivity? Discuss the topic considering the three types of communication: nonverbal, oral and written.

2. ReadingRead the excerpt that describes the first myth - Knowledge of Specific Tools Is Vitally Important from the article Ten Technical Communication Myths by Geoff Hart and answer the questions (1-4) by choosing the appropriate answer (A, B, or C). Knowledge of Specific Tools Is Vitally Important

Few managers want to hire a new technical communicator and wait weeks for the person to become productive with the company's writing tools, yet hiring on the basis of "tool skills" ignores the fact that the ability to format text is a very small part of our value as technical communicators. (It also ignores the fact that any new employee, even one who comes equipped with the desired tool skills, faces a learning curve in a new position or at a new company, and may take weeks to learn the ins and outs of the new job.) Employers hire us primarily because we can understand their products and communicate that understanding to their customers. They hire us because we know how to take a product apart, literally or figuratively, and decide what components of the product we must document and how we should do it. They hire us because we possess the ability to pry information from the grasp of reluctant Subject Matter Experts (SMEs), because we have that rare skill of empathizing with our audience well enough to understand that audience's needs, and because we have the persistence to make an effort to satisfy those needs. None of these reasons depends strongly on the ability to work in Word, FrameMaker, or RoboHELP. Back in the Dark Ages before computers, the ancients did a pretty good job of documenting complex processes without these tools; in fact, those ancients could probably teach us a few things about good writing. Nowadays, few writers lack the ability to type and do basic formatting from the software's menus, and these (not formatting skills) are the crucial tools that support our work; in many situations, advanced formatting skills are actually a red herring, because templates already exist and layout or design work consists more of applying the templates than of actively designing something new. It's not that knowing how to format is unimportant to us; rather, it's far less important than our ability to communicate.24

Types of Communication

But let's assume that tool skills really are as important as some managers claim. Given that most of us have learned enough software skills to quickly develop basic to moderate competence with new software, the period of several weeks while we adapt to our new job is more likely to pose problems than our ability to learn new software. For example, in my comparatively short career (not quite 15 years), I've mastered four different layout programs, half a dozen word processors, three operating systems, and more other types of programs and applets than I care to count, all the while coping with an ever-accelerating rate of evolution in each of these software categories. What's impressive about my experience is not that I'm a software prodigy, but rather that I'm so average; many of my colleagues have an even more diverse portfolio of tools at their disposal. The consequence for employers is that most experienced technical communicators have yet to encounter software we couldn't begin using productively within a day, and become skillful with in about a week. Mastery can certainly take far longer, but most of what we do doesn't require that level of mastery. To see the flaw in using tool skills as a primary hiring criterion, ask yourself this: would you rather read well-written documentation or documentation produced by someone who can make Word 97 jump up and dance? Now ask yourself which of the two skill sets (writing versus formatting) is easier to teach, and you'll know which of the two writers you should hire. All else being equala rare situation choose the communicator who also knows your development tools and can use them for layout.(adapted from: http://www.techwrl.com/techwhirl/magazine/gettingstarted/tenmyths.html#myth1)

1. Hiring on the basis of "tool skills" A. ignores the fact that the ability to format text is a key element that makes technical communicators valuable for the organization. B. ignores the fact that any new employee, even one who comes equipped with the desired tool skills, faces a learning curve in a new position or at a new company C. ignores the fact that a new employee takes a couple of days to learn the ins and outs of the new job 2. Employers hire technical communicators because A. they can understand their products and communicate that understanding to their customers B. they know how to advertise a product C. they have that rare skill of presenting accurately the companys policy in front of a demanding audience 3. The crucial tools that support technical communicators work are A. formatting skills B. the ability to type and do basic formatting C. the ability to communicate 4. An important hiring criterion for technical communicators should be A. using tool skills B. writing and formatting

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Business Communication Topics

C. knowing your development tools and being able to use them for layout

3. ComprehensionAnswer the questions: Can the myth you have read about be extended to some other categories of persons dealing with the business environment? Take managers, chief executives, supervisors, secretaries, for example. Why are technical communicators needed in a company?

4. VocabularyRead about another myth of technical communication: Minimalism Means Keeping Text as Short as Possible. For each blank (1-10), decide which of the options A, B, C, or D is best. There is always one correct answer. John Carroll has been one of the leading standard bearers in the minimalism movement and no doubt has grown rather frustrated with the notion that minimalism means brevity, pure and 1__. It also doesn't mean trial and error learning, maximum simplicity, or any of several other 2__ or oversimplifications. To set the record 3__, he co-wrote an article that deals with the misconceptions firmly and eloquently (Carroll and van der Meij 1996). To quote Carroll and van der Meij: "The central principle in minimalism is task 4__. But many other principles play a role in this design approach either because they 5__ task orientation or because they follow from it." In short, the minimalist philosophy involves understanding what your audience is trying to accomplish (audience and task analysis) and focusing on those needs by 6__ enough information, in the right form and at the right time or in the right place, to help them accomplish their tasks. The myth that minimalism equals brevity stems from a much more interesting and complex 7__: that you shouldn't bury readers in 8__ detail. The challenge, of course, lies in discovering what is truly extraneous. It's also a myth that minimalism is a one-size-fits-all solution for all communication problems because its task orientation does not make it directly 9__ to problems such as communicating theoretical information (for example, the "why" of graphic design rather than the "how") or writing to persuade the reader (for example, marketing). Yet even for such 10__ unrelated problems, minimalism has much to say because of its emphasis on the reader, and that emphasis won't lead us far astray even when the reader's tasks are not immediately recognizable as tasks.(adapted from: http://www.techwrl.com/techwhirl/magazine/gettingstarted/tenmyths.html#myth1)

