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    Article

    Introduction

    Section:

    Green marketing has been an important academic research topic for at least three decades

    (Kassarjian, 1971; Kinnear et al., 1974; oddington, 199!; "effert and Kirchgeorg,199!; #opfenbeck, 199!; $ttman, 1994; %eattie, 199&; %olonsk' and "int )imsatt,

    199&; Schlegelmilch et al., 199*; +ign, 1997; -ller, 1999; Kalafatis et al., 1999;alomarde, .///; -raj and "art0ne, .//.2, bt fe3 stdies hae focsed specificall' on

    green branding5 6t present, there is little dobt abot the strategic importance of a 3elldefined brand identit' as a prereisite for deliering brand ale (6aker and

    8oachimsthaler, .///; de hernaton' and all$lmo ile', 199

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    brand positioning as the part of the brand identit' and ale proposition that is to be

    actiel' commnicated to the target adience5 onseentl', brand positioning is based

    on the interaction of all marketing tools, 3ith an accentated role for marketingcommnications becase of its releance in the process of shaping distinct consmer

    perceptions5

    =hs, positioning a brand as a ?green brand@ entails an actie commnication and

    differentiation of the brand from its competitors throgh its enironmentall' sondattribtes5 Acologicall' sstainable prodcts 3ill not be commerciall' sccessfl if green

    brand attribtes are not effectiel' commnicated (%ickett et al., 199&25 oddington(199!2and "effert and Kirchgeorg (199!2sggest that green positioning as an essentialfactor in the sccess of green branding strategies5 -ollo3ing classification schemes of

    generic positioning strategies (6aker, 199*; =omcak et al., 19972, a brand can bepositioned b' fnctional attribtes andBor b' emotional benefits5 Green brand positioningstrategies are here classified as fnctional or emotional5

    6 green positioning strateg' based on fnctional brand attribtes aims to bild brandassociations b' deliering information on enironmentall' sond prodct attribtes5 =his

    positioning strateg' shold be based on releant enironmental adantages of the prodctcompared to competing conentional prodcts, and ma' refer to prodction processes,

    prodct se andBor prodct elimination ("effert and Kirchgeorg, 199!; %eattie, 199&25 6

    car brand, for e>ample, ma' be considered enironmentall' sond if the models inestion case significantl' lo3er emissions than competorsC5 Seeral stdies address the

    ale perception of selected enironmental prodct attribtes (ooen and e

    %elsmacker, 199ibilit' of

    brand differentiation (Kroeber iel, 1991 ;6aker, 199*25

    6s an alternatie or complementar' strateg', green positioning can be based on at least

    three conceptall' different t'pes of emotional brand benefits:

    15 15

    6 feeling of 3ell being (?3arm glo3@2 associated 3ith acting in an altristic 3a'

    (ito and Kahnemann, 199725 Anironmentall' conscios consmers e>perience

    personal satisfaction b' contribting to the improement of the ?common good@enironment5

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    enironmental topicsI 3hich is better eipped to make rational prchasing and polic'

    decisions abot prodcts, packaging, and manfactring processes@5 =he cognitie

    orientation of most green marketing research is based on stdies sho3ing a significantinflence of enironmental kno3ledge and consciosness on consmersC enironmental

    attitdes (#ines et al., 19

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    attribtes shold enhance the brands perception as enironmentall' sond in the

    fnctional dimension, an emotional green positioning strateg' shold lead to a shift

    to3ards the emotional dimension of green brand associations:H1.%erceied green brandpositioning is formed b' t3o distinct dimensions, representing the perception of either

    fnctional enironmentall' sond prodct attribtes or emotional benefits related to the

    enironment5 =3o frther research propositions concern the controers' on attitdinaleffects of green positioning strategies5 -irst, the direction (positieBnegatie2 of the effect

    of green positioning on brand attitde is addressed5 +ased on the reslts of most reised

    stdies, a positie attitdinal effect of the perception of a brand as enironmentall' sondshold be e>pected:H2.Green brand positioning leads to a positie effect on brandattitde5 Secondl', the std' addresses the frther controers' regarding the adeateness

    of either rational or emotionall' oriented persasion strategies in green marketing5 =hs,

    one research aim is to assess the respectie inflence of fnctional or emotional greenpositioning on brand attitde:RQ.)hich of the proposed green positioning strategies, i5e5green positioning b' fnctional attribtes or green positioning b' emotional benefits, has

    the strongest effect on brand attitde

    Method

    Section:

