004 celula fotovoltaica_introducao

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    Clula Fotovoltaica

    (Introduo)

    Eng. Prof. Dr. Jos Bione de Melo Filho

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    HistricoAlexandre-Edmond Becquerel(24 March 1820 11

    May 1891), better known as Edmond Becquerel,

    was a French physicist who studied the solar

    spectrum, magnetism, eletricity and optics. He is

    credited with the discovery of the photovoltaic

    effect, the operating principle of the solar cell, in

    1839.

    In 1839, at age 19, experimenting in his father's laboratory, Becquerelcreated the world's first photovoltaic cell. In this experiment, silver

    chloride was placed in an acidic solution and illuminated while

    connected to platinum electrodes, generating voltage and current.

    Because of this work, the photovoltaic effect has also been known asthe "Becquerel effect".

    He is also known for his work in luminescente and phosphorescence.

    He was the son of Antoine Csar Becquerel and the father of Henri

    Becquerel.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alexandre_Edmond_Becquerel,_by_Pierre_Petit.jpg
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    Histrico

    A solar cell(also called a photovoltaic cell) is an electrical device

    that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by thephotovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell (in that its

    electrical characteristicse.g. current, voltage, or resistance

    vary when light is incident upon it) which, when exposed to light,

    can generate and support an electric current without beingattached to any external voltage source, but do require an

    external load for power consumption.

    The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek (phs)

    meaning "light", and from "volt", the unit of electro-motive

    force, the volt, which in turn comes from the last name of the

    Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, inventor of the battery. The

    term "photo-voltaic" has been in use in English since 1849.[

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell
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    HistricoPhotovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the

    practical application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity

    from light, though it is often used specifically to refer to the

    generation of electricity from sunlight. Cells can be described as

    photovoltaiceven when the light source is not necessarily sunlight

    (lamplight, artificial light, etc.). In such cases the cell is sometimes

    used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors), detectinglight or other electromagnetic near the visible range, or measuring

    light intensity.

    The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:

    The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or

    excitons.

    The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.

    The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

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    HistricoThe photovoltaic effect was first experimentally demonstrated by French

    physicist Edmond Becquerel. In 1839, at age 19, experimenting in his

    father's laboratory, he built the world's first photovoltaic cell. WilloughbySmith first described the "Effect of Light on Selenium during the passage of

    an Electric Current" in an article that was published in 20 February 1873

    issue of Nature. However, it was not until 1883 that the first solid state

    photovoltaic cell was built, by Charles Fritts, who coated the semicondutor

    selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold to form the junctions. Thedevice was only around 1% efficient. In 1888 Russian physicist Alesander

    Stoletov (1) built the first cell based on the outer photoelectric effect

    discovered by Heinch Hertz (2) earlier in 1887.

    (1) (2)

    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Alexander_stoletov.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz.jpg
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    HistricoAlbert Einstein explained the underlying mechanism of light

    instigated carrier excitationthe photoelectric effect in 1905, for

    which he received the Nobel prize in Physics in 1921.[3] Russell Ohl

    patented the modern junction semiconductor solar cell in 1946,

    which was discovered while working on the series of advances that

    would lead to the transistor.

    Albert Einstein proposed that a beam of light

    is not a wave propagating through space, but

    rather a collection of discrete wave packets

    (photons), each with energy hf.

    Planck relation:

    frequency , wavelength , and speed of light care related by= c

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_cost_solar_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_cost_solar_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_cost_solar_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_cost_solar_cell
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    Planck's lawdescribes the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body in thermal

    equilibrium at a definite temperature. The law is named after Max Planck, who originally

    proposed it in 1900. It is a pioneer result of modern physics and quantum theory.

    For frequency , or for

    wavelength, Planckian

    radiation can be described

    thus:

    Bdenotes its spectral radiance, Tits absolute temperature, kBthe Boltzmann constant, h

    the Planck constant, and cthe speed of light in the medium, whether material or vacuum

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    Sunlight takes about 8 minutes 17 seconds to travel the average distance from the surface

    of the Sun to the Earth.

    c = 299.792.458 m/s

    c = 300.000 km/s

    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Earth_to_Sun_-_en.png
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    Histrico

    The first practical photovoltaic cell was developed in 1954 at Bell

    Laboratories by Daryl Chapin, Calvin Souther Fuller and GeraldPearson. They used a diffused silicon pn junction that reached 6%

    efficiency, compared to the selenium cells that found it difficult to

    reach 0.5%. Les Hoffman CEO of Hoffman Electronics Corporation

    had his Semiconductor Division pioneer the fabrication and mass

    production of solar cells. From 1954 to 1960 Hoffman improved theefficiency of Solar Cells from 2% to 14%. At first, cells were developed

    for toys and other minor uses, as the cost of the electricity they

    produced was very high; in relative terms, a cell that produced 1 watt

    of electrical power in bright sunlight cost about $250, comparing to$2 to $3 per watt for a coal plant.

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    Histrico

    Solar cells were brought from obscurity by the suggestion to add

    them, probably due to the successes made by Hoffman Electronics,to the Vanguard I satellite, launched in 1958. In the original plans,

    the satellite would be powered only by battery, and last a short time

    while this ran down. By adding cells to the outside of the body, the

    mission time could be extended with no major changes to the

    spacecraft or its power systems. In 1959 the United States launchedExplorer 6. It featured large solar arrays resembling wings, which

    became a common feature in future satellites. These arrays

    consisted of 9600 Hoffman solar cells. There was some skepticism at

    first, but in practice the cells proved to be a huge success, and solarcells were quickly designed into many new satellites, notably Bell's

    own Telstar.