1. A clear 2. A misconceptions 3. A direct 4. A orientation promotion 5. A help supply 6. A insuring 7. A assertion 8. A foreign 9. A fit 10. A seemingly

B simple B conceptions B directly B directive B support B B B B B assuring discussion outsider matching seeming C C C C C

C C C C

obvious notions straightly direction

D straight D terms D straight D D D D D D D offering sentence extraneous correspondent confused

C view providing asserting lateral applicable apparent

26

Types of Communication

5. Language focusCOHERENCE Text coherence is important in a business message. Coherence is achieved through the use of transitions that show the relationship between paragraphs and between sentences within paragraphs. Give your message coherence by: presenting information in logical order bridging together the information presented TRANSITIONAL INFORMATION DEVICES. TECHNIQUES TO TIE TOGETHER THE

Tie-in sentences Repetition of key words Use of pronouns Transitional words

Design the sentences to tie in two successive ideas. Use the same word in a sequence of sentences: it connects thoughts. Pronouns connect with the words they relate to. They indicate the kind of thought connection between following ideas (i.e. in addition, besides, in spite of, in contrast, however, likewise, thus, therefore, for example, also).

5. 1. Discuss how the text from exercise 4 is organized in terms of coherence. Identify the transitional devices used by the author. 5. 2. Write a one-page essay about The importance on selecting positive/ negative words in a business message. Mind coherence of your text.

6. Speaking Is written communication or spoken communication more susceptible to be misunderstood and misinterpreted? Verbal communication skills are very important in business. Evaluate your own skills in this field, present them to your colleagues and ask their help: how can you improve them?

7. WritingThink of a communication experience you have had recently. Describe it taking into account the main elements communication involves (sender, receiver, the message, the transmission channel, feedback, any possible barriers which affected the communication process).

27

IV. COMMUNICATION STYLESBASIC NOTIONS Composition is defined as the process of drafting a message. When composing the message you should create a tone that suits the particular situation you are referring to. You can do that by using the right style. The particular way you use words to achieve an overall impression or a certain tone in your message is the style of that message. Read and, if possible, improve the table below: types of style (another classification) Forceful Passive Personal Impersonal Colorful Colorless

types of style/registers formal

key elements for a successful business style Choose a warm but businesslike tone. Emphasize the positive. Establish credibility. Be polite. Project the companys image. ..

informal

1.1. There always exists a company style you should be prepared to adjust to as an employee. Think of a company whose employee you would like to become. What do you know about that companys style? Could you subordinate your own style to that of the company you chose? 1.2. When delivering speeches and presentations you have to decide on the style you will use casual or formal. Identify some particular events and topics, decide upon the appropriate style and give your reasons for the choice youve made. Read the following text about style in business communication. Have you got style? Most people connect the word style with fashion, particularly with clothes. In a sense, language too is either "dressed up" or "dressed down", depending on the situation you are in or who you are talking to. Style covers a variety of subjects but

1. Discussion

2. Reading

Communication Styles

two aspects of style which are vitally important in business communication are formality and diplomacy. (1) Formality. English is different from many other languages in that its spoken form differs considerably from its written form. Naturally, written English tends to be more formal. Spoken English contains a great many contractions such as "it's", meaning "it is" or "it has", "I've", meaning "I have", "he's", meaning "he is" or "he has", "we'd", meaning "we would" or "we had". These contractions, used widely in conversation, are not used in written English (except, perhaps, in informal friendly letters). They would not be used in a formal letter or report. (2) Another aspect of formality which is important in report writing, for example, is the use of the passive voice. If you were giving advice in spoken English, for example, you would probably use an "active" sentence, such as "If I were you, I'd relocate the factory." This type of sentence would not be used in a business letter or report. The sentence would probably read: "It is recommended that the factory be relocated." In formal written English, it is also often preferable to avoid using personal pronouns, such as I or we, in order to make the text more impersonal. (3) Diplomacy. In addition to formal written style, English also has a unique diplomatic spoken style. Native speakers often try not to sound too direct. Examples of this tactful style include using I'd like instead of I want, e.g. "I'd like to hear your proposals", rather than "I want to hear your proposals...". Another example is "Perhaps we should now consider..." rather than "Now, it's time to consider...". (4) Native speakers also try to avoid giving an unnecessarily negative impression. For example, instead of saying "That is impossible" they say "That is not very likely". Or, instead of saying, "Wednesday is impossible" they might say "Would Monday be more convenient?". Notice the use of would which gives a more tentative sound to a statement or question. For example, "That is too expensive" can become "That would be rather expensive". Statements are usually softened by qualifiers such as rather, somewhat, quite, some, etc. For example, "I don't fully agree" or "There is a slight problem". (5) Modifying your language in this way can be a useful tactic in business dealings when you are trying to establish a pleasant cooperative atmosphere, particularly with people of other cultural backgrounds. Indeed, in many business meetings and negotiations such diplomatic use of the English language can be a very positive aid to avoiding direct confrontation with your counterparts and a useful tactic. (6) Non-native speakers whose own language is far more direct may find it odd to use such diplomatic language. However, they should at least be aware of its existence, especially if they are doing business with native speakers of English. (7)(http://www.linguarama.com/ps/294-6.htm)