    En line 3ith this std's main objectie of e>ploring and testing the dimensions of green

    brand positioning and its effects on brand attitde, scale items 3ere deeloped to measrea brands fnctional and emotional associations related to the enironment5 =hese 3ere

    alidated b' testing the scalesC abilit' to discriminate bet3een e>perimental brands

    designed a priori to implement a specific, either fnctional or emotional, green brandpositioning5 =he' 3ere applied in an e>perimental setting, to allo3 the controlled

    e>posre of the participants to the e>perimental stimli, as 3ell as the assessment of the

    specific effects of the e>perimental factor5 =he inflence of e>ternal factors, sch as the

    enironmental consciosness of the participants, 3as randomised5

    -ollo3ing the anal'sis method emplo'ed in recent stdies of perceied positioning (e5g5

    +hat and edd', 199plorator' and confirmator' factoranal'sis of the data 3ere sed to inestigate the dimensionalit' of perceied green brandpositioning5 6ttitdinal effects of e>tracted dimensions 3ere assessed in the scope of a

    strctral eation model, deeloped from the measrement model5

    A>perimental design

    =he std' 3as condcted in for simltaneos on line sessions in the compter

    laborator' of a niersit'5 %articipants 3ere instrcted to connect throgh their indiidalcompter terminals to a specific 3ebsite5 =he' 3ere then atomaticall' e>posed for !/

    seconds to each of a series of fie adertisements, consisting of a single, static image5

    -or of these stimli 3ere identical for the different e>perimental grops and one 3asspecific to each grop, 3hich formed the e>perimental factor5 =he for related to kno3n

    brands of small sied cars; the fifth 3as specificall' designed to implement different

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    positioning strategies of an e>perimental green car brand5 6fter e>posre, participants

    completed an on screen on line estionnaire5 6ll estions cold be ans3ered b' sing

    the mose alone5 ata 3ere atomaticall' collected in an on line database5

    =he participants 3ere 1*/ stdents in the final 'ear of the +siness 6dministration

    degree at a niersit' in the Spanish +ase ontr'5 =he' 3ere randoml' assigned tofor e>perimental grops5 %articipants 3ere &* per cent female and 44 per cent male,

    aged bet3een .. and .*5 Et is ackno3ledged that the se of stdent samples in marketingresearch is controersial (+rnett and nne, 19perimental design 3as

    realisticall' feasible onl' if that limitation 3as accepted5 En fact, the sample profile is not

    entirel' inappropriate, since the brands in the e>periment are marketed in Spain to targetgrops 3ith similar demographic characteristics5

    =hogh brand positioning inoles the 3hole of the marketing mi>, an e>perimental

    setting in 3hich the sole contact 3ith salient brand attribtes takes place throgh brand

    commnications is not nrealistic5 Aen in real life conditions, consmers often deelop

    brand perceptions and attitdes mainl' or een e>clsiel' throgh adertising e>posre5)hile it is tre that this does not normall' occr as a once onl' e>posre to an

    adertisement, seeral stdies addressing this isse hae sggested that adertisingeffects can be achieed 3ith onl' one e>posre (Kim et al., 199