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    Histrico

    Improvements were slow over the next two decades, and the only

    widespread use was in space applications where their power-to-weight ratio was higher than any competing technology. However,

    this success was also the reason for slow progress; space users were

    willing to pay anything for the best possible cells, there was no

    reason to invest in lower-cost solutions if this would reduceefficiency. Instead, the price of cells was determined largely by the

    semiconductor industry; their move to integrated circuits in the

    1960s led to the availability of larger boules at lower relative prices.

    As their price fell, the price of the resulting cells did as well.

    However these effects were limited, and by 1971 cell costs wereestimated to be $100 per watt.

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    Evoluo das Clulas Fotovoltaicas

    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/PVeff%28rev140416%29a.jpg
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    Evoluo dos Preos

    Preos de Mdulos Fotovoltaicos de Silcio Cristalino

    1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

    0,1

    1

    10

    100

    40,00

    Volume dobra preo reduz em 22 %

    PreoM

    dio(2010USD/W

    P)

    Volume de produo acumulado (MW)

    1979

    19921998

    20022004

    20112014

    2006 escassez de Si

    0,94

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    Clulas solares de multijunes

    Eficincia terica mxima

    1 juno = 31% (Shockley-Queisser)

    4 junes = 52,5%Infinitas = 68%

    Regio do espectro solar onde cadaclula atua.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multijunction_photovoltaic_cell

    Diagrama esquemtico de umaclula solar de 3 junes

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multijunction_photovoltaic_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multijunction_photovoltaic_cell
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    1a, 2ae 3aGerao de clulas solares

    Fonte: M. Green

    1st:Silcio Cristalino

    2a:

    Materiais Amorfos

    3a: Conceitos de alta eficincia Estruturas comNanomateriais

    Vrias Universidades

    Orgnicos

    Corantes

    Quadro mostrando a relao de eficincia e custo das trs geraes de clulas solares.

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    Grfico mostrando o potencial de oportunidade para investimento e uso da energia

    fotovoltaica para vrios pases do mundo.

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    Produo Industrial - Tecnologias

    5,6 4,6 4,4 3,3 2,9 2,6 2,3 1,5 1,4 1,2 0,6 0

    0,2 0,2 0,6 0,4 0,2 0,2 0,5 1 1,7 1,6 2,4 3,5

    8,96,4 4,5 4,4 4,7 4,7 5,2 5,1 6,1 5 3,4 5,3

    0,50,7

    1,1 1,1 1,6 2,7 4,7 6,4

    95,3 5,5

    3,9

    50,251,6

    57,254,7 52,3

    46,5 45,2

    47,7

    46,952,9 57 57

    34,6 36,4 32,2

    36,2 38,343,4 42,2

    38,3 34,1 33,2

    30,9 30,3

    2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

    0%

    20%

    40%

    60%

    80%

    100%

    Si-Fitas

    CIS/CIGS

    a-Si

    CdTe

    Si-Multi

    Si-Mono

    Silcio87,3 %

    Ano Photon International, 03/2012EPIA Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2013-2017

    http://www.google.com.br/url?q=http://www.tkslange.nl/korea-autumn-trip-1-introduction/%3Flang%3Den&sa=U&ei=Nm0zU7LHNfPQsQSDx4H4DQ&ved=0CB8Q9QEwAQ&usg=AFQjCNFpkIUC76wgpG81vAZrEkxZ68ToEQhttp://www.google.com.br/url?q=http://www.euroesprit.org/&sa=U&ei=8Rs0U_PXCqirsASg6YCIBw&ved=0CB0Q9QEwAA&usg=AFQjCNHW57skfCFdhmb6ezzt_u6f-XcPAghttp://www.google.com.br/url?q=http://www.travelandtourworld.com/news/article/japan-attracting-oz-travellers-with-favourable-exchange-rates/&sa=U&ei=nhs0U8PQPPPHsASZlYHYDA&ved=0CCEQ9QEwAg&usg=AFQjCNGeQttyGwgu_bhzBRwGUj_mKG8TEAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svghttp://www.google.com.br/url?q=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_China&sa=U&ei=o2szU4zECubgsATt5oKAAQ&ved=0CB0Q9QEwAA&usg=AFQjCNGH49aXS0qeic_a7eWGXkCvwtdN2g
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    Tau-Cear

    Primeira central solar

    1MW, 4.680 solar pannels

    Energy for 15.000 people

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    https://www.ambienteenergia.com.br/index.php/2012/12/nova-usina-solar-em-operacao/21416

    http://jorrubiosaopaulo.blogspot.com.br/2013/07/usina-solar-

    tanquinho-cpfl-energia.html#!/2013/07/usina-solar-tanquinho-

    cpfl-energia.html

    http://sites.cpfl.com.br/portal-inovacao/temas-e-projetos/geracao-

    renovavel/SitePages/P%C3%A1gina%20Inicial.aspx

    Usina Solar Tanquinho Campinas/CPFL

    http://sites.cpfl.com.br/portal-inovacao/temas-e-projetos/geracao-renovavel/SitePages/PA0045.aspx
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    O estado da arte para clulas solares aponta para um campo de

    pesquisa de ponta que cresce a um ritmo tremendo . As clulassolares mais promissores devero apresentar vrios parmetros : uma

    boa eficincia em geral, um custo de produo razovel e a

    possibilidade de ser produzido em escala industrial. Entre as

    tecnologias que atendem a esses requisitos, clulas solares de silcio eclulas de polmeros so as principais tecnologias que so usadas

    atualmente. Tambm importante ter em mente que o nano-

    materiais e clulas solares flexvel orgnica apresentam uma

    excelente margem do progresso devido s possibilidades ilimitadas ao

    investigar a estrutura qumica das molculas as quais esto sendousadas.

    Concluso