3. ComprehensionWrite questions, relating to the text, to which these could be the answers: 1. Formality and diplomacy are vitally important in business communication. 2. Its spoken form differs considerably from its written form. 3. The use of the passive voice. 4. An example is "Perhaps we should now consider..." rather than "Now, it's time to consider...". 5. Qualifiers such as rather, somewhat, quite, some, etc. 6. The diplomatic use of the English language. 7. Non-native speakers whose own language is far more direct.29

Business Communication Topics

4. Vocabulary4. 1. Read about another myth of technical communication. For each blank (110), think of the word that best fits the context. Use only one word in each space. Speaking 1__ layout, a commonly agreed assertion is that Sans Serif Fonts are Always More Legible Online. This rule 2__ thumb claims, "sans serif typefaces remain easier to read on low-resolution displays 3__ as computer monitors, which typically have resolutions of between 72 and 96 dots per inch." This resolution is certainly low, even compared 4__ that of the advanced 24-pin dot matrix printers we abandoned 5__ favor of laser and inkjet printers, and certainly can't do justice to the fine details of many serif fonts designed for print; in particular, the serifs can disappear entirely, and character outlines may even blur 6__ the variable stroke width that characterizes traditional serif fonts lends itself poorly to fixed-size pixels. Unfortunately, though these assertions all contain a grain of truth, "all else" is almost never equal, and you should distrust any typographic studies that claim otherwise. Many factors can overwhelm the theoretical difference 7__ legibility 8__ serif and sans serif type, even if we ignore the fact that it's possible to optimize the designs of 9__ typeface style for online display (for example, "slab" serifs hold up better than thin serifs onscreen). The typographic factors that can overwhelm the 10__ of serif versus sans serif typefaces include, but are not limited to: legible design, line spacing, line width, word and character spacing, type size, the degree of contrast between the type and its background, etc.(adapted from: http://www.techwrl.com/techwhirl/magazine/gettingstarted/tenmyths.html#myth1)

1. 2. Use the word given in capitals on the right to derive a word that best fits the context: It's easy to see why technical communicators are often first on the 1__ block when it comes time to trim staff: we cost a lot, we make all kinds of 2__ demands (such as time and money to perform audience analysis and usability testing), we take 3__ away from their crucial work to answer naive questions, we hide away in our cubicles and write instead of 4__ others to shout our praise in the ears of upper management, and we produce a product that often 5__ no obvious income for our employer. That's the myth, anyway. The facts can be quite different. CHOP REASON DEVELOP PERSUASION GENERATOR

(adapted from: http://www.techwrl.com/techwhirl/magazine/gettingstarted/tenmyths.html#myth1)

5. Language focusTHE SENTENCE Mind the rules: Clear sentences are effective sentences! Adapt your sentences to your readers/ audience!

30

Communication Styles

You can compose short sentences by: limiting sentence content: the shorter sentences communicate better BUT dont use too many short sentences! economizing on words: seek shorter ways of saying things (e.g. avoid cluttering phrases, roundabout constructions, and unnecessary repetition of words or ideas) TYPES OF SENTENCES type Characteristics Subject + predicate (+nouns/ pronouns serving as objects of the action, and by modifying phrases) It consists of two or more simple sentences (clauses) that deal with the same basic idea; a coma or a semicolon separates them; they are connected by co-ordinating conjunctions and adverbs (e.g. and, in addition, or, so, thus, consequently, for, hence etc.) Independent clause (one or more) + dependent clause (one or more) examples Unemployment will decrease next year.

Simple

Compound

Although you were reluctant to his longterm plan, you have to recognize its strong points.

Complex

He was the best technician in his division, which made him famous.

Sentence style. Tips for developing a clear style Your sentences should be clear, accurate, and readable, grammatically correct, and appropriate for the audience. In order to achieve these qualities consider the following: use short sentences eliminate unnecessary words and phrases avoid repetition (unless necessary) separate strung-out sentences (sentences connected by and but containing unrelated ideas i.e. He is a talented speaker and he will deliver a speech tomorrow). avoid hedging sentences (sentences containing may/seems which are used to avoid stating a judgment as a fact i.e. I believe that your business plan seems to indicate that you may succeed in your endeavour.) avoid starting sentences with it and there avoid long sequences of nouns avoid cluttering phrases (uneconomical, too long) use active sentences rather than passive ones keep the subject and predicate of a sentence as close together as possible31

Business Communication Topics

emphasize key elements of a sentence. You can do that by: a. giving them more space, b. placing them at the beginning/ end of the sentence, and c. making them the subject of the sentence(adapted from Bove, Thill 1992: 121)

5. 1. Choose two paragraphs from the text and analyze their structure. Identify specific techniques of style used by the author to maximize the effect of the message. 5. 2. Find shorter substitutions for the following cluttering phrases: along the lines of at the present time for the purpose of for the reason that in accordance with in the meantime in the near future in the neighbourhood of in very few cases in view of the fact that on the basis of on the occasion of with regard to, with reference to with a view to(see Lesikar, Petit, Flatley 1993: 54)

6. Speaking Style is important in establishing a successful relation sender-audience. Do you agree or disagree with that? Consider the six styles mentioned in the introductory part of this unit and find for each an appropriate business situation to fit in that particular style. Explain and discuss your options.