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    implement an emotional positioning strateg'5 =here 3ere no ces to fnctional

    enironmentall' sond attribtes5 =he brand 3as embedded in pleasant imager' of natre

    scener' aimed to eoke feelings e>perienced in the actal sitation, sch as ?breathingfresh montain air@ or ?feeling as free as an eagle@5 =he third adertisement combined

    both strategies, positioning the brand b' its enironmentall' sond prodct attribtes and

    b' emotional benefits5 =he former 3ere specified in the cop' and the latter eokedthrogh images of natre (see 6ppendi> 125

    ependent measres

    6s one major aim of the std' 3as the constrction of a positioning model, the dependent

    measres 3ere designed to assess releant brand associations of all of the competingbrands inclded in the std'5 +rand perceptions 3ere measred 3ith t3o different t'pes

    of scale5 =he first part of the sre' consisted of erbal statements and scales5

    %articipants sed fie point scales, from &L ?er' mch@ to 1L ?not at all@, to rate ho3

    strongl' the' 3old associate the brand 3ith certain attribtes or brand characteristics5

    Etems inclded sch characteristics as ?safe@ and ?comfortable@5 =he statements?enironmentall' sond@ and ?air polltion@ 3ere meant to assess the fnctional

    dimension of the perception of the enironmental sondness of each brand, 3hile theremaining statements 3ere releant to other aspects of brand perception bt not central to

    the sbject of the std' (see =able E25

    =he second set of items consisted of a batter' of isal stimli that addressed the

    perception of emotional brand associations related to the brands enironmentalsondness5 =heir deelopment 3as based on seeral stdies that sho3 a generall'

    sperior capacit' of isals in eoking an emotional response as compared to erbal

    content, especiall' in sitations 3ith a brief e>posre (#olbrook and "oore, 19

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    impression of each brand on a fie point scale from 1L ?er' nfaorable@ to &L ?er'

    faorable@ and then the likelihood of prchase of the brand, on a fie point scale from

    1L ?definitel' 3old not b' it@ to &L ?3old definitel' b' it5@

    Results

    Section:

    %erceptal dimensions of green brand positioning

    %rincipal component factor anal'sis 3ith arima> rotation 3as sed to e>plore thestrctre of perceied brand positioning5 =he reslts are sho3n in =able E5 Seen factors

    3ere identified in a t3o step anal'sis of first the erbal and later the isal items, among

    them t3o related to green brand associations5 A>tracted factors e>plained *. per cent ofariance in both cases5 =3ent' erbal indicators 3ere sbsmed into three factors and

    thirteen isal indicators to for5 =he reslts indicate the e>istence of 3ell defined

    perceptal dimensions5 =he first factor e>tracted from the set of erbal brand associationse>plains !& per cent of ariance and represents an e>tended set of attribtes inclding

    alit', po3er, comfort, safet', class and e>clsiit'5 =he second erbal factor (1< per

    cent of ariance2 is highl' loaded on items sch as ?'ong@ and ?fn@5 -inall', the third

    factor (9 per cent of ariance2 e>plains the brand associations ?enironmentall' sond,@?air polltion@ (high negatie loading2 and ?lo3 fel consmption5@ =his factor

    represents the fnctional dimension of enironmentall' sond brand perception5

    =he emotional dimension of green brand positioning, represented b' the first factor

    e>tracted from the set of isal items, is also the factor 3ith the highest contribtion tothe oerall amont of e>plained ariance (19 per cent25 =he second factor (17 per cent of

    ariance2 refers to the emotional perception of the brand as ?'ong@ and ?actie,@ 3hile

    the third factor reflects the association of the brand 3ith rban or metropolitan feelings5=he last e>tracted dimension is related to the emotional association of the brand 3ith air

    polltion5

    %erceptal mapping of the participantsC perceied green brand positioning prodced the

    pattern in -igre .5 =he green positioning strateg' prodced an oerall perception of thee>perimental brand as more enironmentall' sond than the original "ercedes 6 lass

    brand, confirming the significant perceptal effect of its implementation in the

    e>periment (pL/5///25 -rthermore, fnctional positioning reslted in a strongercognitie perception of the brand as enironmentall' sond, 3hile emotional positioning

    eoked an association 3ith natre5 6t the same time, the fnctional strateg' prodced a

    perceptal shift, albeit comparatiel' 3eak, to3ards the emotional dimension, 3hile ane>clsiel' emotional positioning led to a slightl' agmented perception of the brand in

    the fnctional dimension5 =he strongest perceptal effects relatie to both dimensions