Write 1. a resignation letter or 2. a letter of complaint for not receiving the books you ordered two months ago. Draft three letters for each of the two topics, each in a different style and compare them with the letters of your colleague. Which style is the most appropriate for each situation?

7. Writing

Supplementary material Read about communication styles: In addition to the nonverbal communication cues discussed, how we say things is influenced by culture. This is referred to as "communication style." While there are many nuances in communication styles there are essentially five contrasts in the way we approach topics of conversation -not the content but the way in which we debate, converse, ask questions, and organize verbal communication- that are challenging in interactions between people from different cultures. This can be one of the trickiest aspects of communication because we tend to react to different styles immediately and emotionally. But when we think back on an exchange which has not gone well and analyze just the words spoken, we often cannot figure out why we are so annoyed and/or frustrated. Knowing

32

Communication Styles

something about communication styles will be very helpful to you in figuring out why how something is said is just as important as what was actually verbalized because we tend to react to style unconsciously and instinctively. Communication styles vary enormously across the globe. However, like so many of the contrast sets we have examined so far, most countries tend to prefer one or the other of the five we will examine here:

Linear versus Circular = straight line discussion versus a more circular approach Direct versus Indirect = meaning conveyed by words versus through suggestion Detached versus Attached = objective presentation versus expressive style Intellectual Engagement versus Relational Engagement = discussion is about the task versus discussion is about the task and the person Concrete versus Abstract = example driven versus theory driven discussion

Why Should You Pay Attention to These Differences? In this list, US-Americans tend to be on the left side, that is, to prefer linear, direct, detached, intellectually engaged, and concrete styles of communication. In contrast, many African, Asian, and Pacific groups prefer more circular, indirect, attached, relationally engaged styles. Europeans can have a combination, for example, in Spain (and much of Latin America), people prefer a strong, relational engagement, and attached style of communication while also being direct, linear, and abstract in their approach. The French style is often abstract, intellectually engaged, and detached. Many permutations of these five styles are found worldwide. The point here is that anyone about to enter an international study abroad program is likely to encounter styles of communication which are unfamiliar and, perhaps, disconcerting. If a new acquaintance overseas begins a long, meandering story in response to a question you posed, it is far better to say, "He or she certainly has a circular style!" than, "What is the matter with them, cant they get to the point?" Learning to deal with a new set of communication styles is part of the challenge of studying abroad. If you learn to do it well, it will add to your ability to effectively communicate with a wider range of people than you can now and significantly increase your intercultural skills. A fuller explanation of these styles follows below.

CONTRASTING COMMUNICATION STYLES

33

Business Communication Topics

Linear: Discussion is conducted in a straight line, almost like an outline, with the connections among the points stated as you move towards an end point, which is stated explicitly. There is a low reliance on context and a strong reliance on words. (Cut to the chase, where the rubber meets the road!) Direct: Meaning is conveyed through explicit statements made directly to the people involved, with little reliance on contextual factors such as situation and timing. (What you see is what you get! Tell it like it is!)

Circular (contextual) Discussion is conducted in a circular manner, telling stories and developing a context around the main point, which is often unstated because the listener will get the point after I give them all the information. There is a high reliance on context. (Once you have the relevant information, youll know what I mean.)

Indirect: Meaning is conveyed by suggestion, implication, nonverbal behavior, and other contextual cues; for instance, statements intended for one person may be made within earshot of a different person. It is possible that messages will be sent through a thirdparty intermediary. Mostly, however, this style allows one to avoid confronting another person or cause them to lose face. (What you get is what you manage to see!) Detached: Issues are discussed with calmness and objectivity, conveying the speaker's ability to weigh all the factors impersonally. It is important to be objective. (If its important, it shouldnt be tainted by personal bias!)

Attached: Issues are discussed with feeling and emotion, conveying the speaker's personal stake in the issue and the outcome. This shows the passion someone feels in a situation or for an issue. (If its important, its worth getting worked up over!) Intellectual Engagement: Any disagreement with ideas is stated directly, with the assumption that only the idea, not the relationship, is being attacked. This is an intellectual style found in some European countries. (Were just arguing dont take it personally!)

Relational Engagement: Relational issues and problems are confronted directly, while intellectual disagreement is handled more subtly and indirectly. If you have a problem with someone, it helps to talk things over, albeit in a nonconfrontational manner. In an intellectual debate, it is important to be treated softly. (Be authentic about your feelings and respectful of other's ideas.) Abstract: Issues are best understood through theories, principles, and data, with emphasis on the general rather than the specific. (Whats the principle?)

Concrete: Issues are best understood through stories, metaphors, allegories, and examples, with emphasis on the specific rather than the general. (Whats an example?)

34

Communication Styles (http://iisstage.uop.edu/sis/culture/index.htm)

35

V. AVOIDING DISCRIMINATION IN COMMUNICATION

Possible situations in which discrimination by communication occurs

a. the interview for a job (discriminatory questions) b. giving/ checking references for a post c. employment testing d. others

Read and comment the table above. Can communication be discriminatory in certain situations? Explain. Is distorted information a source and a tool of discrimination in communication? Read the following article about language discrimination and decide whether the following statements (1-7) are true (T) or false (F). 1. Language discrimination is based on the type of style used while speaking. 2. Sometimes people loose their jobs for the way they speak. 3. People talking to someone who doesn't speak exactly like them do not find it difficult to communicate with that person. 4. Communication barriers originate from social inequality. 5. There is language discrimination in the workplace. 6. A Mutual Life Insurance is related to English-speaking proficiency. 7. In American schools there is discrimination against children whose home language was "black English."

1. Discussion

2. Reading

Language Discrimination: Is it fair? by Suzanne Crisanti Language discrimination is when a person is treated differently for the way he or she speaks. It is not based on a person's appearance, but strictly on the type of style used while speaking. This is wrong! Because of this, people who are discriminated against for the way they speak may find it difficult to get a job. Some people have even lost their job for the way they speak.

Avoiding Discrimination in Comunication

However, communication may not be the only barrier for people. See graph below:

(Graph from J. Keith Chick (1990) "The interactional accomplishment of discrimination in South Africa." In Donal Carbaugh, ed. Cultural Communication and Intercultural Contact. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, p. 243.)

While talking to someone who doesn't speak exactly like you, do you ever find it difficult to communicate with that person? Do you feel frustrated, upset, and even angry? This is not uncommon. People have different ways of communicating with others that are influenced by where they are from. A question may be asked but the desired response may not be given because that person answered the question according to the way he/she understood it. Yet, the person who asked the question might think that the response was one way of dodging the question. There are many communication barriers that exist among various races and groups of all sorts, which include ethnic, regional, and socio-economic factors. This is related to the way people treat those types of people. The chart above shows historical factors as being the primary cause for social inequality. Following the arrows, you can see how each part of the chart is related to one another. It is interesting to see that if a person has trouble communicating to people living in a particular area how easy it becomes for them to make that person feel lesser when they speak. Here are some examples indicating communication barriers that led to language discrimination: language discrimination in the Workplace (Meyer v. Nebraska): In 1919, the Nebraska Supreme Court found Robert Meyer guilty for teaching a young student a Bible story in German. However, the United States Supreme Court rejected this decision on the basis of the Fourteenth Amendment. language discrimination in the Consumer Industry (Kim v. Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company): A Korean-American family sued Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company for its denial of an application related to English-speaking proficiency. The company apparently has a requirement that applicants for insurance must be English-proficient. If not, their application is denied. The case resulted in a settlement. Northwestern could no37

Business Communication Topics

longer deny people insurance because they do not speak English well enough. language discrimination in Education (Martin Luther King Junior Elementary School Children et al., v. Ann Arbor School District): The main issue in this case was alleged discrimination against children whose home language was "black English." The court decided that it was appropriate that the School Board take steps to help the teachers better understand and recognize the language spoken at home by the children.(http://www.uwm.edu/Course/350-192/discrimination.html)

3. ComprehensionAnswer the following questions: How would you explain the concept of discrimination, generally, and language discrimination, in particular? Why is it important for teachers to recognize the language spoken at home by the children?

4. VocabularyIn each of the following (groups of) sentences (1-7), there are four underlined parts, A, B, C, and D. For each sentence, find the underlined part, A, B, C or D, that makes the sentence incorrect. There is always one possible answer. What is language discrimination? 1. Language discrimination (A) means to treat someone differently solely (B) because of his or her native language (C) or other characteristics (D) of speech. 2. (A) On the job, for example, an employee (B) may be subjected to language discrimination if the workplace has a "speak-English-only" policy, (C) especially if her (D) primar language is not English. 3. An employee (A) may also be the victim of language discrimination if she is treated (B) less favorable than other employees because she speaks English (C) with an accent, or if she is told she does not (D) qualify for a position because she does not speak English well enough. 4. But (A) language discrimination doesn't only happen (B) in the job. For example, a person may be denied (C) access to businesses or government services because (D) he or she does not speak English. 5. The (A) question rises: Is language discrimination illegal? Although the (B) law in this area is still developing, there are many court (C) decisions which have found language discrimination (D) to be a violation of people's constitutional rights and civil rights laws. 6. Some courts have found language discrimination to be (A) the same like discrimination (B) based on race or national origin. (C) As early as 1926, the United States Supreme Court ruled that a requirement that accounting (D) records be

38

Avoiding Discrimination in Comunication

kept in English or local dialects but not Chinese, violated the Constitution (Yu Cong Eng v. Trinidad). 7. In 1974, the Supreme Court ruled that (A) failing to provide bilingual instruction for public school students who did not speak English effectively (B) denied them equal access to educational opportunities, and thus constituted national origin (C) discrimination under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, (Lau v. Nichols). And, as recently as 1991, the court ruled that (D) in some cases, language-based discrimination should be treated as race discrimination (Hernandez v. New York).(http://www.aclunc.org/language/lang-report.html)

NONDISCRIMINATORY WRITING TIPS FOR AVOIDING DISCRIMINATORY WRITING Tips Suggestions a. rephrase the sentence Do not use masculine pronouns for both sexes. Examples a. When a client needs assistance, it is his right to get it. = A client who needs assistance has the right to get it. b. When clients need assistance, they have the right to get it. c. When assistance is needed, one has the right to ask for it. Man-made manufactured Congressman representative, member of the Congress Businessman business executive Italians are Mafia members Wrong! Blacks can do only menial jobs Wrong! the ghetto areas of the

5. Language focus

b. make the reference plural c. substitute neutral expressions (he or she, he/she, you, one, person)

Avoid words derived from masculine words.