    3ere achieed 3ith the combined fnctional emotional strateg'5

    A>plorator' reslts 3ere tested b' confirmator' factor anal'sis (6rbckle and )othke,199925 +oth of the latent dimensions of green brand positioning 3ere formed b' the items

    3ith highest factor loadings in the prior e>plorator' factor anal'sis5 =hs, the fnctional

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    data presented indicate that, as e>pected, a fnctional positioning led to a heightened

    cognitie perception of the brand as enironmentall' sond, 3hile an emotional

    positioning strateg' had a significant effect on the brands positioning relatie to theemotional dimension of green brand associations5 -rthermore, strctral eation

    anal'sis spported an oerall positie effect of green positioning on brand attitde (H22,

    since both dimensions hae a significant positie inflence on the attitde constrct5

    egarding the research estion addressing the isse of fnctional erss emotionalpositioning strategies in green branding, reslts sggest a stronger inflence of the

    emotional latent dimension of green positioning on brand attitde in this specific case5

    #o3eer, it cannot simpl' be conclded that an e>clsiel' emotional positioning 3ill bethe most effectie positioning strateg' in green marketing, becase the effect of both

    dimensions on brand attitde 3as positie5 -rthermore, the combined fnctional and

    emotional strateg' led to the strongest perceptal shift to3ards both dimensions of thepositioning model5

    =hese findings, together 3ith the relatiel' high correlation of both perceptal constrcts,indicate an interaction bet3een cognitie and emotional processes in the formation of

    attitde to3ard green positioned brands5 =his is consistent 3ith recent research on brainfnctions, sho3ing that cognitie and emotional mental processes are highl' correlated in

    the formation of brand attitdes (-ranen and +o3man, .//125 onseentl', fnctional

    and emotional strategies shold be considered complementar' rather than alternatie, as+hat and edd' (199

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    intensie interaction of cognitie and emotional processes5 =hs, the most effectie brand

    strateg' 3old be a green positioning, centred in the creation of emotional benefits

    sstained b' information on enironmentall' sond fnctional attribtes5

    eslts of the std' also nderline the effectieness of brand commnications in the

    implementation of green positioning strategies5 =here is a ariet' of 3ell researchedapproaches to the commnicational implementation of emotional brand benefits, sch as

    transformational adertising (6aker and Sta'man, 199.2 or emotional conditioning(Kroeber iel, 19

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    Figure A2

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    Kroeber iel, )5 (19912, Strategie und :echni# der ?er&ung, Kohlhammer,Stttgart5

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    %ett', 5A5, nnaa, 5#5 and Strathman, 6585 (19912, ?:heories of attitudechange@, in obertson, =5S5 and Kassarjian, #5#5 (Ads2,Hand&oo# of )onsumerBehaior, %rentice #all , Angle3ood liffs, D8, pp5 .41

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    775

    Smith, S5"5, #agtedt, 5%5 and %ett', 5A5 (19942, ?%ttitudes and recycling+does the measurement of affect enhance &ehaioral prediction>@,Psychology and"ar#eting, Qol5 11 Do5 4, pp5 !&9745HrossefIHEnfotrieeI

    7

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    "ar#eting+ Strategies9 Practice9 :heory9 and Research, =he #a3orth %ress, De3Pork, DP, pp5 1&&7*5

    45

    )iener, 85F5 and oescher, =565 (19912, ?% frame,or# for promoting

    cooperation@,(ournal of "ar#eting, Qol5 &&, 6pril, pp5 !