Replace these words.

Avoid words indicating minorities in a stereotyped way.

Take care to the effects of your words!

39

Business Communication Topics

city - Wrong! Avoid words that indicate age. Avoid words that describe disabilities. Carefully judge the use of such terms. Find nonbiased vocabulary to replace such words. e.g. mature, elderly, juvenile etc. Deaf and dumb = hearing and speech disabled

(adapted from Lesikar, Petit, Flatley 1993: 38)

6. Speaking Name some ethical dilemmas in business communication; choose one and describe it in detail (source, elements, characteristics, ways of preventing it, etc.) Can a business report be discriminatory? Give examples.

Complain to the local newspaper that your firm has been discriminated by a previous article that appeared in the same newspaper a week ago. That article contained distorted data about your organization. You wonder whos to blame but do not accuse your competitors.

7. Writing

40

VI. EFFECTIVE LISTENING. THE AUDIENCEBASIC NOTIONS Listening represents a vital skill in business. Do you usually listen according to the five steps mentioned in the table below? Which of the three types of listening do you prefer? Why? 1. sensing 2. interpreting steps in listening 3. evaluating 4. remembering 5. responding types of listening 1. content listening (understand and retain the message) 2. critical listening (evaluate the information) 3. active/ emphatic listening (to understand the other person)

What type of a listener are you? Self-centered: superimpose their experience on yours. Defensive: they view every comment as a personal attack Good/ effective: receptive to both information and feelings.

types of listeners

Does audience represent a problem for you? Explain. audienc e profile needs (information, motivational, practical)

Business Communication Topics

take into account: Audiences size and composition (Who?) Reaction (How? Why?) Level of understanding (How much?) Relationship with the sender of information (What type?)

a. Make the difference: what do they want/ need to know? Anticipate possible questions. Mind the quality of information (accuracy, logic, importance, specificity) b. Try to win the audience to your point of view (agreement). c. Current problems audience may face: lack of time, distraction, and problem priority. Overcome them by: a convenient format of your message, use devices that make the message easy to understand (summaries, overviews, headings, lists, appendixes, handouts, charts, graphs, etc.)

1. DiscussionWhat makes you a good listener? Make a list of attitudes and qualities that contribute to effective listening and discuss them in your group of work. How will you use your listening skills during an interview or a meeting? Is it possible to overcome language and cultural barriers simply by listening carefully? Explain.

2. ReadingRead about another myth of technical communication Audiences are Static. Choose the best sentence from the list below (A-E) to fill each gap (1-3). There is one sentence that you do not need. There is an example at the beginning (0-E). A But within one or two decades, these people will have become a vanishingly small component of the audience for typical software developers. B But will they change over time? C And the cycle begins again as more neophytes pick up the product and decide it's worth learning because it's the standard. D The only way to find out will be to keep our eye on them and start assessing how their needs are changing. E That's far from true. There's a myth that once you've characterized your audience through audience analysis, the job's done and all you need to do is follow up with a round of usability testing to provide a reality check. /__0 E/ Inconveniently, audiences insist on changing over time. The neophyte you devoted an entire "getting started" manual to teaching eventually grows beyond the need for this information, and may even become a "power user." Some of the former power users leave, tempted away from the fold by newer, more interesting products that present exciting new possibilities; in particular, the radical fringe who first adopted a product and pushed it to its maximum potential often leave to

42

Effective Listening. The Audience

follow newer waves, leaving behind craftsmen who feel no need for such exploration. /__1/ I've already mentioned that our audiences are aging, but this fact has significant implications beyond the need to remember legibility issues. One change that is already well underway and that may be complete within the professional lifetimes of most current business people involves computer use. Even today, 20 years after personal computers began moving out of the hands of hobbyists, we must write for an audience that includes a fair number of people who are acutely uncomfortable with computers and who may be using them for the first time. /2__/ If they become sufficiently rare, perhaps our employers won't grant us the time and resources to cater to their needs. For most of our audience, computers will be so familiar that they're second nature, and that will have profound implications for how and what we document. There's already a trend in this direction, since manuals that begin with the words "We assume you already know how to use Windows" have pretty much driven manuals with an operating system tutorial into extinction. How else will our audience change over the next two decades? /3__/(adapted from: http://www.techwrl.com/techwhirl/magazine/gettingstarted/tenmyths.html#myth1)

3. ComprehensionAnswer the questions: How do audiences change over time? Does the audience of technical communicators resemble in any respect with the audience of a business presentation? Will employers still hire technical communicators in future?

4. VocabularyUse the word given in capitals at the end of each gapped line (1-10) to derive a word that fits in the space.

43

Business Communication Topics

Usually it is important to 1__ and use your own words in 2__ your understanding of the message. Parroting back the words verbatim is annoying and does not ensure accurate understanding of the message. Depending on the purpose of the 3__ and your understanding of what is relevant, you could reflect back the other persons: account of the facts, thoughts and beliefs, feelings and emotions, wants, needs or motivation, hopes and 4__. Dont respond to just the 5__ of the words, look for the feelings or intent beyond the words. The dictionary or surface meaning of the words or code used by the sender is not the message. Inhibit your impulse to immediately answer questions. The code may be in the form of a question. Sometimes people ask questions when they 6__ want to express themselves and are not open to hearing an answer. Know when to quit using active listening. Once you accurately understand the senders message, it may be appropriate to respond with your own message. Dont use active listening to hide and avoid 7__ your own position. If you are confused and know you do not understand, either tell the person you dont understand and ask him/her to say it another way, or use your best guess. If you are 8__, the person will realize it and will likely attempt to correct your misunderstanding. Active listening is a very effective first response when the other person is angry, hurt or expressing difficult feelings toward you, especially in relationships that are important to you. Use eye contact and listening body language. Avoid looking at your watch or at other people or activities around the room. Face and lean toward the speaker and nod your head, as it is appropriate. Be 9__ about crossing your arms and appearing closed or critical. Be empathic and 10__. You can be accepting and respectful of the person and their feelings and beliefs without invalidating or giving up your own position, or without agreeing with the accuracy and validity of their view.

PHRASE, VERB ACTION EXPECT MEAN

REAL

REVEAL CORRECT

CARE JUDGE

http://www.drnadig.com/listening.htm#top

COMMUNICATING EFFECTS When you communicate within the organization you usually communicate information (reports, memos, proposals, procedures etc.). When you communicate outside the organization, mostly by letter writing, you communicate not only information, but also certain effects (i.e. goodwill effect, persuasion etc.)

5. Language focus

Effects

Techniques used to achieve that effect

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Effective Listening. The Audience

goodwill effect (favourable effect)

Use a conversational language (warm and natural). Use you-viewpoint: it emphasizes the readers interests. Be sincere in being courteous. Avoid a cold, unnatural style. Be careful not to manipulate! Avoid exaggeration. Place the word/phrase you want to emphasize in the beginning/end of the sentence. Give the topic you want to emphasize more space. Use short sentences that emphasize the content. Use mechanical devices (colour, diagrams). clear, logic presentation clear, logic presentation Pay attention to text coherence. Use adequate vocabulary! Give special care to the words/ phrases you use!(adapted from Lesikar, Petit, Flatley 1993: 73)

emphasis determines effect

accuracy effect clarity and planned effect persuasion effect moderation effect (for bad news)

Read the table about sending a message according to certain goals and objectives (Harold D. Lassiters diagram) Question Who? Elements to care about The communication antecedents The code and the characteristics of communication Objectives

Knowing the author of the message What? To describe the trends of the message; comparing the content to a certain standard Why? Communication process To know the aims of the sender To whom? The receiver The message and the audience How? The receiver Describe the communication patterns; persuasion techniques With what Getting information about the To assess feedback, to

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effects?

results of communication

analyze the information flow(Lasswell 1973)

5. 1. You are supposed to deliver a speech in front of a reluctant audience. Re write ful paragraphs starting from the following sentences and try to render an effect of accuracy, clarity, sometimes persuasion or good will. Discuss the changes you have made in the text to achieve your goal. a. The pupil will organize his work so that he or she can pass all classes. b. PR employees will increase communication skills. They will also increase written language skills to 3rd grade level. c. Our sales agents will pass all training classes.

6. Speaking Make a list of various activities that may help you improve your listening skills. Present it to your colleagues. Evaluate yourself as a listener; then do the same with your best friend. Do the problems you have (as a listener) affect your behaviour at school/ at work/ in your group of friends?

7. WritingIn not more than 200 words make the profile of the ideal audience; consider a particular occasion (conference, presentation, trade fair, negotiation, etc.).

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VII. PRESENTATIONSBASIC NOTIONS Definition: A presentation is a prepared talk given by a speaker (the transmitter) to one or more listeners (the receivers) 1. Components of a presentation Pre-preparation Planning Constitutives Consider: objectives, audience, time, location Consider: goal, expectations, main points, best order, your relationship with the audience, their reaction collect materials select relevant points group common points arrange ideas in the most meaningful sequence consider ways of linking pieces of information most effectively Consider the structure of your presentation

Preparing

Delivering

2. The structure of a presentation I ntroduction Elements Action Gain attention Opening possibilities: human interest, humour, quotations, questions, etc. Be logical, coherent, clear.

Greeting Introduce yourself (if necessary) Introduce your talk (subject of your speech) Present main point divided into: point 1, point 2, etc. Emphasize transition between parts

body

Business Communication Topics

Invite questions (if necessary) conclusion Restate the subject Summarize main points Draw a conclusion Call for action

3. Elements of an effective presentation organization of information Targets structure transparency content organization information level 1. image (formal/informal; relaxed/ high powered, etc.) 2. audience features 3. non-linguistic techniques 4. linguistic techniques (sentences, voice, silence, humour, questions) 5. technical support (slides, diagrams, transparencies, handouts, etc.) Vocabulary grammar pronunciation fluency Logic never forget the audience Let them ask questions or make comments (feedback)

delivery of information

use of language

care for the audience

4. Presentation making Presentation techniques Extemporaneous: thorough preparation, uses notes, rehearsed Memorizing Presentation strategies 1. Determination of the presentation method 2. Consideration of personal aspects (confidence, sincerity, thoroughness, friendliness) 3. Audience analysis (audience characteristics: size, age, education,

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Reading

knowledge, audience reactions: facial expressions, movements, noises) 4. Be careful with your appearance and physical actions (communication environment, personal appearance, posture, manner of walking, facial expressions, gestures) 5. Use of voice (avoid: lack of variation in pitch, lack of variation in speed, lack of vocal emphasis, unpleasant voice) 6. Use of visuals (select visuals carefully, use the type of visual that communicates the information best, make the visuals points of interest in your presentation)(all tables adapted from Bove, Thill 1992 and Lesikar, Petit, Flatley 1993)

Types of presentations: 1. Classic (one person presentation) 2. Team (collaborative) presentations 3. The oral report (an oral presentation of a factual information) Tips for effective speaking: organize your speech logically target your speech to a clear conclusion adapt your language to the audience pronounce clearly speak correctly maintain a vivid attitude use body language to best advantage be relaxed and natural keep eye-contact be calm support your presentation with visuals keep your temper

What kind of presentations have you delivered during your school years? Analyze yourselves as effective speakers. Have your personal characteristics influenced your presentations? Read about Audience Interaction. The topic sentence in each paragraph has been removed. Choose from the list (A-M) the best sentence to fill each of the blanks (111). There is one extra sentence, which does not belong in any gap. There is an example at the beginning (0 E).

1. Discussion

2. Reading

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A The keywords when dealing with disruption are to be polite but firm, never lose your temper or your cool. B It was recommended earlier that you planned your presentation to have a question and answer session at the end. C The use of humor in presentations is a difficult area. D A good presentation can be ruined by a poor question and answer session. E Recognizing both positive and negative signals from audience interaction during presentation should not change your planned presentation fundamentally. F If someone denounces something that you have said, avoid getting into an argument with them. G Another thing that can prove invaluable is to know how to recover when a joke has failed. H When answering questions do so by speaking clearly and confidently, otherwise you will appear unsure of what you are saying. I You may be facing an unresponsive group, one that just sits inert and will not show any interest in taking part - even during the planned question and answer session. J You may face questions that are unanswerable. K However by pausing, taking a drink of water and regaining eye contact with supportive members of the audience, the presenter has managed to compose herself once more. L Consider an example where the presenter has started well, and delivered a clear and concise introduction. M Humour should be carefully used in a presentation.

Audience interaction Focusing Your Message for Maximum Impact /0 E/ Your message and the material with which you are communicating should have been carefully prepared and radical changes will almost certainly not be practical. The real point of reading signals from your audience is that it can help you to judge who you have on-side, who is opposing your point of view and who has yet to decide. This should help you to focus your message where it can have maximum impact, talking round those that can be swayed, whilst keeping your supporters with you and trying not to alienate the opposition. One or more members of your audience may attempt to disrupt your presentation, usually because they strongly disagree with your message. Learn to recognize how this disruption may manifest itself and you will be better equipped to cope with it. Use Humor Carefully /1__/ On the whole humor is seen as a positive thing - but its all down to the way its delivered. There is an increasing trend towards actually opening presentations with a joke - and if you carry it off it can be an excellent way of creating a rapport with the audience. However, a badly executed joke, or simply the wrong joke can create erect an insurmountable hurdle - right at the start. You must be confident that any jokes you include do not offend or embarrass any members of your audience - as this will represent negative audience interaction during presentation. Timing is a critical aspect of using humor effectively. Good

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comedians work with timing, and practice setting up the punch line. The use of pacing, time and pauses are all important when telling jokes. /2__/ Often this can be done just by pointing out the flatness of the failed joke - but once again this is a skill that takes a lot of self-confidence and practice. If you are tempted to use humor because the content of your presentation seems a little dull, then you may be safer using an analogy. Done with care, this can liven up a presentation and help the audience to remember your key points. For example, if you were a sales manager trying to explain to your sales force the attributes of your competitors you might draw parallels with popular family pets from a loyal dependable unimaginative Labrador to a small tenacious hyperactive terrier to a large aggressive and dominant Rottweiller. In summary, if you are using humor make sure it is a medium that you are familiar with, check the appropriateness of the content, rehearse it well and have a contingency plan in case it falls flat. Never get into an Argument /3__/ If you enter into a shouting match with a heckler then they win and you lose. It is vital you dont let disruptive members of the audience derail your presentation - you are working to a tight schedule so dont get involved in protracted discussions. Try to approach the point of contention from any common ground that you share, but if this fails to work then politely request that the point is discussed later at the pre-planned question and answer session. /4__/ If your point was based on fact then make this clear and present the evidence. However, if it was based on your personal opinion then dont attempt to pass this off as factual - it is your presentation and therefore your opinion should be worth expressing. Always remember that what is underlying the point of contention may be a genuine concern and that if you try to brush it aside it is likely to be taken up by other members of the audience, who may then swing against you. Attention seekers may make silly or sarcastic comments simply to get themselves noticed, whilst other members of your audience may respond unwittingly to a rhetorical question that you pose - simply because they werent paying full attention. Try to analyze these sort of events as they occur and respond, perhaps with humor or support but dont try to put people down - as this nearly always reflects badly on the presenter. Losing Your Presentation /5__/ This will enable you to deliver your message and then end strongly with a clear and concise summing up before entering the relatively unpredictable area of tackling questions from the floor. Unless you are using visual-aids make sure that they are switched off to avoid them causing a distraction during your conclusion. Step forward so that you are confidently asserting yourself as the center of attention and then deliver the summing up with confidence and authority. It may be a good idea to announce that the end is near - as this can refocus the attention of any members of the audience who are beginning to suffer from listening fatigue. For example you could say Now to sum up briefly before I answe